View source for Italian participation on the Eastern Front

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[[File:1941. Бой на улицах Сталино.jpg|thumb|Italian troops near [[Stalino]]]]
The '''Italian participation in the Eastern Front''' during [[World War II]] began after the launch of [[Operation Barbarossa]], the German invasion of the [[Soviet Union]], on 22&nbsp;June 1941. To show solidarity with his [[Axis Powers|Axis ally]], Italian dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] ordered a contingent of the [[Regio Esercito (World War II)|Italian Royal Army]] to be prepared for the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] and, by early July, an Italian force was in transport.

From 1941 to 1943, the Italians maintained two units on the Eastern Front. The first Italian fighting force was a [[corps]]-sized formation called the [[Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia]] (CSIR). The second force was a [[field army]]-sized formation which subsumed the CSIR, the [[Italian Army in Russia]] (ARMIR) that was also known as the Italian 8th&nbsp;Army. Both fought on the southern part of the Eastern Front, participating in the German advance through the Ukraine to the [[Volga]].

The Italian Army in Russia suffered heavy losses during the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] and was withdrawn to Italy in 1943. Only minor Italian units participated on the Eastern Front after that.

== Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia ==
Constituted on 10 July 1941, the [[Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia]] (CSIR) arrived in the southern Soviet Union between July and August&nbsp;1941. The CSIR was initially subordinated to German General [[Eugen Ritter von Schobert]]'s [[11th Army (Wehrmacht)|11th&nbsp;Army]].<ref>Messe, 1947. Faldella, 1959. Mack Smith, 1979</ref> On 14&nbsp;August 1941, the CSIR was transferred to the control of General [[Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist|Ewald von Kleist]]'s [[1st Panzer Group|1st&nbsp;Panzer Group]]. On 25&nbsp;October, 1st&nbsp;Panzer Group was redesignated as the [[1st Panzer Army|1st&nbsp;Panzer Army]]. The CSIR remained under von Kleist’s command until 3&nbsp;June 1942, when it was subordinated to German General [[Richard Ruoff]]'s [[17th Army (Wehrmacht)|17th&nbsp;Army]].

CSIR's original commander, General [[Francesco Zingales]], fell ill in Vienna during the early stages of transport to the Soviet Union. On 14&nbsp;July 1941, Zingales was replaced by General [[Giovanni Messe]].

The CSIR had three divisions: the [[52nd Motorised Division Torino|52nd Motorized Division]], the [[9th Motorised Division Pasubio|9th Motorized Division]] and the [[3rd Cavalry Division Principe Amedeo Duca d'Aosta|3rd Cavalry Division]].

=== August 1941 – July 1942, CSIR Operations ===
The CSIR was sent to the [[Army Group South|southern sector]] of the German advance in the Ukraine in July&nbsp;1941. In August&nbsp;1941, as part of the German 11th&nbsp;Army, the CSIR made its first contact with the enemy. The CSIR pursued retreating Soviet troops between the [[Southern Bug|Bug River]] and [[Dniestr|Dniestr River]]. While the 11th&nbsp;Army [[Siege of Odessa|besieged Odessa]], the CSIR was attached to 1st&nbsp;Panzer Group under General [[Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist|Ewald von Kleist]].

In its early encounters it was successful, taking a number of towns and cities and creating a favourable impression on its German allies.<ref>Jowett, The Italian Army 1940–45 (3), p.&nbsp;10.</ref> Its most notable early victory came at the [[Battle of Petrikowka]] in September&nbsp;1941, where the Italians encircled some sizable [[Red Army]] units, inflicting unknown combat casualties on them and capturing over 10,000&nbsp;prisoners of war as well as significant numbers of weapons and horses.<ref>Rolf-Dieter Muller. "The Unknown Eastern Front: The Wehrmacht and Hitler's Foreign Soldiers". 27 March 2014. p.&nbsp;73.</ref> This cost them only 291&nbsp;casualties of their own: 87&nbsp;killed, 190&nbsp;wounded, and 14&nbsp;missing.<ref>"Le operazioni delle unità italiane al fronte russo (1941–1943)", Italian Army Historical Branch, Rome, 1993, p.&nbsp;102.</ref> On 20&nbsp;October, the CSIR together with the German [[XXXXIX Mountain Corps (Wehrmacht)|XXXXIX Mountain Corps]] captured the major industrial center of Stalino (now [[Donetsk]]) after heavy resistance from the Soviet defenders. While the CSIR did not participate in the siege of Odessa, Italian troops assisted in the occupation of the Odessa area after the city fell on 16&nbsp;October 1941. Units from the Pasubio motorised division attacked the neighboring city of [[Gorlovka]] on 2&nbsp;November.{{sfn|Muller|p=74}}

