View source for Narcissus (plant)

{{short description|Genus of plants in the Amaryllis (Amaryllidaceae)}}
{{Redirect|Daffodil}}
{{good article}}
{{use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=January 2021}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|name = ''Narcissus''
|image = Narcissus.radiiflorus.1658.jpg
|image_caption = ''[[Narcissus poeticus]]''
|taxon = Narcissus
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name="LinSP" />
|type_species = ''[[Narcissus poeticus]]''
|type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|fossil_range = {{fossil range|24|0}} [[Late Oligocene]] – Recent
|subdivision_ranks = Subgenera
|subdivision = [[#Subdivision|See text]].
}}
[[File:Illustration Narcissus poeticus0.jpg|thumb|''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]''. [[Otto Wilhelm Thomé|Thomé]]: ''Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz'' (1885){{sfn|Thomé|1903|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/44720#page/442/mode/1up p. 316]}} 1. Longitudinal section, 2. Anthers, 3. Stigma, 4. Cross section of ovary]]
[[File:Floral morphology Narcissus.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Narcissus Floral Diagram.jpg|thumb|<div align="center">[[Floral diagram]]</div>From centre outwards: Trilocular ovary, 6 stamens, corona, perianth<br/>
{{Infobox
|subheader=[[Floral formula]]
|bodystyle   = width:20em
|data1={{resize|95%|Br ✶ ☿ {{color|red|P3+3+Corona}} {{color|olive|A3+3}} {{color|blue|{{underline|G}}(3)}}
}}<br/>
Bracteate, Actinomorphic, Bisexual<br/>{{color|red|Perianth: 6 tepals in 2 whorls of 3}}<br/>{{color|olive|Stamens: 2 whorls of 3}}<br/>{{color|blue|Ovary: Superior – 3 fused carpels}}
}}]]
'''''Narcissus''''' is a [[genus]] of predominantly spring flowering [[perennial plant|perennial]] plants of the amaryllis family, [[Amaryllidaceae]]. Various common names including '''daffodil''',<ref group="Note">The word "daffodil" is also applied to related genera such as ''[[Sternbergia]]'', ''[[Ismene (plant)|Ismene]]'' and ''[[Fritillaria meleagris]]''. It has been suggested that the word "Daffodil" be restricted to the wild species of the [[British Isles]], ''[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|N. pseudonarcissus]]''. {{harv|Halevy|1985|loc= Rees A. R. Narcissus pp. 268–271}}</ref> '''narcissus''' and '''jonquil''', are used to describe all or some members of the genus. ''Narcissus'' has conspicuous flowers with six petal-like [[tepal]]s surmounted by a cup- or trumpet-shaped [[Corona (plant structure)|corona]]. The flowers are generally white and [[yellow]] (also orange or pink in garden varieties), with either uniform or contrasting coloured tepals and corona.

''Narcissus'' were well known in [[ancient civilisation]], both medicinally and botanically, but were formally described by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in his ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' (1753). The genus is generally considered to have about ten sections with approximately 36 species. The number of species has varied, depending on how they are classified, due to similarity between species and [[Hybridization (biology)|hybridisation]]. The genus arose some time in the Late [[Oligocene]] to Early [[Miocene]] epochs, in the [[Iberian peninsula]] and adjacent areas of southwest Europe. The exact origin of the name ''Narcissus'' is unknown, but it is often linked to a Greek word (ancient Greek ναρκῶ narkō, "to make numb") and the myth of the [[Narcissus (mythology)|youth of that name]] who fell in love with his own reflection. The English word "daffodil" appears to be derived from "[[Asphodelus|asphodel]]", with which it was commonly compared.

The species are native to meadows and woods in southern Europe and North Africa with a [[centre of diversity]] in the Western Mediterranean, particularly the [[Iberian peninsula]]. Both wild and cultivated plants have naturalised widely, and were introduced into the Far East prior to the tenth century. Narcissi tend to be long-lived bulbs, which propagate by division, but are also insect-pollinated. Known pests, diseases and disorders include viruses, fungi, the larvae of flies, [[mite]]s and [[nematode]]s. Some ''Narcissus'' species have become extinct, while others are threatened by increasing urbanisation and [[tourism]].

Historical accounts suggest narcissi have been cultivated from the earliest times, but became increasingly popular in Europe after the 16th century and by the late 19th century were an important commercial crop centred primarily in the [[Netherlands]]. Today narcissi are popular as cut flowers and as ornamental plants in private and public [[garden]]s. The long history of breeding has resulted in thousands of different [[cultivar]]s. For horticultural purposes, narcissi are classified into divisions, covering a wide range of shapes and colours. Like other members of their family, narcissi produce a number of different [[alkaloid]]s, which provide some protection for the plant, but may be poisonous if accidentally ingested. This property has been exploited for medicinal use in traditional healing and has resulted in the production of [[galantamine]] for the treatment of [[Alzheimer's disease|Alzheimer's dementia]]. Long celebrated in art and literature, narcissi are associated with a number of themes in different cultures, ranging from death to good fortune, and as symbols of spring.

The daffodil is the national flower of [[Wales]] and the symbol of cancer charities in many countries. The appearance of wild flowers in spring is associated with festivals in many places.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Description==
{{multiple image
| header    = Vegetative
| align     = left
| direction = vertical
| width     = 130

| image1    = One daffodil bulb.jpg
| caption1  = ''Narcissus'' '''[[bulb]]''' with shoot and [[root]]s

| image2    = Untere Narzissensprossachsel beim Entfalten.JPG
| caption2  = ''Narcissus'' '''[[Shoot (botany)|shoots]]''' emerging, with sheathed [[leaves]]
}}

{{multiple image
| header    = ''Narcissus'' floral morphology
| align     = left
| direction = vertical
| width     = 130

| image8     = A Perfect Pair Daffodills (Narcissus) - 8.jpg
| caption8   = ''Narcissus'' [[flower]], showing outer white '''[[tepals]]''' with a central yellow [[Corona (plant structure)|corona]] (paraperigonium)

| image4    = Narcissus cyclamineus01.jpg
| caption4  = ''[[Narcissus cyclamineus|N. cyclamineus]]'', showing reflexed tepals

| image3    = 20140226Narcissus pseudonarcissus2.jpg
| caption3  = ''[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|N. pseudonarcissus]]'' showing from top to bottom, '''spathe''', '''floral tube''', '''tepals''', '''corona'''

| image5    = Narcissus bulbocodium 2009Mach15 Closeup2 DehesaBoyalPuertollano.jpg
| caption5  = ''[[Narcissus bulbocodium|N. bulbocodium]]'' showing prominent '''corona''' and reduced tepals

| image1    = Jonquil up close.jpg
| caption1  = Solitary ''Narcissus'' flower, prior to opening, emerging from '''[[spathe]]'''

| image2    = NarcissusPaperwhite01.jpg
| caption2  = ''[[Narcissus papyraceus|N. papyraceus]]'', showing '''[[umbel]] formation'''

| image6    = Narcissus triandrus 4.jpg
| caption6  = ''[[Narcissus triandrus|N. triandrus]]'', showing '''pendent orientation''' and reflexed tepals

| image7    = Blauweissgelbrot (3489473714).jpg
| caption7  = Narcissus flower, showing erect orientation

| image9    = Shuixian02.JPG
| caption9  = Tazetta cultivar, showing '''[[stamens]]''' surrounding central [[Stigma (botany)|stigma]]

| image10     = Sunshine yellow - by Spiralz.jpg
| caption10   = Close-up of stamen filaments and anthers, with stigma
}}

