View source for CSS Virginia

{{For|similarly named ships, the southern U.S. commonwealth of Virginia, and other uses|Virginia (disambiguation)}}
{{Short description|Civil War Confederate ironclad}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
|Ship image=CSSVirginia1862.2.ws.jpg
|Ship caption=CSS ''Virginia''. The image is captioned ''Merrimac''; see [[CSS Virginia#Historical names: Merrimack.2C Virginia.2C Merrimac|below]].
}}
{{Infobox ship career
|Ship flag={{flagicon|Confederate States of America|1861}}
|Ship name=CSS ''Virginia''
|Ship namesake=[[Virginia]]
|Ship country=Confederate States
|Ship ordered =July 11, 1861
|Ship completed = March 7, 1862
|Ship commissioned =February 17, 1862
|Ship fate = [[Scuttling|scuttled]] May 11, 1862
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
|Ship type= [[Casemate ironclad]]
|Ship displacement = about {{convert|4000|LT|t}}
|Ship length={{convert|275|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship beam={{convert|51|ft|2|in|m|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship draft={{convert|21|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship power={{convert|1200|ihp|lk=in|abbr=on}}
|Ship propulsion=*1 shaft
*2 [[Marine steam engine#Back acting|Horizontal back-acting steam engines]]
*4 [[boiler (steam generator)|boiler]]s
|Ship speed = {{convert|5|-|6|kn|lk=in}}
|Ship complement = about 320 officers and men
|Ship armament =*2 × 7-inch (178 mm) [[Brooke rifle]]s
*2 × {{convert|6.4|in|adj=on}} Brooke rifles
*6 × 9-inch (229 mm) [[Dahlgren gun|Dahlgren]] [[smoothbore]]s
*2 × 12-pounder (5&nbsp;kg) [[howitzer]]s
|Ship armor =*[[Belt armor|Belt]]: {{convert|1|-|3|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
*[[Deck (ship)|Deck]]: {{convert|1|in|0|abbr=on}}
*[[Casemate]]: {{convert|4|in|abbr=on|0}}
}}
|}

'''CSS ''Virginia''''' was the first steam-powered [[ironclad warship]] built by the [[Confederate States Navy]] during the first year of the [[American Civil War]]; she was constructed as a [[casemate ironclad]] using the raised and cut down original lower hull and engines of the [[scuttling|scuttled]] [[steam frigate]] {{USS|Merrimack|1855|6}}. ''Virginia'' was one of the participants in the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]], opposing the [[Union Navy|Union's]] {{USS|Monitor}} in March 1862. The battle is chiefly significant in naval history as the first battle between [[ironclad warship|ironclads]].

==USS ''Merrimack'' becomes CSS ''Virginia''==
When the Commonwealth of [[Virginia]] seceded from the [[United States|Union]] in 1861, one of the important federal military bases threatened was Gosport Navy Yard (now [[Norfolk Naval Shipyard]]) in [[Portsmouth, Virginia]]. Accordingly, orders were sent to destroy the base rather than allow it to fall into [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] hands. On the afternoon of 17 April, the day [[Virginia]] seceded, Engineer in Chief [[Benjamin F. Isherwood|B. F. Isherwood]] managed to get the frigate's engines lit. However, the previous night secessionists had sunk light boats between [[Craney Island (Virginia)|Craney Island]] and [[Sewell's Point]], blocking the channel. On 20 April, before evacuating the Navy Yard, the U. S. Navy burned ''Merrimack'' to the waterline and sank her to preclude capture. When the Confederate government took possession of the fully provisioned yard, the base's new commander, [[Flag Officer]] [[French Forrest]], contracted on May 18 to [[marine salvage|salvage]] the wreck of the frigate. This was completed by May 30, and she was towed into the shipyard's only [[graving dock|dry dock]], (today known as [[Drydock Number One, Norfolk Naval Shipyard|Drydock Number One]]), where the burned structures were removed.<ref>Quarstein, pp. 62–63</ref>