The Capture of Gorlovka (a city of 120,000 inhabitants) was preceded by the "Pasubio" division carefully clearing out the minefields around the city's outskirts in the previous week. The "Duca d'Aosta" cavalry division meanwhile captured the industrial town of Rukovo after heavy fighting. On 2&nbsp;November, the "Pasubio" division threatened Gorlovka from the west, while the "Duca d'Aosta" division threatened the southeast. The city's defenders included the Soviet [[296th Rifle Division]]. The "Pasubio" division's 80th Regiment engaged in close house-to-house fighting with the defenders, while the 79th Regiment (supported by "Duca d'Aosta" artillery units) swept through the downtown district with little resistance. Soviet combat casualties were unknown, but about 600&nbsp;soldiers were taken prisoner. The Soviet 296th&nbsp;Rifle Division withdrew, and fighting continued for the next few days as the Italians cleared enemy remnants from the city and the surrounding area.<ref>Cloutier, Patrick. "Regio Esercito: the Italian Royal Army in Mussolini's wars, 1935-1943". 15&nbsp;May 2013. pp.&nbsp;140–141.</ref>

With the onset of winter, the CSIR units began consolidating their occupation zone and preparing defensive works. In the last week of December, the "Duca d'Aosta" division was hit with a fierce counterattack by Soviet forces. They managed to beat back the attacks long enough for the German 1st Panzer Army to provide back-up to their sector and subsequently defeat the Soviet offensive. The "Christmas Battle" was hailed as a great victory back in Italy, though the division likely would have fallen without German support. It subsequently weathered the 1941–1942 winter quite well in its relatively quiet occupation zone.{{sfn|Muller|p=74}} Up to this point, the CSIR had taken 8,700 casualties.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kirchubel|first=Robert|title=Operation Barbarossa: The German Invasion of Soviet Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=moeHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT113|date=20 August 2013|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4728-0471-6|page=113}}</ref>

== Italian 8th Army or Italian Army in Russia ==
{{main|Italian Army in Russia}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B27180, Russland, italienische Soldaten mit Mauleseln.jpg|thumb|Italian troops in Russia, July&nbsp;1942]]
In July 1942, Mussolini scaled up the Italian effort on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] and the CSIR became the [[Italian Army in Russia|8th&nbsp;Italian Army]]. The 8th&nbsp;Italian Army was also known as the [[Italian Army in Russia]] (ARMIR). The ARMIR was subordinated to German General [[Maximilian von Weichs]]' Army Group&nbsp;B.

Italian General [[Italo Gariboldi]] took command of the newly formed ARMIR from General Messe. As commander of the CSIR, Messe had opposed an enlargement of the Italian contingent in Russia until it could be properly equipped. As a result, he was dismissed. Just prior to commanding the ARMIR, Gariboldi was the Governor-General of [[Italian Libya]]. He was criticized after the war for being too submissive to the Germans.{{citation needed|date=September 2014}}

Mussolini sent seven new divisions to Russia for a total of ten divisions. Four new infantry divisions were sent and included: the [[2nd Infantry Division Sforzesca]], the [[3rd Infantry Division Ravenna]], the [[5th Infantry Division Cosseria]], and the [[156th Infantry Division Vicenza]]. In addition to the infantry divisions, three new [[Alpini]] divisions were sent: the [[2nd Alpine Division Tridentina]], the [[3rd Alpine Division Julia]], and the [[4th Alpine Division Cuneense]]. These new divisions were added to the ''Torino'', ''Pasubio'', and ''Prince Amedeo Duke of Aosta'' divisions already in Russia. Italian forces in Russia would eventually total 229,000&nbsp;men, 22,000&nbsp;vehicles, and 1,340&nbsp;artillery pieces.<ref>Joseph, Frank. "MUSSOLINI'S WAR: Fascist Italy's Military Struggles from Africa and Western Europe to the Mediterranean and Soviet Union 1935–45." p.&nbsp;148.</ref>