{{multiple image
| header    = Gynoecium and fruit
| align     = left
| direction = vertical
| width     = 130

| image1    = Narcissus pseudonarcissus2 ies.jpg
| caption1  = Longitudinal section of '''[[Ovary (botany)|ovary]]''' with [[ovules]]

| image2    = Narcis zaadhokken.jpg
| caption2  = Cross section of ovary

| image3    = Narcissus pseudonarcissus MHNT.BOT.2009.13.31.jpg
| caption3  =''Narcissus'' [[Capsule (botany)|capsule]] dispersing '''[[seed]]'''
 }}

===General===
''Narcissus'' is a genus of [[perennial]] [[herbaceous]] [[bulb]]iferous [[geophyte]]s, which die back after flowering to an underground storage bulb. They regrow in the following year from brown-skinned ovoid [[bulb]]s with pronounced necks, and reach heights of {{convert|5|–|80|cm}} depending on the species. Dwarf species such as ''[[Narcissus asturiensis|N. asturiensis]]'' have a maximum height of {{convert|5|–|8|cm}}, while ''[[Narcissus tazetta]]'' may grow as tall as {{convert|80|cm}}.<ref name=Tazetta/>{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}

The plants are [[Glossary of botanical terms#S|scapose]], having a single central leafless hollow flower [[Plant stem|stem]] (scape). Several green or blue-green, narrow, strap-shaped leaves arise from the bulb. The plant stem usually bears a solitary flower, but occasionally a cluster of flowers ([[umbel]]). The flowers, which are usually conspicuous and white or yellow, sometimes both or rarely green, consist of a [[perianth]] of three parts. Closest to the stem (proximal) is a [[Petal#Variations|floral tube]] above the [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]], then an outer ring composed of six [[tepal]]s (undifferentiated sepals and petals), and a central disc to conical shaped [[Corona (plant structure)|corona]]. The flowers may hang down (pendant), or be erect. There are six [[pollen]] bearing [[stamen]]s surrounding a central [[Style (flower)|style]]. The [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]] is inferior (below the floral parts) consisting of three chambers (trilocular). The [[fruit]] consists of a dry [[Capsule (botany)|capsule]] that splits ([[dehisces]]) releasing numerous black [[seed]]s.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}

The bulb lies dormant after the leaves and flower stem die back and has contractile [[root]]s that pull it down further into the soil. The flower stem and leaves form in the bulb, to emerge the following season. Most species are dormant from summer to late winter, flowering in the spring, though a few species are autumn flowering.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}

===Specific===
====Vegetative====
; Bulbs :
The pale brown-skinned [[ovoid]] [[tunica (biology)|tunicate]] '''[[bulb]]s''' have a membranous tunic and a corky stem (base or basal) plate from which arise the [[adventitious#roots|adventitious]] [[root hair]]s in a ring around the edge, which grow up to 40&nbsp;mm in length. Above the stem plate is the storage organ consisting of bulb scales, surrounding the previous flower stalk and the terminal [[bud]]. The scales are of two types, true storage organs and the bases of the foliage leaves. These have a thicker tip and a scar from where the leaf lamina became detached. The innermost leaf scale is semicircular only partly enveloping the flower stalk (semisheathed).(see Hanks Fig 1.3). The bulb may contain a number of branched bulb units, each with two to three true scales and two to three leaf bases. Each bulb unit has a life of about four years.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}}

Once the leaves die back in summer, the roots also wither. After some years, the roots shorten pulling the bulbs deeper into the ground ([[Adventitious roots|contractile roots]]). The bulbs develop from the inside, pushing the older layers outwards which become brown and dry, forming an outer shell, the tunic or skin. Up to 60 layers have been counted in some wild species. While the plant appears dormant above the ground the flower stalk which will start to grow in the following spring, develops within the bulb surrounded by two to three deciduous leaves and their sheaths. The flower stem lies in the [[axil]] of the second true leaf.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}

; Stems :
The single leafless '''[[Plant stem stem]]''' or scape, appearing from early to late spring depending on the species, bears from 1 to 20 blooms.<ref name=RHSAZ/> Stem shape depends on the species, some are highly compressed with a visible seam, while others are rounded. The stems are upright and located at the centre of the leaves. In a few species such as ''[[Narcissus hedraeanthus|N. hedraeanthus]]'' the stem is oblique. The stem is hollow in the upper portion but towards the bulb is more solid and filled with a spongy material.{{sfn|Straley|Utech|2003}}

; Leaves :
''Narcissus'' plants have one to several basal '''[[leaf leaves]]''' which are linear, ligulate or strap-shaped (long and narrow), sometimes [[Caespitose|channelled]] [[Acaulescent|adaxially]] to [[Leaf shape|semiterete]], and may (pedicellate) or may not (sessile) have a [[Petiole (botany)|petiole]] stalk.{{sfn|Kubitzki|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC&pg=PA100 Narcissus], pp. 100–101}} The leaves are flat and broad to cylindrical at the base and arise from the bulb.{{sfn|Sell|Murrell|1996|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pKGlBap0FRYC&pg=PA285 Narcissus. p. 285]}} The emerging plant generally has two leaves, but the mature plant usually three, rarely four, and they are covered with a [[cutin]] containing [[cuticle]], giving them a waxy appearance. Leaf colour is light green to blue-green. In the mature plant, the leaves extend higher than the flower stem, but in some species, the leaves are low-hanging. The leaf base is encased in a colorless sheath. After flowering, the leaves turn yellow and die back once the [[seed pod]] (fruit) is ripe.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}

Jonquils usually have dark green, round, rush-like leaves.<ref>{{cite web |title=Narcissus jonquillan |work=Missouri Botanical Garden Plant Finder |url=http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=275814&isprofile=0&z=5 |access-date=July 6, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707005941/http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=275814&isprofile=0&z=5 |archive-date=July 7, 2018 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

====Reproductive====
; Inflorescence :
The '''inflorescence''' is scapose, the single [[Plant stem|stem]] or scape bearing either a solitary flower or forming an [[umbel]] with up to 20 blooms.<ref name=RHSAZ/> Species bearing a solitary flower include section ''Bulbocodium'' and most of section ''Pseudonarcissus''. [[Umbellate]] species have a fleshy [[racemose]] [[inflorescence]] (unbranched, with short floral stalks) with 2 to 15 or 20 flowers, such as ''[[Narcissus papyraceus|N. papyraceus]]'' (see illustration, left) and ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'' (see [[#Subdivision|Table I]]).<ref name=Graham/><ref name=FE5/> The flower arrangement on the inflorescence may be either with ([[Pedicel (botany)|pedicellate]]) or without ([[Sessility (botany)|sessile]]) floral stalks.