The wreck was surveyed and her lower hull and machinery were discovered to be undamaged. [[Stephen Mallory]], [[Confederate States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] decided to convert ''Merrimack'' into an [[ironclad warship|ironclad]], since she was the only large ship with intact engines available in the [[Chesapeake Bay]] area. Preliminary sketch designs were submitted by [[Lieutenant]]s [[John Mercer Brooke]] and [[John L. Porter]], each of whom envisaged the ship as a casemate ironclad. Brooke's general design showed the bow and stern portions submerged, and his design was the one finally selected. The detailed design work would be completed by Porter, who was a trained [[Naval architecture|naval constructor]]. Porter had overall responsibility for the conversion,<ref>Egan, pp. 373, 376</ref> but Brooke was responsible for her iron plate and heavy ordnance, while William P. Williamson, Chief Engineer of the Navy, was responsible for the ship's machinery.<ref>Quarstein, p. 65</ref>

===Reconstruction as an ironclad===
[[File:Mariners Museum 2007 015a.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Display showing {{convert|4|in|0}} of iron armor backed by {{convert|24|in|0}} of wood]]
The hull's burned timbers were cut down past the vessel's original waterline, leaving just enough clearance to accommodate her large, twin-bladed [[screw propeller]]. A new [[Poop deck|fantail]] and armored casemate were built atop a new main deck, and a v-shaped {{nautical term|breakwater}} (bulwark) was added to her bow, which attached to the armored casemate. This forward and aft main deck and fantail were designed to stay submerged and were covered in {{convert|4|in|cm|adj=mid|-thick|0}} iron plate, built up in two layers. The casemate was built of {{convert|24|in|cm|0}} of oak and pine in several layers, topped with two {{convert|2|in|0|adj=on}} layers of iron plating oriented perpendicular to each other, and angled at 36 degrees from horizontal to deflect fired enemy shells.

From reports in Northern newspapers, ''Virginia''{{'}}s designers were aware of the Union plans to build an ironclad and assumed their similar ordnance would be unable to do much serious damage to such a ship. It was decided to equip their ironclad with a [[naval ram|ram]], an anachronism on a 19th century warship.<ref>deKay, p. 131</ref> ''Merrimack'''s steam engines, now part of ''Virginia'', were in poor working order; they had been slated for replacement when the decision was made to abandon the Norfolk naval yard. The salty [[Elizabeth River (Virginia)|Elizabeth River]] water and the addition of tons of iron armor and [[pig iron]] ballast, added to the hull's unused spaces for needed stability after her initial refloat, and to submerge her unarmored lower eves, only added to her engines' propulsion issues. As completed, ''Virginia'' had a turning radius of about {{convert|1|mi}} and required 45 minutes to complete a full circle, which would later prove to be a major handicap in battle with the far more nimble ''Monitor''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rpi.edu/~fiscap/history_files/monitor.htm# |title=Archived copy |access-date=October 19, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812044959/http://www.rpi.edu/~fiscap/history_files/monitor.htm# |archive-date=August 12, 2010 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

[[File:Remodeling the Merrimac.jpg|thumb|right|''Merrimack'' is rebuilt into ''Virginia'']]
The ironclad's casemate had 14 [[gun port]]s, three each in the bow and stern, one firing directly along the ship's centerline, the two others angled at 45° from the center line; these six bow and stern gun ports had exterior iron shutters installed to protect their cannon. There were four gun ports on each [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]]; their protective iron shutters remained uninstalled during both days of the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]]. ''Virginia''{{'}}s battery consisted of four [[Muzzleloader|muzzle-loading]] single-banded [[Brooke rifle]]s and six [[smoothbore]] {{convert|9|in|mm|adj=on|0}} [[Dahlgren gun]]s salvaged from the old ''Merrimack''. Two of the rifles, the bow and stern [[pivot gun]]s, were {{convert|7|in|0|adj=on}} [[caliber (artillery)|caliber]] and weighed {{convert|14500|lb}} each. They fired a {{convert|104|lb|adj=on}} [[shell (projectile)|shell]]. The other two were {{convert|6.4|in|adj=on|0}} cannon of about {{convert|9100|lb}},<ref>Olmsted, et al., pp. 125–27</ref> one on each broadside. The 9-inch Dahlgrens were mounted three to a side; each weighed approximately {{convert|9200|lb}} and could fire a {{convert|72.5|lb|1|adj=on}} shell up to a range of {{convert|3357|yd}} (or 1.9 miles) at an elevation of 15°.<ref>Olmsted, et al., p. 87</ref> Both amidship Dahlgrens nearest the boiler furnaces were fitted-out to fire [[heated shot]]. On her upper casemate deck were positioned two anti-boarding/personnel [[12-pounder]] [[Howitzer]]s.