=== ARMIR Operations ===
The ARMIR advanced toward the right bank of the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]] which was reached by July 1942. From 17 to 20&nbsp;July 1942, the Italians fought for and captured the important coal-mining basin of Krasny Lutsch (southeast of [[Kharkov]]) with a rapid enveloping maneuver.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvsmAQAAIAAJ&q=From+17+to+20+July+1942,+it+fought+for+the+possession+of+and+captured+the+important+coal-mining+basin+of+Krasny+Lutsch+(southeast+of+Kharkov)+with+a+rapid+enveloping+maneuver&dq=From+17+to+20+July+1942,+it+fought+for+the+possession+of+and+captured+the+important+coal-mining+basin+of+Krasny+Lutsch+(southeast+of+Kharkov)+with+a+rapid+enveloping+maneuver&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4pfzu0MDPAhWCdD4KHfF7Bv4Q6AEIHjAA "US Military Review], Volume 28". Command and General Staff School, 1949, p.&nbsp;86.</ref> This cost the army 90&nbsp;killed and 540&nbsp;wounded, while inflicting over 1,000&nbsp;combat casualties on the Soviets and taking 4,000&nbsp;Soviet troops as prisoners.<ref>Romain Rainero, Antonello Biagini. "L'Italia in Guerra: Il 3o Anno, 1942". Commissione italiana di storia militare. 1993. p.&nbsp;286.</ref> On 6&nbsp;July, the 3rd Cavalry Division captured Ivanovka at the cost of 400&nbsp;killed and wounded; the Soviets suffered at least as many killed and wounded, plus another 1,000&nbsp;troops taken prisoner.<ref>Giulio Bedeschi. "Fronte russo: c'ero anch'io." Mursia, 1983. p.&nbsp;287.</ref> On 30&nbsp;July, the highly-mobile riflemen (''[[Bersaglieri]]'') of the [[3rd Cavalry Division Amedeo Duca d'Aosta]] rushed to relieve the German 587th&nbsp;Regiment, which was clashing with the enemy near the Soviet bridgehead at [[Serafimovich (town)|Serafimovich]].

[[File:Italian Bersiglieri in Russia 1942.jpg|thumb|Italian bersaglieri with artillery advancing towards Serafimovich|alt=]]
The 3rd Division arrived on 30&nbsp;July, by which time the 587th&nbsp;Regiment had been reduced to only a few hundred men. Initial Soviet strength in and around the area (including the towns of Bobrovskiy and Baskovskiy) was 3,000&nbsp;men and 40&nbsp;tanks, but was increased soon after the Italians arrived. On 30&nbsp;July and 1&nbsp;August, the Soviets attempted to stop the Italians as they were crossing the river to relieve the remnants of the 587th, but failed and lost several dozen tanks (primarily T-34s) in the process. The Soviets and Bersaglieri fought for the next two days, primarily in and around the town of Bobrovskiy, until 3&nbsp;August, when the Soviets were forced back to their bridgehead at Serafimovich. The Italians then assaulted Serafimovich, which they took. Sporadic fighting continued around this area until 14&nbsp;August. The 3rd Division's losses from 30&nbsp;July to 14&nbsp;August were 1,700&nbsp;killed and 200&nbsp;wounded; Soviet combat casualties are unknown, but the Italians reportedly took 5,800&nbsp;Soviet troops prisoner and captured 10&nbsp;artillery pieces.<ref>Cloutier, Patrick. "Regio esercito: the italian royal army in mussolini's wars, 1935–1943". 15&nbsp;May 2013. pp.&nbsp;140–141.</ref>