Prior to opening, the flower buds are enveloped and protected in a thin dry papery or membranous ([[Glossary of botanical terms#S|scarious]]) [[spathe]]. The [[spathe]] consists of a singular [[bract]] that is ribbed, and which remains wrapped around the base of the open flower. As the bud grows, the spathe splits longitudinally.{{sfn|Sell|Murrell|1996|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pKGlBap0FRYC&pg=PA285 Narcissus], p. 285}}{{sfn|Johnston|2007}} [[Bracteoles]] are small or absent.{{sfn|Straley|Utech|2003}}{{sfn|Sell|Murrell|1996|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pKGlBap0FRYC&pg=PA285 Narcissus], p. 285}}<ref name=FE5/><ref name=Barrett/>

; Flowers :
The '''[[flower]]s''' of ''Narcissus'' are [[hermaphroditic]] (bisexual),<ref name=Medrano/> have three parts (tripartite), and are sometimes [[fragrant]] (see [[#Fragrances|Fragrances]]).{{sfn|Dobson|1997}} The flower symmetry is [[actinomorphic]] (radial) to slightly zygomorphic (bilateral) due to declinate-ascending [[stamen]]s (curving downwards, then bent up at the tip). ''Narcissus'' flowers are characterised by their, usually conspicuous, [[Corona (plant structure)|corona]] (trumpet).

The three major floral parts (in all species except ''[[Narcissus cavanillesii|N. cavanillesii]]'' in which the corona is virtually absent - [[#Subdivision|Table I]]: Section ''Tapeinanthus'') are;
* (i) the proximal [[floral tube]] (hypanthium),
* (ii) the surrounding free [[tepal]]s, and
* (iii) the more distal [[Corona (plant structure)|corona]] (paraperigon, paraperigonium).

All three parts may be considered to be components of the [[perianth]] (perigon, perigonium). The [[perianth]] arises above the apex of the inferior [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]], its base forming the hypanthial [[floral tube]].

The floral tube is formed by fusion of the basal segments of the tepals (proximally connate). Its shape is from an inverted cone ([[obconic]]) to funnel-shaped (funneliform) or cylindrical, and is surmounted by the more distal corona. Floral tubes can range from long and narrow sections ''Apodanthi'' and ''Jonquilla'' to rudimentary (''N. cavanillesii'').{{sfn|Lloyd|Barrett|1995|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HgFA7mFHp2QC&pg=PA343 Barrett S, Lloyd D. Stylar polymorphisms and the evolution of heterostyly in ''Narcissus'' (Amaryllidaceae)], p. 343}}

Surrounding the floral tube and corona and [[Glossary of botanical terms#reflexed|reflexed]] (bent back) from the rest of the perianth are the six spreading tepals or floral leaves, in two whorls which may be distally ascending, reflexed (folded back), or lanceolate. Like many [[monocotyledons]], the perianth is homochlamydeous, which is undifferentiated into separate calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals), but rather has six tepals. The three outer tepal segments may be considered [[sepal]]s, and the three inner segments [[petal]]s. The transition point between the floral tube and the corona is marked by the insertion of the free tepals on the fused perianth.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}}

The corona, or paracorolla, is variously described as bell-shaped (funneliform, trumpet), bowl-shaped (cupular, crateriform, cup-shaped) or disc-shaped with margins that are often frilled, and is free from the stamens. Rarely is the corona a simple callose (hardened, thickened) ring. The corona is formed during floral development as a tubular outgrowth from stamens which fuse into a tubular structure, the anthers becoming reduced. At its base, the fragrances which attract pollinators are formed. All species produce nectar at the top of the ovary.<ref name=Graham/> Coronal morphology varies from the tiny pigmented disk of ''[[Narcissus serotinus|N. serotinus]]'' (see [[#Subdivision|Table I]]) or the rudimentary structure in ''[[Narcissus cavanillesii|N. cavanillesii]]'' to the elongated trumpets of section ''Pseudonarcissus'' (trumpet daffodils, Table I).{{sfn|Kubitzki|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC&pg=PA100 Narcissus], pp. 100–101}}<ref name=Graham/><ref name=FE5/>{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}}

While the perianth may point forwards, in some species such as ''[[Narcissus cyclamineus|N. cyclamineus]]'' it is folded back (reflexed, see illustration, left), while in some other species such as ''[[Narcissus bulbocodium|N. bulbocodium]]'' ([[#Subdivision|Table I]]), it is reduced to a few barely visible pointed segments with a prominent corona.

The colour of the perianth is white, yellow or bicoloured, with the exception of the night flowering ''[[Narcissus viridiflorus|N. viridiflorus]]'' which is green. In addition the corona of ''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'' has a red crenulate margin (see [[#Subdivision|Table I]]).{{sfn|Sell|Murrell|1996|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pKGlBap0FRYC&pg=PA285 Narcissus. p. 285]}} Flower diameter varies from 12&nbsp;mm (''[[Narcissus bulbocodium|N. bulbocodium]]'') to over 125&nbsp;mm (''N. nobilis''=''[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|N. pseudonarcissus]]'' subsp. ''nobilis'').{{sfn|Lloyd|Barrett|1995|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HgFA7mFHp2QC&pg=PA343 Barrett S, Lloyd D. Stylar polymorphisms and the evolution of heterostyly in ''Narcissus'' (Amaryllidaceae)], p. 343}}

Flower orientation varies from pendent or deflexed (hanging down) as in ''[[Narcissus triandrus|N. triandrus]]'' (see illustration, left), through declinate-ascendant as in [[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|''N. alpestris'' = ''N. pseudonarcissus'' subsp. ''moschatus'']], horizontal (patent, spreading) such as ''[[Narcissus gaditanus|N. gaditanus]]'' or ''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'', erect as in ''N. cavanillesii'', ''N. serotinus'' and ''[[Narcissus rupicola|N. rupicola]]'' ([[#Subdivision|Table I]]), or intermediate between these positions (erecto-patent).{{sfn|Straley|Utech|2003}}{{sfn|Sell|Murrell|1996|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pKGlBap0FRYC&pg=PA285 Narcissus. p. 285]}}<ref name=Graham/><ref name=FE5/><ref name=Barrett/><ref name=Mathew/>{{sfn|Lloyd|Barrett|1995|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HgFA7mFHp2QC&pg=PA343 Barrett S, Lloyd D. Stylar polymorphisms and the evolution of heterostyly in ''Narcissus'' (Amaryllidaceae)], p. 343}}

The flowers of ''Narcissus'' demonstrate exceptional floral diversity and sexual [[polymorphism (biology)|polymorphism]],<ref name=Barrett/> primarily by corona size and floral tube length, associated with [[pollinator]] groups (see for instance Figs. 1 and 2 in Graham and Barrett<ref name=Graham/>). Barrett and Harder (2005) describe three separate floral patterns;
* "Daffodil" form
* "Paperwhite" form
* "Triandrus" form.