''Virginia''{{'}}s commanding officer, [[Flag Officer]] [[Franklin Buchanan]], arrived to take command only a few days before her first sortie; the ironclad was placed in commission and equipped by her [[executive officer]], [[Lieutenant]] [[Catesby ap Roger Jones]].

==Battle of Hampton Roads==
[[File:The Monitor and Merrimac.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Chromolithography|Chromolithograph]] depicting the Battle of Hampton Roads]]
{{Main|Battle of Hampton Roads}}
The Battle of Hampton Roads began on March 8, 1862, when ''Virginia'' engaged the blockading Union fleet. Despite an all-out effort to complete her, the new ironclad still had workmen on board when she sailed into Hampton Roads with her [[flotilla]] of five [[Confederate States Navy|CSN]] support ships: {{ship|CSS|Raleigh|1861|2}} (serving as ''Virginia''{{'}}s tender) and {{ship|CSS|Beaufort||2}}, {{ship|CSS|Patrick Henry||2}}, {{ship|CSS|Jamestown||2}}, and {{ship|CSS|Teaser||2}}.

[[File:Cumberland rammed by Merrimac.png|thumb|left|CSS ''Virginia'' ramming and sinking USS ''Cumberland'']]
The first Union ship to be engaged by ''Virginia'' was the all-wood, sail-powered {{USS|Cumberland|1842|6}}, which was first crippled during a furious cannon exchange, and then rammed in her forward starboard bow by ''Virginia''. As ''Cumberland'' began to sink, the port side half of ''Virginia''{{'}}s iron ram was broken off, causing a bow leak in the ironclad. Seeing what had happened to ''Cumberland'', the captain of {{USS|Congress|1841|6}} ordered his frigate into shallower water, where she soon grounded. ''Congress'' and ''Virginia'' traded cannon fire for an hour, after which the badly-damaged ''Congress'' finally surrendered. While the surviving crewmen of ''Congress'' were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on ''Virginia''. Outraged at such a breach of war protocol, in retaliation ''Virginia''{{'}}s now angry captain, [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] Franklin Buchanan, gave the order to open fire with [[Heated shot|hot-shot]] on the surrendered ''Congress'' as he rushed to ''Virginia''{{'}}s exposed upper casemate deck, where he was injured by enemy rifle fire. ''Congress'', now set ablaze by the retaliatory shelling, burned for many hours into the night, a symbol of Confederate naval power and a costly wake-up call for the all-wood Union blockading squadron.

''Virginia'' did not emerge from the battle unscathed, however. Her hanging port side anchor was lost after ramming ''Cumberland''; the bow was leaking from the loss of the ram's port side half; shot from ''Cumberland'', ''Congress'', and the shore-based Union batteries had riddled her smokestack, reducing her boilers' draft and already slow speed; two of her broadside cannon (without shutters) were put out of commission by shell hits; a number of her armor plates had been loosened; both of ''Virginia''{{'}}s {{convert|22|ft|adj=on}} [[cutter (boat)|cutters]] had been shot away, as had both 12 pounder anti-boarding/anti-personnel howitzers, most of the deck [[stanchions]], [[guard rail|railings]], and both flagstaffs. Even so, the now-injured Buchanan ordered an attack on {{USS|Minnesota|1855|6}}, which had run aground on a sandbar trying to escape ''Virginia''. However, because of the ironclad's {{convert|22|ft|m|adj=on}} [[draft (hull)|draft]] (fully loaded), she was unable to get close enough to do any significant damage. It being late in the day, ''Virginia'' retired from the conflict with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the destruction of the remaining Union blockaders.