On 12 August, three Soviet divisions totaling about 30,000 troops and many tanks crossed the Don River to launch a counterattack on the Italian sector. They successfully took the [[2nd Mountain Infantry Division Sforzesca]] by surprise and, with no tanks at its disposal and outnumbered four to one, the Sforzesca division was routed in two days. It subsequently withdrew to Yagodny, which was attacked by the Soviets on 20&nbsp;August. From 20–24&nbsp;August, the remnants of the division beat back several Soviet attacks and even launched some small scale counterattacks, until they mostly ran out of ammunition and were down to repelling the last Soviet probes with bayonets. Bersaglieri reinforcements arrived on 24&nbsp;August, and defeated the Soviets, sending the survivors retreating. The Italians refer to this as the First Defensive Battle of the Don.<ref>{{harvnb|Paoletti|p=176}}</ref> Italian losses were 900&nbsp;killed, 4,200&nbsp;wounded, and 1,700&nbsp;missing or captured.<ref>Aldo Valori. "La campagna di Russia". Roma, Grafica Nazionale Editrice, 1951. p.&nbsp;473.</ref>

Also on 24 August, [[Charge of the Savoia Cavalleria at Isbuscenskij|700 Italian horsemen of the Savoia Cavalleria routed 2,500 Soviet troops]] of the 812th Siberian Infantry Regiment near Isbushenskij. While taking 84&nbsp;casualties (32&nbsp;killed, 52&nbsp;wounded), the Italians inflicted 1,050&nbsp;casualties (150&nbsp;killed, 300&nbsp;wounded, 600&nbsp;captured) on the Soviets, and captured 14&nbsp;artillery pieces. While overall a minor event in the ARMIR's participation, the cavalry charge had great propaganda resonance back in Italy.

=== ''Little Saturn'' ===
By late autumn 1942, the ARMIR was placed on the left flank of the [[6th Army (Wehrmacht)|German 6th Army]] between Hungarian and Romanian forces. The [[6th Army (Wehrmacht)|German 6th Army]] was then investing Soviet General [[Vasily Chuikov]]'s 62nd Army in Stalingrad. The Italian line stretched along the River Don for more than 250&nbsp;km from the positions of the [[Hungarian Second Army|Hungarian 2nd Army]] in Kalmiskowa to the positions of the [[Third Army (Romania)|Romanian 3rd Army]] in Veshenskaja, a village 270&nbsp;km northwest of Stalingrad. The Italians threw up a thin screen along the river. No trench lines had been dug nor effective defensive positions set up. Heavy snow and severe frost were hampering troop movements.

The situation for the German troops in Stalingrad remained stable until the Soviets launched [[Operation Uranus]] on 19&nbsp;November 1942. The aim of this operation was the complete encirclement and isolation of the [[6th Army (Wehrmacht)|German 6th Army]]. To accomplish this, the Soviets struck at the weak Romanian armies to the north and south of Stalingrad. The Soviets planned [[Operation Uranus]] as a double envelopment. The twin attacks smashed through portions of the [[Romanian Third Army|Romanian 3rd Army]] and the [[Romanian Fourth Army|Romanian 4th Army]] and successfully met at Kalach four days after the operation began.

=== Stalingrad ===
{{main|Battle of Stalingrad}}
The situation for the Italian troops along the Don River remained stable until the Soviets launched [[Operation Saturn]] on 11&nbsp;December 1942. The aim of this operation was the annihilation of the Italian, Hungarian, Romanian, and German positions along the Don River. The first stage of Operation Saturn was known as Operation Little Saturn. The aim of this operation was the complete annihilation of the Italian 8th Army.

The Soviet [[63rd Army (Soviet Union)|63rd Army]], backed by [[T-34]] tanks and fighter-bombers, first attacked the weakest Italian sector. This sector was held on the right by the Ravenna and Cosseria infantry divisions. From the Soviet bridgehead at Mamon, 15&nbsp;divisions—supported by at least 100 tanks—attacked these two divisions. Although outnumbered nine-to-one, the Italians resisted until 19&nbsp;December, when ARMIR headquarters finally ordered the battered divisions to withdraw.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Paoletti|first=Ciro|title=A Military History of Italy|publisher=Praeger Security International|location=Westport, CT|year=2008|page=177| isbn=0-275-98505-9|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Uz8eiwzEMHQC&pg=PA182&dq=Ariete+tanks+fight!#PPA177,M1|accessdate=4 December 2009}}</ref> By Christmas both divisions were driven back and defeated after bloody fighting.