The predominant patterns are the 'daffodil' and 'paperwhite' forms, while the "triandrus" form is less common. Each corresponds to a different group of pollinators (See [[#Pollination|Pollination]]).<ref name=Barrett/>

The "daffodil" form, which includes sections ''Pseudonarcissus'' and ''Bulbocodium'', has a relatively short, broad or highly funnelform tube (funnel-like), which grades into an elongated corona, which is large and funnelform, forming a broad, cylindrical or trumpet-shaped perianth. Section ''Pseudonarcissus'' consists of relatively large flowers with a corolla length of around 50 mm, generally solitary but rarely in inflorescences of 2–4 flowers. They have wide greenish floral tubes with funnel-shaped bright yellow coronas. The six tepals sometimes differ in colour from the corona and may be cream coloured to pale yellow.<ref name=Medrano/>

The "paperwhite" form, including sections ''Jonquilla'', ''Apodanthi'' and ''Narcissus'', has a relatively long, narrow tube and a short, shallow, flaring corona. The flower is horizontal and fragrant.

The "triandrus" form is seen in only two species, ''[[Narcissus albimarginatus|N. albimarginatus]]'' (a Moroccan endemic) and ''[[Narcissus triandrus|N. triandrus]]''. It combines features of both the "daffodil" and "paperwhite" forms, with a well-developed, long, narrow tube and an extended bell-shaped corona of almost equal length. The flowers are pendent.<ref name=Barrett/>

; [[Androecium]] :
There are six [[stamen]]s in one to two rows ([[Whorl (botany)|whorls]]), with the filaments separate from the corona, attached at the throat or base of the tube (epipetalous), often of two separate lengths, straight or declinate-ascending (curving downwards, then upwards). The anthers are basifixed (attached at their base).{{sfn|Kubitzki|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC&pg=PA100 Narcissus], pp. 100–101}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}}

; [[Gynoecium]] :
The [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]] is inferior (below the floral parts) and [[Locule|trilocular]] (three chambered) and there is a [[pistil]] with a minutely three lobed [[Stigma (botany)|stigma]] and filiform (thread like) [[Style (flower)|style]], which is often exserted (extending beyond the tube).{{sfn|Kubitzki|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC&pg=PA100 Narcissus pp. 100–101]}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}}

; Fruit :
The fruit consists of dehiscent [[loculicidal]] [[Capsule (botany)|capsules]] (splitting between the locules) that are [[ellipsoid]] to [[Glossary of botanical terms#S|subglobose]] (almost spherical) in shape and are papery to leathery in texture.{{sfn|Straley|Utech|2003}}

; Seeds :
The fruit contains numerous subglobose '''[[seed]]s''' which are round and swollen with a hard coat, sometimes with an attached [[elaiosome]]. The [[Seed#Seed coat|testa]] is black{{sfn|Kubitzki|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC&pg=PA100 Narcissus], pp. 100–101}} and the [[pericarp]] dry.<ref name=FE5/>

Most species have 12 [[ovules]] and 36 seeds, although some species such as ''N. bulbocodium'' have more, up to a maximum of 60. Seeds take five to six weeks to mature. The seeds of sections ''Jonquilla'' and ''Bulbocodium'' are wedge-shaped and matte black, while those of other sections are ovate and glossy black. A gust of wind or contact with a passing animal is sufficient to [[Seed dispersal|disperse]] the mature seeds.

===Chromosomes===
[[Chromosome]] numbers include 2n=14, 22, 26, with numerous [[aneuploid]] and [[polyploid]] derivatives. The basic chromosome number is 7, with the exception of ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'', ''[[Narcissus elegans|N. elegans]]'' and ''[[Narccisu broussonetii|N. broussonetii]]'' in which it is 10 or 11; this subgenus (''Hermione'') was in fact characterised by this characteristic. Polyploid species include ''[[Narcissus papyraceus|N. papyraceus]]'' (4x=22) and ''[[Narcissus dubius|N. dubius]]'' (6x=50).{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}}

===Phytochemistry===
====Alkaloids====
As with all Amarylidaceae genera, ''Narcissus'' contains unique [[isoquinoline]] [[alkaloid]]s. The first alkaloid to be identified was [[lycorine]], from ''N. pseudonarcissus'' in 1877. These are considered a protective adaptation and are utilised in the classification of species. Nearly 100 alkaloids have been identified in the genus, about a third of all known Amaryllidaceae alkaloids, although not all species have been tested. Of the nine alkaloid [[Ring (chemistry)|ring]] types identified in the family, ''Narcissus'' species most commonly demonstrate the presence of alkaloids from within the Lycorine (lycorine, galanthine, pluviine) and [[Homolycorine]] (homolycorine, lycorenine) groups. Hemanthamine, tazettine, [[narciclasine]], montanine and [[galantamine]] alkaloids are also represented. The alkaloid profile of any plant varies with time, location, and developmental stage.<ref name=Bastida/> ''Narcissus'' also contain [[fructans]] and low molecular weight [[glucomannan]] in the leaves and plant stems.

====Fragrances====
[[Fragrances]] are predominantly [[monoterpene]] [[isoprenoids]], with a small amount of [[benzenoids]], although ''[[Narcissus jonquilla|N. jonquilla]]'' has both equally represented. Another exception is ''[[Narcissus cuatrecasasii|N. cuatrecasasii]]'' which produces mainly fatty acid derivatives. The basic monoterpene precursor is [[geranyl pyrophosphate]], and the commonest monoterpenes are [[limonene]], [[myrcene]], and ''trans''-β-[[ocimene]]. Most benzenoids are non-methoxylated, while a few species contain [[methoxylated]] forms ([[ethers]]), ''e.g.'' ''[[Narcissus bujei|N. bujei]]''. Other ingredient include [[indole]], isopentenoids and very small amounts of [[sesquiterpenes]]. Fragrance patterns can be correlated with [[pollinators]], and fall into three main groups (see [[#Pollination|Pollination]]).{{sfn|Dobson|1997}}

==Taxonomy==
{{main|Taxonomy of Narcissus}}

=== History ===
{{Blockquote|text=''Genus valde intricatum et numerosissimis dubiis oppressum''<br/> A genus that is very complex and burdened with numerous uncertainties|sign=Schultes & Schultes fil.|source=''Syst. Veg.'' 1829<ref name=Schultes/>}}

==== Early ====
The genus ''Narcissus'' was well known to the [[Classical antiquity|ancient Greeks and Romans]]. In [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] literature [[Theophrastus]]{{sfn|Theophrastus|1916|p=[https://archive.org/stream/enquiryintoplant02theouoft#page/42/mode/2up 42]}} and [[Dioscorides]]<ref name=Dioscurides/> described ''νάρκισσος'', probably referring to ''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'', although the exact species mentioned in classical literature cannot be accurately established. [[Pliny the Elder]] later introduced the [[Latin]] form ''narcissus''.<ref name=PlinyLat/><ref name=Pliny/><ref name=PlinyLat2/><ref name=Pliny2/> These early writers were as much interested in the plant's possible medicinal properties as they were in its botanical features and their accounts remained influential until at least the [[Renaissance]] (see also [[#Antiquity|Antiquity]]). Mediaeval and Renaissance writers include [[Albert Magnus]] and [[William Turner (naturalist)|William Turner]], but it remained to [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] to formally describe and name ''Narcissus'' as a genus in his [[Species Plantarum]] (1753) at which time there were six known species.<ref name=LinSP/><ref name=Meerow/>