Later that night, {{USS|Monitor}} arrived at Union-held [[Fort Monroe]]. She had been rushed to [[Hampton Roads]], still not quite complete, all the way from the [[Brooklyn Navy Yard]], in hopes of defending the force of wooden ships and preventing "the rebel monster" from further threatening the Union's blockading fleet and nearby cities, like [[Washington, D.C.]] While under tow, she nearly [[shipwreck (accident)|foundered]] twice during heavy storms on her voyage south, arriving in Hampton Roads by the bright firelight from the still-burning triumph of ''Virginia''{{'}}s first day of handiwork.

The next day, on March 9, 1862, the world's first battle between ironclads took place. The smaller, nimbler, and faster ''Monitor'' was able to outmaneuver the larger, slower ''Virginia'', but neither ship proved able to do any severe damage to the other, despite numerous shell hits by both combatants, many fired at virtually point-blank range. ''Monitor'' had a much lower freeboard and only its single, rotating, two-cannon gun turret and forward [[pilothouse]] sitting above her deck, and thus was much harder to hit with ''Virginia''{{'}}s heavy cannon. After hours of shell exchanges, ''Monitor'' finally retreated into shallower water after a direct shell hit to her armored pilothouse forced her away from the conflict to assess the damage. The captain of the ''Monitor'', Lieutenant [[John L. Worden]], had taken a direct gunpowder explosion to his face and eyes, blinding him, while looking through the pilothouse's narrow, horizontal viewing slits. ''Monitor'' remained in the shallows, but as it was late in the day, ''Virginia'' steamed for her home port, the battle ending without a clear victor: The captain of ''Virginia'' that day, Lieutenant [[Catesby ap Roger Jones]], received advice from his pilots to depart over the sandbar toward Norfolk until the next day. Lieutenant Jones wanted to continue the fight, but the pilots emphasized that the ''Virginia'' had "nearly three miles to run to the bar" and that she could not remain and "take the ground on a falling tide." To prevent running aground, Lieutenant Jones reluctantly moved the ironclad back toward port.<ref>[http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/cssvirginia.htm The Sailors Creed<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ''Virginia'' retired to the Gosport Naval Yard at Portsmouth, Virginia, and remained in drydock for repairs until April 4, 1862.

In the following month, the crew of ''Virginia'' were unsuccessful in their attempts to break the Union blockade. The blockade had been bolstered by the hastily ram-fitted paddle steamer {{USS|Vanderbilt|1862|6}},<ref>T.J. Stiles, "The First Tycoon: The Epic Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt" (2009).</ref> and SS ''Illinois'' as well as the {{SS|Arago|1855|6}} and {{USS|Minnesota|1855|6}}, which had been repaired. ''Virginia'' made several sorties back over to Hampton Roads hoping to draw ''Monitor'' into battle. ''Monitor'', however, was under strict orders not to re-engage; the two combatants would never battle again.

On April 11, the Confederate Navy sent Lieutenant [[Joseph Nicholson Barney]], in command of the paddle side-wheeler {{ship|CSS|Jamestown}}, along with ''Virginia'' and five other ships in full view of the Union squadron, enticing them to fight.<ref>[http://www.navyandmarine.org/ondeck/1862services_of_virginia.htm C.A.R. Jones, ''Services of the Virginia''(1883)]</ref> When it became clear that Union Navy ships were unwilling to fight, the [[James River Squadron|CS Navy squadron]] moved in and captured three merchant ships, the brigs ''Marcus'' and ''Sabout'' and the schooner ''Catherine T. Dix''. Their ensigns were then hoisted "Union-side down" to further taunt the Union Navy into a fight, as they were towed back to Norfolk, with the help of {{ship|CSS|Raleigh|1861|6}}.