Meanwhile, on 17 December 1942, the Soviet [[21st Army (Soviet Union)|21st Army]] and the Soviet [[5th Guards Tank Army|5th Tank Army]] attacked and defeated what remained of the Romanians to the right of the Italians. At about the same time, the Soviet 3rd Tank Army and parts of the [[40th Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 40th Army]] hit the Hungarians to the left of the Italians.

The [[Soviet 1st Guards Army]] then attacked the Italian center which was held by the 298th German, the Pasubio, the Torino, the Prince Amedeo Duke of Aosta, and the Sforzesca divisions. After eleven days of bloody fighting against overwhelming Soviet forces, these divisions were surrounded and defeated and Russian air support resulted in the death of General [[Paolo Tarnassi]], commander of the Italian armoured force in Russia.<ref>Italian General Reported Killed, New York Times, 15 January 1943</ref>

On 14 January 1943, after a short pause, the [[6th Soviet Army]] attacked the [[Alpini]] divisions of the Italian Mountain Corps. These units had been placed on the left flank of the Italian army and were until then still relatively unaffected by the battle. However, the Alpini position had turned critical after the collapse of the Italian center, the collapse of the Italian right flank, and the simultaneous collapse of the Hungarian troops to the left of the Alpini. The [[3 Alpini Division Julia|Julia Division]] and [[4 Alpini Division Cuneense|Cuneense Division]] were destroyed. Members of the [[1 Alpini Regiment]], part of Cuneese Division, burned the regimental flags to keep them from being captured. Part of the [[2 Alpini Division Tridentina|Tridentina Division]] and other withdrawing troops managed to escape the encirclement.

On 26 January, after heavy fighting which resulted in the [[Battle of Nikolajewka]], the Alpini remnants breached the encirclement and reached new defensive positions set up to the west by the [[German Army (Wehrmacht)|Germans]]. But, by this time, the only operational fighting unit was the Tridentina Division and even it was not fully operational. The Tridentina Division had led the final breakout assault at Nikolajewka. Many of the troops who managed to escape were frostbitten, critically ill, and deeply demoralized.

Overall, about 130,000 Italians had been surrounded by the Soviet offensive. According to Italian sources, about 20,800 soldiers died in the fighting, 64,000 were captured, and 45,000 were able to withdraw.<ref>Italian Ministry of Defence, 1977b and 1978</ref> When the surviving Italian troops were eventually evacuated to Italy, the Fascist regime tried to hide them from the populace, so appalling was their appearance after surviving the Russian Front.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

== Aftermath ==
Since the beginning of the Italian campaign in Russia, about 30,000 Italians had been killed and another 54,000 would [[Italian war prisoners in Soviet Union 1942-1954|die in captivity]]. By the end of February&nbsp;1943, the rout of the ARMIR was complete. Mussolini then withdrew what remained of his 8th Army from Russian soil. The Italian forces in Russia had been reduced to less than 150,000 men, and 34,000 of these were wounded. The disaster in Russia was a fierce blow to the power and popularity of the dictator. Both sank as the gloomy news soon reached the public in Italy. Survivors blamed the [[Fascist]] political elite and the army generals. The survivors said they both had acted irresponsibly by sending a poorly prepared, ill-equipped, and inadequately armed military force to the Russian Front. According to veterans, weapons in Italian service were awful: hand grenades rarely went off and rifles and machine guns had to be kept for a long time on a fire to work properly in extreme climatic conditions, thus often not capable of firing in the midst of battle. The German commanders were accused of sacrificing the Italian divisions, whose withdrawal was supposedly delayed after the Soviet breakthrough, in order to rescue their own troops.<ref>Faldella, 1959. Mack Smith 1979</ref>

Throughout 1943, Italy's fortunes worsened. On 25&nbsp;July 1943, [[Benito Mussolini]] and his Fascist government were put out of power by [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel III]]. On 8&nbsp;September, the new Italian government led by the King and Marshal [[Pietro Badoglio]] signed an [[Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces|armistice with the Allies]].