==== Modern ====
[[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|De Jussieu]] (1789) grouped ''Narcissus'' into a "family",<ref name=icn18.2/><ref name=Candolle2/> which he called Narcissi.<ref name=Jussieu/> This was renamed Amaryllideae by [[Jaume Saint-Hilaire]] in 1805,<ref name=JSH/> corresponding to the modern [[Amaryllidaceae]]. For a while, ''Narcissus'' was considered part of [[Liliaceae]] (as in the illustration seen here of ''[[Narcissus candidissimus]]''),{{sfn|Redouté|De Candolle|1805–1808|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10268#page/56/mode/1up vol. IV, p. 188]}}<ref name=Candollea/><ref name=Candolleb/> but then the Amaryllidaceae were split off from it.{{sfn|A. P. de Candolle|1813|p=219}}{{sfn|Brown|1810|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/21871#page/164/mode/1up Prodromus], p. 296}}
[[File:Narcissus candidissimus.jpg|thumb|''[[Narcissus candidissimus|N. candidissimus]]'' by [[Pierre-Joseph Redouté]], 1808{{sfn|Redouté|De Candolle|1805–1808|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10268#page/56/mode/1up vol. IV, p. 188]}}]]

Various authors have adopted either narrow (e.g. [[Adrian Hardy Haworth|Haworth]],<ref name=Haworth/><ref name=BurbigeHaworth/> [[Richard Anthony Salisbury|Salisbury]]<ref name=Salisbury/>) or wide (e.g.[[William Herbert (botanist)|Herbert]],<ref name=Herbert/> [[Édouard Spach|Spach]]<ref name=Spach/> ) interpretations of the genus.<ref name=RHSSegregate/> The narrow view treated many of the species as separate genera.{{sfn|Webb|1978}} Over time, the wider view prevailed with a major monograph on the genus being published by [[John Gilbert Baker|Baker]] (1875).<ref name=Baker/> One of the more controversial genera was ''Tapeinanthus'',<ref name=Cullen/>{{sfn|Webb|1978}} but today it is included in ''Narcissus''.<ref name=Mathew/>

The eventual position of ''Narcissus'' within the [[Amaryllidaceae]] [[Family (botany)|family]] only became settled in this century with the advent of [[phylogenetic analysis]] and the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] system.<ref name=Meerow/>{{sfn|Stevens|2015}} Within Amaryllidaceae the [[genus]] ''Narcissus'' belongs to the [[Narcisseae]] [[Tribe (botany)|tribe]], one of 13 within the [[Amaryllidoideae]] [[subfamily]].<ref name=Bastida/> It is one of two [[Sister group|sister]] [[clades]] corresponding to genera in the Narcisseae,<ref name=Gage/> being distinguished from ''[[Sternbergia]]'' by the presence of a [[paraperigonium]],{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}} and is [[monophyletic]].<ref name=Graham/>

=== Subdivision ===
The infrageneric phylogeny of ''Narcissus'' still remains relatively unsettled,<ref name=Bastida/> the taxonomy having proved complex and difficult to resolve,<ref name=FE5/><ref name=Medrano/><ref name=Mathew/> due to the diversity of the wild species, the ease with which natural [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] occurs, and extensive cultivation and breeding accompanied by escape and naturalisation.<ref name=Bastida/><ref name=Zonneveld/> Consequently, the number of accepted species has varied widely.<ref name=Zonneveld/>

De Candolle, in the first systematic taxonomy of ''Narcissus'', arranged the species into named groups, and those names have largely endured for the various subdivisions since and bear his name as their authority.<ref name=Candollea/><ref name=Candolleb/> The situation was confused by the inclusion of many unknown or garden varieties, and it was not until the work of Baker that the wild species were all grouped as sections under one genus, ''Narcissus''.<ref name=Baker/>

A common classification system has been that of Fernandes <ref name=Fernandes68/><ref name=Fernandes75/><ref name=Fernandes51/> based on [[cytology]], as modified by Blanchard (1990)<ref name=Blanchard/><ref name=Levy/> and [[Brian Mathew|Mathew]] (2002).<ref name=Mathew/> Another is that of Meyer (1966).<ref name=Meyer/> Fernandes proposed two [[subgenera]] based on basal chromosome numbers, and then subdivided these into ten [[Section (botany)|sections]] as did Blanchard.<ref name=Levy/>

Other authors (e.g. Webb<ref name=FE5/>{{sfn|Webb|1978}}) prioritised morphology over genetics, abandoning subgenera, although Blanchard's system has been one of the most influential. While infrageneric groupings within ''Narcissus'' have been relatively constant, their status (genera, subgenera, sections, subsections, series, species) has not.<ref name=Mathew/><ref name=Bastida/> The most cited system is that of the [[Royal Horticultural Society]] (RHS) which simply lists ten sections. Three of these are [[monotypic]] (contain only one species), while two others contain only two species. Most species are placed in section ''Pseudonarcissus''.<ref name=RHSBC/><ref name=Santos-Gally/> Many of these subdivisions correspond roughly to the popular names for daffodil types, ''e.g.'' Trumpet Daffodils, Tazettas, Pheasant's Eyes, Hoop Petticoats, Jonquils.<ref name=Mathew/>