By late April, the new Union ironclads [[USS Naugatuck (1844)|USRC ''E. A. Stevens'']] and {{USS|Galena|1862|6}} had also joined the blockade. On May 8, 1862, ''Virginia'' and the [[James River Squadron]] ventured out when the Union ships began shelling the Confederate fortifications near Norfolk, but the Union ships retired under the shore batteries on the north side of the James River and on [[Rip Raps]] island.

===Destruction of CSS ''Virginia''===
[[File:Destruction of Merrimac, May 11, 1862.png|thumb|284px|alt=Print: Destruction of the rebel vessel "Merrimac" off Crany Island; published by Currier and Ives|''Destruction of the rebel vessel ''Merrimac'' off Craney Island, May 11, 1862,'' by [[Currier and Ives]] ]]

On May 10, 1862, advancing Union troops occupied [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]]. Since ''Virginia'' was now a steam-powered heavy battery and no longer an ocean-going cruiser, her pilots judged her not seaworthy enough to enter the Atlantic, even if she were able to pass the Union blockade. ''Virginia'' was also unable to retreat further up the [[James River]] due to her deep {{convert|22|ft|m|adj=on}} draft (fully loaded). In an attempt to reduce it, supplies and coal were dumped overboard, even though this exposed the ironclad's unarmored lower hull; this was still not enough to make a difference. Without a home port and no place to go, ''Virginia''{{'}}s new captain, [[flag officer]] [[Josiah Tattnall III]], reluctantly ordered her destruction in order to keep the ironclad from being captured. This task fell to Lieutenant Jones, the last man to leave ''Virginia'' after her cannons had been safely removed and carried to the Confederate Marine Corps base and fortifications at [[Drewry's Bluff]]. Early on the morning of May 11, 1862, off [[Craney Island (Virginia)|Craney Island]], fire and powder trails reached the ironclad{{'}}s magazine and she was destroyed by a great explosion. What remained of the ship settled to the bottom of the harbor. Only a few remnants of ''Virginia'' have been recovered for preservation in museums; reports from the era indicate that her wreck was heavily salvaged following the war.

''Monitor'' was lost on December 31 of the same year, when the vessel was swamped by high waves in a violent storm while under tow by the tug [[USS Rhode Island (1860)|USS ''Rhode Island'']] off [[Cape Hatteras]], North Carolina. Sixteen of her 62-member crew were either lost overboard or went down with the ironclad, while many others were saved by lifeboats sent from ''Rhode Island''. Subsequently, in August 1973, the wreckage was located on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean about 16 nautical miles (30&nbsp;km; 18&nbsp;mi) southeast of Cape Hatteras. Her upside-down turret was raised from beneath her deep, [[capsized]] wreck years later with the remains of two of her crew still aboard; they were later buried with full military honors on March 8, 2013, at [[Arlington National Cemetery]] in Washington, D.C.

==Historical names: ''Merrimack'', ''Virginia'', ''Merrimac''==
Although the Confederacy renamed the ship, she is still frequently referred to by her Union name. When she was first commissioned into the United States Navy in 1856, her name was ''Merrimack,'' with the ''K''; the name was derived from the [[Merrimack River]] near where she was built. She was the second ship of the U. S. Navy to be named for the Merrimack River, which is formed by the [[confluence]] of the [[Pemigewasset River|Pemigewasset]] and [[Winnipesaukee River|Winnipesaukee]] rivers at [[Franklin, New Hampshire]]. The Merrimack flows south across [[New Hampshire]], then eastward across northeastern [[Massachusetts]] before finally emptying in the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] at [[Newburyport, Massachusetts]].

After raising, restoring, and outfitting as an ironclad warship, the Confederacy bestowed on her the name ''Virginia''. Nonetheless, the Union continued to refer to the Confederate ironclad by either its original name, ''Merrimack'', or by the nickname "The Rebel Monster". In the aftermath of the Battle of Hampton Roads, the names ''Virginia'' and ''Merrimack'' were used interchangeably by both sides, as attested to by various newspapers and correspondence of the day. Navy reports and pre-1900 historians frequently misspelled the name as "Merrimac", which was actually an unrelated ship,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/our-collections/photography/numerical-list-of-images/nhhc-series/nh-series/NH-91000/NH-91880-KN.html|title=Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimack C.S.S. Virginia Civil War Naval Battle|work=nps.gov}}</ref> hence "the Battle of the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimac''". Both spellings are still in use in the Hampton Roads area.