Soon, competing Italian [[armed forces]] were being raised to fight for both the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and the [[Axis powers|Axis]]. Forces of the [[Royalist]] [[Italian Co-Belligerent Army|Co-Belligerent Army]] (''[[Italian Co-Belligerent Army|Esercito Cobelligerante Italiano]]'', or ECI) were forming in southern Italy. Forces of the [[Fascist]] [[Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano|National Republican Army]] (''[[Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano]]'', or ENR) were forming in northern Italy. The ECI was the army of what was known as "Badoglio's government." The ENR was the army of Mussolini's [[Italian Social Republic]] (''[[Italian Social Republic|Repubblica Sociale Italiana]]'', or RSI).

Even after the evacuation of the Italian troops from Russia and even after the armistice in 1943, some ENR units remained on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] fighting for the Axis. There were five specialized 'smoke cover' battalions, serving in defense of [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] ports of [[Świnoujście|Swinemünde]], [[Gdynia|Gotenhafen]], [[Baltiysk|Pillau]] and [[Szczecin|Stettin]], plus one at the [[Borne Sulinowo|Grossborn]] proving ground.<ref>''[https://italianiinguerra.com/2018/06/27/i-reparti-nebbiogeni-della-r-s-i-sul-mar-baltico/ I reparti nebbiogeni della R.S.I. sul mar Baltico]'', [in:] ''Italiani in guerra'' 27.06.2018 [accessed Dec 12, 2020], Kazimierz Małkowski, ''Żołnierze włoscy w okresie międzywojennym i w czasie II wojny światowej w Gdyni'', [in:] ''Zeszyty Gdyńskie'' 4 (2009), pp. 225-236</ref> In addition, the 834th Field Hospital continued to operate in Russia, as well as the battalion "IX Settembre"; a small unit that fought alongside the [[Brandenburgers]] in East Prussia for a brief period of time.<ref>Jowett, ''The Italian Army 1940–45 (3)'', p.&nbsp;9.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Military history of Italy during World War II]]

== References ==

=== Footnotes ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* Faldella, Emilio. ''L'Italia nella seconda guerra mondiale.'' Cappelli Bologna 1959 (Italian)
* Jowett, Philip S. ''The Italian Army 1940–45 (1): Europe 1940–1943''. Osprey, Oxford - New York, 2000. {{ISBN|978-1-85532-864-8}}
* Jowett, Philip. ''The Italian Army 1940–45 (3): Italy 1943–45''. Osprey, New York, 2001, {{ISBN|978-1-85532-866-2}}
* Mack Smith, Denis. ''Le guerre del duce.'' Laterza, Bari 1979 (Italian)
* Messe, Giovanni. ''La guerra al fronte Russo. Il Corpo di Spedizione Italian (CSIR).'' Milano 1947 (Italian)
* Michalopoulos, Dimitris & Tramonti, Luigi, "Cristianesimo Positivo e Campagna di Russia", Periodico Daily, 27 novembre 2018 (Italian)
* [[Mario Veronesi]], ''La mia Russia. Diario di una guerra'', Italian University Press, 2009, {{ISBN|978-88-8258-104-6}}
* Italian Ministry of Defence. Stato Maggiore Esercito. Ufficio Storico. ''Le operazioni del CSIR e dell’ARMIR dal Giugno 1941 all’ottobre del 1942.'' Roma, 1977 (Italian)
* Italian Ministry of Defence. Stato Maggiore Esercito. Ufficio Storico. ''L’8° Armata Italiana nella seconda battaglia difensiva del Don.'' Roma, 1977 (Italian)
* Italian Ministry of Defence. Stato Maggiore Esercito. Ufficio Storico. ''L’Italia nella relazione ufficiale sovietica sulla seconda guerra mondiale.'' Roma, 1978 (Italian)
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Nuto Revelli|Revelli, N]]. ''La strada del davai''. Turin, 1966 (Italian)
* Valori, A. ''La campagna di Russia, CSIR, ARMIR 1941–43.'' Roma, 1951 (Italian)
* Hamilton, H. ''Sacrifice on the Steppe.'' Casemate, 2011 (English)

[[Category:Italy–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Military history of Italy during World War II]]