The most [[hierarchical]] system is that of Mathew, illustrated here -

{| class="wikitable"
|+ <big>Table I: Subdivisions of ''Narcissus'' (Mathew 2002)<ref name=Mathew/></big>
|-
! style="background: #ccf;" |Subgenus !! style="background: #ccf;"| Section !! style="background: #ccf;" |Subsection !! style="background: #ccf;" |Series!! style="background: #ccf;" |[[Type species]]
|-
| rowspan=7|''Narcissus'' <small>[[Ferdinand Albin Pax|Pax]]</small>|| |''Narcissus'' <small>L.</small>|| || ||[[File:Narcisa 0012.JPG|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'' <small>L.</small>
|-
| ''Pseudonarcissus'' <small>DC</small><br/>syn. ''Ajax'' <small>Spach</small> || || ||[[File:20140212Narcissus pseudonarcissus5.jpg|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|N. pseudonarcissus]]'' <small>L.</small>
|-
| ''Ganymedes'' <small>Salisbury ex Schultes and Schultes fil.</small>|| || ||[[File:Narcissus triandrus Closeup 2009March18 DehesaBoyalPuertollano.jpg|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus triandrus|N. triandrus]] ''<small>L.</small>
|-
| rowspan=3|''Jonquillae'' <small>De Candolle</small>||''Jonquillae'' <small>DC</small>|| ||[[File:Narcissus jonquilla 2.jpg|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus jonquilla|N. jonquilla]]'' <small>L.</small>
|-
| ''Apodanthi'' <small>(A. Fernandes) D. A. Webb</small>|| ||[[File:Narcissus rupicola EnfoqueFrontal 2011-3-09 PtoNiefla SierraMadrona.jpg|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus rupicola|N. rupicola]]''<br/> <small>Dufour</small>
|-
| ''Chloranthi'' <small>D. A. Webb</small> || ||[[File:Narcissus viridiflorus 1.jpg|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus viridiflorus|N. viridiflorus]]''<br/> <small>Schousboe</small>
|-
| ''Tapeinanthus'' (Herbert) Traub || || ||[[File:Narcissus cavanillesii detail.jpg|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus cavanillesii|N. cavanillesii]]'' <br/><small>A. Barra and G. López</small>
|-
| rowspan=5| ''Hermione'' <br/><small>(Salisbury) Spach</small> || rowspan=4|''Hermione''<br/> [[syn.]] ''Tazettae'' <small>De Candolle</small> || rowspan=2|''Hermione'' || ''Hermione'' ||[[File:NarcissiWithDew colors boosted.jpg|120px]]<br/> ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'' <small>L.</small>
|-
| ''Albiflorae'' <small>Rouy.</small>||[[File:Narcissus papyraceus-Jerusalem-3.jpg|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus papyraceus|N. papyraceus]]'' <br/><small>Ker-Gawler</small>
|-
| ''Angustifoliae''<br/> <small>(A. Fernandes) F.J Fernándes-Casas</small> || ||[http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/files/Narcissus/Narcissus_elegans_elegans0_JL.jpg ''Click'' for image]<br/>''[[Narcissus elegans|N. elegans]]'' <br/><small>(Haw.) Spach</small>
|-
| ''Serotini'' <small>Parlatore</small>|| || [[File:Narcissus serotinus RJB.jpg|120px]]''<br/>[[Narcissus serotinus|N. serotinus]]'' <small>L.</small>
|-
| ''Aurelia'' <small>(J. Gay) Baker</small>|| || ||[[File:N. broussonetii.JPG|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus broussonetii|N. broussonetii]]'' <br/><small>Lagasca</small>
|-
| ''Corbularia'' <small>(Salisb.) Pax</small><br/>syn. ''Bulbocodium'' <small>De Candolle</small> || || || ||[[File:Narcissus bulbocodium 2009Mach15 Closeup2 DehesaBoyalPuertollano.jpg|120px]]<br/>''[[Narcissus bulbocodium|N. bulbocodium]]'' <small>L.</small>
|-
 |}

==== Phylogenetics ====
The [[phylogenetic analysis]] of Graham and Barrett (2004) supported the infrageneric division of ''Narcissus'' into two [[clades]] corresponding to Fernandes' subgenera, but did not support monophyly of all sections.<ref name=Graham/> A later extended analysis by [[Nina Rønsted|Rønsted]] ''et al.'' (2008) with additional taxa confirmed this pattern.<ref name=Ronsted2008/>

A large molecular analysis by [[Ben Zonneveld|Zonneveld]] (2008) sought to reduce some of the [[paraphyly]] identified by Graham and Barrett. This led to a revision of the sectional structure.<ref name=Zonneveld/><ref name=Santos-Gally/><ref name=FCasas2008/>
While Graham and Barrett (2004)<ref name=Graham/> had determined that subgenus ''Hermione'' was monophyletic, Santos-Gally ''et al.'' (2011)<ref name=Santos-Gally/> did not. If two species excluded in the former study are removed from the analysis, the studies are in agreement, the species in question instead forming a clade with subgenus ''Narcissus''. Some so-called nothosections have been proposed, to accommodate natural ('ancient') hybrids (nothospecies).<ref name=FCasas2008/>

==== Species ====
{{Main|List of Narcissus species}}
[[File:Narcissi Encylopaedia Londinensis.jpg|thumb|''[[Narcissus hispanicus|N. major]]'', ''[[Narcissus triandrus|N. triandrus]]'' and ''[[Narcissus jonquilla|N. jonquilla]]''. ''Encyclopaedia Londinensis'' 1819]]
Estimates of the number of species in ''Narcissus'' have varied widely, from anywhere between 16 and almost 160,<ref name=Zonneveld/><ref name=Blanchard/> even in the modern era. Linnaeus originally included six species in 1753, by 1784 there were fourteen{{sfn|Linné|1784|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=03gZAAAAYAAJ&q=narcissus&pg=PA316 p.316]}} by 1819 sixteen,{{sfn|Wilkes|1819}} and by 1831 [[Adrian Hardy Haworth|Adrian Haworth]] had described 150 species.<ref name=Haworth/>

Much of the variation lies in the definition of [[species]]. Thus, a very wide view of each species, such as Webb's<ref name=FE5/> results in few species, while a very narrow view such as that of Fernandes<ref name=Fernandes68/> results in a larger number.<ref name=Mathew/> Another factor is the status of [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]], with a distinction between "ancient hybrids" and "recent hybrids". The term "ancient hybrid" refers to hybrids found growing over a large area, and therefore now considered as separate species, while "recent hybrid" refers to solitary plants found amongst their parents, with a more restricted range.<ref name=Zonneveld/>

Fernandes (1951) originally accepted 22 species,<ref name=Fernandes51/> Webb (1980) 27.<ref name=FE5/> By 1968, Fernandes had 63 species,<ref name=Fernandes68/> Blanchard (1990) 65 species,<ref name=Blanchard/> and Erhardt (1993) 66.<ref name=Erhardt/> In 2006 the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s (RHS) ''International Daffodil Register and Classified List'' <ref name=RHSBC/><ref name=RHSIRA/><ref name=RHSIRAS/> listed 87 species, while Zonneveld's genetic study (2008) resulted in only 36.<ref name=Zonneveld/> {{As of|2014|September}}, the [[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]] accepts 52 species, along with at least 60 hybrids,<ref name="WCSP_Narcissus"/> while the RHS has 81 accepted names in its October 2014 list.<ref name=RHSbotnames/>

=== Evolution ===
Within the [[Narcisseae]], ''Narcissus'' ([[western Mediterranean]]) diverged from ''[[Sternbergia]]'' ([[Eurasia]]) some time in the [[Late Oligocene]] to [[Early Miocene]] eras, around 29.3–18.1 [[Ma (unit)|Ma]]. Later, the genus divided into the two subgenera (''Hermione'' and ''Narcissus'') between 27.4 and 16.1 Ma. The divisions between the sections of ''Hermione'' then took place during the Miocene period 19.9–7.8 Ma.<ref name=Santos-Gally/> ''Narcissus'' appears to have arisen in the area of the Iberian peninsula, southern France and northwestern Italy. Subgenus ''Hermione'' in turn arose in the southwestern Mediterranean and Northwest Africa.<ref name=Santos-Gally/>

===Names and etymology===
====Narcissus====
[[File:Clusius250.jpg|thumb|''[[Narcissus jonquilla|N. juncifolius]]'', [[Carolus Clusius]] ''Rariorum stirpium'' 1576]]
[[File:L'Obel Icones Stirpium 112.jpg|thumb|''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'', [[Matthias de l'Obel]] ''Icones stirpium'' 1591]]