==Memorial, heritage==
*A large exhibit at the [[Jamestown Exposition]] held in 1907 at [[Sewell's Point]] was the "Battle of the ''Merrimac'' and ''Monitor''," a large [[diorama]] that was housed in a special building.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Page|first1=Walter Hines|title=The World's work Volume 14 ; a history of our time|date=1907|isbn=978-1231370032|page=8938|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sojNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA8938|access-date=20 December 2015}}</ref>
*A small community in [[Montgomery County, Virginia]], near where the coal burned by the Confederate ironclad was mined, is now known as [[Merrimac, Virginia|Merrimac]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Tennis|first=Joe|title=Southwest Virginia Crossroads: An Almanac of Place Names and Places to See|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=noiiZPTGk9IC&pg=PA140|year=2004|publisher=The Overmountain Press|isbn=978-1-57072-256-1|page=140}}</ref>
*The October 8, 1867, issue of the ''Norfolk Virginian'' newspaper carried a prominent [[classified advertisement]] in the paper's "Private Sales" section for the salvaged iron ram of CSS ''Virginia''. The ad states:
<blockquote>A RELIC OF WAR FOR SALE: The undersigned has had several offers for the IRON PROW! of the first iron-clad ever built, the celebrated Ram and Iron Clad Virginia, formerly the Merrimac. This immense RELIC WEIGHS 1,340 POUNDS, wrought iron, and as a sovereign of the war, and an object of interest as a revolution in naval warefare, would suit a Museum, State Institute, or some great public resort. Those desiring to purchase will please address D. A. UNDERDOWN, Wrecker, care of ''Virginian'' Office, Norfolk, Va.</blockquote>
:It is unclear from the above whether this was the first iron ram that broke off and lodged in the starboard bow of the sinking USS ''Cumberland,'' during the first day of the Battle of Hampton Roads, or was the second iron ram affixed to ''Virginia''{{'}}s bow at the time she was run aground and destroyed to avoid capture by Union forces; no further mention has been found concerning the final disposition of this historic artifact.

[[File:CSS Virginia Anchor.jpg|thumb|right|Anchor of CSS ''Virginia'' at its former location at the [[American Civil War Museum]]]]
*Other pieces of ''Virginia'' did survive and are on display at the [[Mariners' Museum]] in [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News]] and the [[American Civil War Museum]] in [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], where one of her [[anchor]]s resides on its front lawn.
*In 1907, an armor plate from the ship was melted down and used in the casting of the [[Pokahuntas Bell]] for the [[Jamestown Exposition]].<ref>''[[Richmond Times-Dispatch]]'', "[https://www.loc.gov/chroniclingamerica/lccn/sn85038615/1907-04-13/ed-1/seq-2 Pokahuntas Bell for Exposition]", April 13, 1907</ref>{{Wikisource-inline|Joint Resolution Authorizing the Secretary of the Navy to Furnish Metal for a Bell}}
*Starting around 1883, numerous souvenirs, made from recently salvaged iron and wood raised from ''Virginia''{{'}}s sunken hulk, found a ready and willing market among [[East Coast of the United States|eastern seaboard]] residents who remembered the historic first battle between ironclads. Various tokens, medals, medalets, sectional [[watch fob]]s, and other similar metal keepsakes are known to have been struck by private mints in limited quantities. Known examples still exist today, being held in both public and private collections, rarely coming up for public auction. Nine examples made from ''Virginia''{{'}}s iron and copper can be found cataloged in great detail, with front and back photos, in David Schenkman's 1979 numismatic booklet listed in the Reference section (below).
*The name of the [[Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel]], built in Hampton Roads in the general vicinity of the famous engagement, with both Virginia and federal funds, also reflects the more recent version.{{clarify |version of what?|date=August 2021}}

==See also==
{{Portal|American Civil War}}
* [[Bibliography of early American naval history#American Civil War|Bibliography of American Civil War naval history]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last1=Bisbee |first1=Saxon T. |title=Engines of Rebellion: Confederate Ironclads and Steam Engineering in the American Civil War |publisher=University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |isbn=978-0-81731-986-1|date=2018}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Bogart|first1=Charles H.|year=2006|title=Re: Thoughts and Speculation on the Conversion of USS ''Merrimack'' into CSS ''Virginia''|journal=Warship International |volume=XLIII |issue=2 |page=158 |issn=0043-0374}}
*{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Thomas R. |last2=Flanders |first2=Alan B. |title=Confederate Phoenix: The CSS ''Virginia'' |date=2001 |publisher=Burd Street Press |location=Shippensburg, Pennsylvania|name-list-style=amp}}
*{{cite book |last1=Canney |first1=Donald L. |title=The Confederate Steam Navy 1861-1865 |date=2015 |publisher=Schiffer Publishing|location=Atglen, Pennsylvania |isbn=978-0-7643-4824-2}}
*{{cite journal|last=Egan|first=Robert S.|year=2005|title=Thoughts and Speculation on the Conversion of USS ''Merrimack'' into CSS ''Virginia''|journal=Warship International |volume=XLII|issue=4 |pages=362–414 |issn=0043-0374}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Greene|first1=Jack|year=2006|title=Re: Thoughts and Speculation on the Conversion of USS ''Merrimack'' into CSS ''Virginia''|journal=Warship International |volume=XLIII |issue=2|page=159 |issn=0043-0374}}
*{{cite book|editor=Holzer, Harold |editor2=Mulligan, Tim|title=The Battle of Hampton Roads: New Perspectives on the USS ''Monitor'' and CSS ''Virginia''|year=2006|publisher=Fordham University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-8232-2481-3|last=Symonds|first=Craig L. |chapter=Building the Ironclads}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Junonville|first1=P. C.|year=2006|title=Re: Thoughts and Speculation on the Conversion of USS ''Merrimack'' into CSS ''Virginia''|journal=Warship International |volume=XLIII |issue=2 |pages=158–159 |issn=0043-0374}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Koehler |first1=R. B.|last2=Sileo|first2=Thomas|last3=Yee |first3=Garry |year=2007 |title=Question 40/43: Fates of Confederate Ironclads|journal=Warship International |volume=XLIV|issue=4|pages=331–332 |issn=0043-0374|name-list-style=amp}}
*{{cite book|last=Konstam|first=Angus|title=Duel of the Ironclads: USS ''Monitor'' & CSS ''Virginia'' at Hampton Roads 1862|year=2003|publisher=Osprey|location=Oxford, UK |isbn=1-84176-721-2}}
*Nelson, James L. (2004). ''The Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimack'' '', HarperCollins Publishers, New York, {{ISBN|0-06-052403-0}}.
* {{cite book|last1=Olmstead|first1=Edwin|last2=Stark|first2=Wayne E.|last3=Tucker |first3=Spencer C.|title=The Big Guns: Civil War Siege, Seacoast, and Naval Cannon |year=1997 |publisher=Museum Restoration Service|location=Alexandria Bay, New York|isbn=0-88855-012-X|name-list-style=amp}}
*Park, Carl D., (2007) ''Ironclad Down, USS ''Merrimack''-CSS ''Virginia'', From Construction to Destruction'', Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-659-9}}.
*{{cite book|editor=Holzer, Harold |editor2=Mulligan, Tim|title=The Battle of Hampton Roads: New Perspectives on the USS ''Monitor'' and CSS ''Virginia''|year=2006|publisher=Fordham University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-8232-2481-3|last=Quarstein|first=John V. |chapter=Sink Before Surrender: The Story of the CSS ''Virginia''}}
*Quarstein, John V. (2000). ''C.S.S. ''Virginia'', Mistress of Hampton Roads'', self-published for the Virginia Civil War Battles and Leaders Series by H. E. Howard, Inc. {{ISBN|1-56190-118-0}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=William H.|year=2006|title=Re: Thoughts and Speculation on the Conversion of USS ''Merrimack'' into CSS ''Virginia''|journal=Warship International |volume=XLIII |issue=2|pages=157–158 |issn=0043-0374}}