The derivation of the Latin ''{{lang|la|narcissus}}''<ref>{{L&S|narcissus1|narcissus|ref}}</ref> is from Greek {{lang|grc|νάρκισσος}} ''narkissos''.<ref name="LSJ">{{LSJ|na/rkissos|νάρκισσος|ref}}.</ref><ref name="OEtymD">{{OEtymD|narcissus}}</ref> According to [[Plutarch]] ''narkissos'' has been connected because of the plant's narcotic properties, with ''narkē'' "numbness";<ref name="LSJ"/><ref>{{LSJ|na/rkeh|νάρκη|shortref}}.</ref> it may also be connected with hell.<ref name="Prior" /> On the other hand, its etymology is considered to be clearly [[Pre-Greek]] by [[Robert S. P. Beekes|Beekes]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Beekes|first=Robert|title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek|publisher=Brill|others=With the assistance of Lucien van Beek.|year=2010|isbn=9789004174184|volume=2|place=Leiden, Boston|page=997|chapter=[[s.v.]] {{lang|grc|νάρκισσος}}|author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes|orig-year=2009}}</ref>

It is frequently linked to the myth of [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]], who became so obsessed with his own reflection in water that he drowned and the narcissus plant sprang from where he died. There is no evidence for the flower being named after Narcissus. ''[[Narcissus poeticus]]'', which grows in Greece, has a fragrance that has been described as intoxicating.<ref name="SOED" /> [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] wrote that the plant was named for its fragrance ({{lang|grc|ναρκάω}} ''narkao'', "I grow numb" ), rather than Narcissus.<ref name="Bastida" /><ref name=PlinyLat/><ref name="Dweck" /><ref name="Groom1997" /><ref>{{LSJ|narka/w|ναρκάω|shortref}}.</ref> Furthermore, there were accounts of narcissi growing long before the story of Narcissus appeared (see [[#Greek culture|Greek culture]]).<ref name="Prior" /><ref name="Pausanias" /><ref group="Note">Prior here refers to the poet ''Pamphilus'', but it is likely he meant ''Pamphos''.</ref> It has also been suggested that narcissi bending over streams represent the youth admiring his reflection.<ref name="Gardener" /> Linnaeus used the Latin name "narcissus" for the plant but was preceded by others such as [[Matthias de l'Obel]] (1591)<ref name="Obel" /> and [[Carolus Clusius|Clusius]] (1576).{{sfn|Clusius|1576|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30856#page/247/mode/1up De Narcisso, ii], pp. 245-25]}} The name Narcissus was not uncommon for men in Roman times.

The plural form of the common name "narcissus" has been the cause of some confusion. Dictionaries list "narcissi", "narcissuses" and "narcissus".<ref name="SOED" /><ref name="Cambridge" /><ref name="Webster" /> However, texts on usage such as Garner<ref name="Garner" /> and Fowler<ref name="Fowler" /> state that "narcissi" is the preferred form. The common name narcissus should not be capitalised.

====Daffodil====
The name "daffodil" is derived from "affodell", a variant of ''[[Asphodelus|asphodel]]''.<ref>{{OEtymD|daffodil}}</ref> The narcissus was frequently referred to as the asphodel<ref name=Dweck/> (see [[#Antiquity|Antiquity]]). Asphodel in turn appears to come from the Greek "asphodelos" ({{lang-grc-gre|ἀσφόδελος}}).<ref name=Dweck/><ref>{{cite book|title=Oxford Dictionary of English|date=2010|edition=3rd}}</ref><ref>{{LSJ|a)sfo/delos|ἀσφόδελος|shortref}}.</ref><ref>{{OEtymD|asphodel}}</ref> The reason for the introduction of the initial "d" is not known.<ref name=Reece/> From at least the 16th century, "daffadown dilly" and "daffydowndilly" have appeared as alternative names.<ref name=SOED /> Other names include "Lent lily".<ref name="Hereford" /><ref name="Oxford" />

==== Tsuí-sian ====
The [[Hokkien]] term can be literally translated as "water fairy", where {{linktext|水|lang=zh}} refers to water and {{linktext|仙|lang=zh}} refers to [[Chinese immortal|immortals]]. It is the [[Hokkien culture#Cultural symbols|official provincial flower]] of Hokkien.<ref>{{Cite web |title=福建省省花/省树/省石-传统文化-炎黄风俗网 |url=http://www.fengsuwang.com/minjian/fujianshenghuashengshushengshi.asp |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.fengsuwang.com}}</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
=== Distribution ===
{{See also|List of Narcissus species}}
Although the family [[Amaryllidaceae]] are predominantly tropical or subtropical as a whole, ''Narcissus'' occurs primarily in [[Mediterranean region]], with a [[centre of diversity]] in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]).<ref name=Mathew/> A few species extend the range into [[southern France]], [[Italy]], the [[Balkans]] (''N. poeticus'', ''N. serotinus'', ''N. tazetta''), and the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] (''N. serotinus'')<ref name=Mathew/>{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}} including [[Israel]] (''N. tazetta'').<ref name=Graham/><ref name=Bastida/> The occurrence of ''N. tazetta'' in western and central [[Asia]] as well as [[East Asia]] are considered [[Introduced species|introductions]], albeit ancient{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}} (see [[#Eastern cultures|Eastern cultures]]). While the exact northern limit of the natural range is unknown, the occurrences of wild ''N. pseudonarcissus'' in [[Great Britain]], middle and northern Europe are similarly considered ancient introductions.<ref name=Mathew/>{{sfn|Aedo|2010}}{{sfn|eMonocot|2014}}

While the Amaryllidaceae are not native to North America, ''Narcissus'' grows well in USDA [[hardiness zone]]s 3B through 10, which encompass most of the United States and Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fp423|title=University of Florida IFAS Extension Edis|date=2015-08-17|website=University of Florida IFAS Extension Edis|publisher=University of Florida|access-date=18 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320055317/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fp423|archive-date=20 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