*Schenkman, David, (1979). ''Tokens & Medals Commemorating the Battle Between the ''Monitor'' and ''Merrimac'' '' (sic), Hampton, Virginia, 28-page booklet (the second in a series of Special Articles on the Numismatics of The Commonwealth of Virginia), Virginia Numismatic Association. No ISSN or ISBN.
* {{cite book|last=Silverstone|first=Paul H.|title=Directory of the World's Capital Ships |year=1984 |publisher=Hippocrene Books|location=New York|isbn=0-88254-979-0}}
*Smith, Gene A., (1998). ''Iron and Heavy Guns, Duel Between the ''Monitor'' and ''Merrimac'' '' (sic), Abilene, Texas, McWhiney Foundation Press, {{ISBN|1-88666-115-4}}.
* {{cite book |last=Still |first=William N., Jr. |author-link=William N. Still Jr. |year=1985 |title=Iron Afloat: The Story of the Confederate Armorclads |orig-year=1971 |location=Columbia, South Carolina |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=0-87249-454-3}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Bathe |first=Greville |title=Ship of destiny : a record of the U.S. steam frigate Merrimac, 1855–1862 |publisher=printed by Allen, Lane and Scott, Philadelphia |year=1951 |url=http://opac.navalmarinearchive.com/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=36537 |ref=bathe}} 82&nbsp;pages.
* [[James Phinney Baxter|Baxter, James Phinney]] (1968). ''[https://archive.org/details/introductionofi00baxt The Introduction of the Ironclad Warship]'', Archon Books, p.&nbsp;398.
*Besse, Sumner B., ''C. S. Ironclad Virginia and U. S. Ironclad Monitor'', Newport News, Virginia, The Mariner's Museum, 1978. {{ISBN|0-917376-32-3}}.
*DeKay, James, (1997) ''Monitor'', Ballantine Books, New York, NY.
* {{cite book|last=Silverstone|first=Paul H.|title=Civil War Navies 1855–1883|publisher=Routledge |location=New York|year=2006|series=The U.S. Navy Warship Series|isbn=0-415-97870-X}}
* {{cite book |last=Snow |first=Richard |title=Iron Dawn: The ''Monitor'', the ''Merrimack'', and the Civil War Sea Battle that Changed History |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4767-9420-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USGzCwAAQBAJ |ref=snow}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category|CSS Virginia (ship, 1862)|CSS Virginia}}
*[http://www.lva.lib.va.us/ Library of Virginia]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180331122431/http://www.vahistorical.org/ Virginia Historical Society]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041212084431/http://www.moc.org/ Museum of the Confederacy] in Richmond, Virginia
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20010306080704/http://cssvirginia.org/ Website devoted to the CSS ''Virginia'']
*[http://www.hamptonroadsvisitor.com Hampton Roads Visitor Guide]
* [http://www.monitorcenter.org/ USS ''Monitor'' Center and Exhibit], Newport News, Virginia
* [http://www.mariner.org/ Mariner's Museum], Newport News, Virginia
* [http://www.hrnm.navy.mil/ Hampton Roads Naval Museum]
* [http://www.multied.com/Navy/cwnavalhistory/ Civil War Naval History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091027144300/http://www.geocities.com/hrforts/Fort_Wool/history.htm Fort Wool History]
* [http://www.roadstothefuture.com/I664_VA_MMMBT.html Roads to the Future – I-664 Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge Tunnel]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Virginia}}
[[Category:Ironclad warships of the Confederate States Navy]]
[[Category:Shipwrecks of the Virginia coast]]
[[Category:Ships built in Newport News, Virginia]]
[[Category:Battle of Hampton Roads]]
[[Category:1862 ships]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in May 1862]]
[[Category:Shipwrecks of the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Scuttled vessels]]
[[Category:Naval magazine explosions]]