''[[Narcissus elegans|N. elegans]]'' occurs on the North West African Coast ([[Morocco]] and [[Libya]]), as well as the coastline of [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]] and [[Italy]], and ''[[Narcissus bulbocodium|N. bulbocodium]]'' between [[Tangier]] and [[Algiers]] and Tangier to [[Marrakech]], but also on the Iberian Peninsula. ''[[Narcissus serotinus|N. serotinus]]'' is found along the entire Mediterranean coast. ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'' occurs as far east as [[Iran]] and [[Kashmir]]. Since this is one of the oldest species found in cultivation, it is likely to have been introduced into Kashmir. ''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'' and ''[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|N. pseudonarcissus]]'' have the largest distribution ranges. ''N. poeticus'' ranges from the [[Pyrenees]] along the [[Romanian Carpathians]] to the [[Black Sea]] and along the [[Dalmatian coast]] to [[Greece]]. ''N. pseudonarcissus'' ranges from the Iberian Peninsula, via the [[Vosges Mountains]] to northern [[France]] and [[Belgium]], and the [[United Kingdom]] where there are still wild stocks in Southern [[Scotland]]. The only occurrence in [[Luxembourg]] is located near Lellingen, in the municipality of [[Kiischpelt]]. In [[Germany]] it is found mainly in the nature reserve at [[Perlenbach-Fuhrtsbachtal]] and the [[Eifel National Park]], where in the spring at [[Monschau]] the meadows are teeming with yellow blooms.<ref name="PERLENBACH" /> One of the most easterly occurrences can be found at [[Misselberg]] near [[Nassau, Rhineland-Palatinate|Nassau]] on the [[Lahn]]. 
[[File:Gacko Narcissus poeticus.jpg|thumb|''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'' growing in Međulići, near [[Gacko]], Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
However, unlike the above examples, most species have very restricted [[endemic]] ranges<ref name=Santos-Gally/>{{sfn|Medrano|2008}} which may overlap resulting in natural hybrids.<ref name=Zonneveld/> For instance in the vicinity of the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] city of [[Porto]] where both ''N. pseudonarcissus'' and ''[[Narcissus triandrus|N. triandrus]]'' occur there are found various intersections of the two species while in a small area along part of the Portuguese Mondego river are found intersectional hybrids between ''[[Narcissus scaberulus|N. scaberulus]]'' and ''N. triandrus''.

The [[biogeography]] demonstrates a [[phylogenetic]] association, for instance subgenus ''Hermione'' having a lowland distribution, but subgenus ''Narcissus'' section ''Apodanthi'' being [[montane]] and restricted to Morocco, Spain and Portugal. The remaining sections within subgenus ''Narcissus'' include both lowland and mountain habitats.<ref name=Santos-Gally/> Section ''Pseudonarcissus'', although widely naturalised, is endemic to the [[Baetic Ranges]] of the southeastern Iberian peninsula.<ref name=Medrano/>

=== Habitats ===
Their native habitats are very varied, with different elevations, [[Holdridge life zones|bioclimatic areas]] and substrates,<ref name=Santos-Gally/> being found predominantly in open spaces ranging from low [[marsh]]es to rocky hillsides and [[Montane ecology|montane]] [[pasture]]s, and including [[grassland]], [[scrubland|scrub]], [[woodland|woods]], [[Bank (geography)|river banks]] and [[Fracture (geology)|rocky crevices]].<ref name=Graham/><ref name=Bastida/> Although requirements vary, overall there is a preference for [[Soil pH#Sources of acidity|acidic]] soils, although some species will grow on [[limestone]]. ''[[Narcissus scaberulus]]'' will grow on [[granite]] soils where it is moist in the growing season but dry in the summer, while ''[[Narcissus dubius]]'' thrives best in regions with hot and dry summers.

The ''Pseudonarcissus'' group in their natural habitat prefers humid situations such as stream margins, springs, wet pastures, clearings of forests or shrublands with humid soils, and moist hillsides. These habitats tend to be discontinuous in the Mediterranean mountains, producing discrete isolated populations.<ref name=Medrano/> In [[Germany]], which has relatively little limestone, ''[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus]]'' grows in small groups on open mountain meadows or in mixed forests of [[fir]], [[beech]], [[oak]], [[alder]], [[Fraxinus|ash]] and [[birch]] trees with well-drained soil.

== Ecology ==
=== Life cycle ===
''Narcissus'' are long-lived perennial geophytes with winter-growing and summer-dormant bulbs<ref name=Medrano/> that are mainly synanthous (leaves and flowers appearing at the same time).{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}} While most species flower in late winter to spring, five species are autumn flowering (''[[Narcissus broussonetii|N. broussonetii]]'', ''[[Narcissus cavanillesii|N. cavanillesii]]'', ''[[Narcissus elegans|N. elegans]]'', ''[[Narcissus serotinus|N. serotinus]]'', ''[[Narcissus viridiflorus|N. viridiflorus]]'').<ref name=Graham/> By contrast, these species are hysteranthous (leaves appear after flowering).{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}

Flower longevity varies by species and conditions, ranging from 5–20 days.{{sfn|Lloyd|Barrett|1995|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HgFA7mFHp2QC&pg=PA344 Barrett S, Lloyd D. Stylar polymorphisms and the evolution of heterostyly in ''Narcissus'' (Amaryllidaceae)], p. 344}} After flowering leaf and root [[senescence]] sets in, and the plant appears to be 'dormant' until the next spring, conserving moisture. However, the dormant period is also one of considerable activity within the bulb [[primordia]]. It is also a period during which the plant bulb may be susceptible to predators {{See below|{{section link||Pests and diseases}}, below}}. Like many bulb plants from [[temperate]] regions, a period of exposure to cold is necessary before spring growth can begin. This protects the plant from growth during winter when intense cold may damage it. Warmer spring temperatures then initiate growth from the bulb. Early spring growth confers a number of advantages, including relative lack of competition for pollinators, and lack of [[deciduous]] shading. {{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}} The exception to requiring cold temperatures to initiate flowering is ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]''.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}}

Plants may spread clonally through the production of daughter bulbs and division, producing clumps.<ref name=Medrano/> Narcissus species [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridise]] readily, although the fertility of the offspring will depend on the parental relationship.<ref name=Bastida/>

=== Pollination ===
The flowers are [[insect-pollinated]], the major [[pollinators]] being [[bees]], [[butterflies]], [[flies]], and [[hawkmoths]], while the highly scented night-flowering ''[[Narcissus viridiflorus|N. viridiflorus]]'' is pollinated by [[crepuscular]] moths. Pollination mechanisms fall into three groups corresponding to floral morphology (see [[#Description|Description - Flowers]]).{{sfn|Lloyd|Barrett|1995|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HgFA7mFHp2QC&pg=PA344 Barrett S, Lloyd D. Stylar polymorphisms and the evolution of heterostyly in ''Narcissus'' (Amaryllidaceae)], p. 344}}

# 'Daffodil' form. Pollinated by bees seeking [[pollen]] from [[anthers]] within the corona. The broad perianth allows bees (''[[Bombus]]'', ''[[Anthophora]]'', ''[[Andrena]]'') to completely enter the flower in their search for nectar and/or pollen. In this type, the stigma lies in the mouth of the corona, extending beyond the six anthers, whose single [[Whorl (botany)|whorl]] lies well within the corona. The bees come into contact with the stigma before their legs, thorax and abdomen contact the anthers, and this [[approach herkogamy]] causes cross pollination.
# 'Paperwhite' form. These are adapted to long-tongued [[Lepidoptera]], particularly [[sphingid moths]] such as ''[[Macroglossum]]'', [[Pieridae]] and [[Nymphalidae]], but also some long-tongued bees, and [[flies]], all of which are primarily seeking [[nectar]]. The narrow tube admits only the insect's [[proboscis]], while the short corona serves as a funnel guiding the tip of the proboscis into the mouth of the perianth tube. The stigma is placed either in the mouth of the tube, just above two whorls of three anthers, or hidden well below the anthers. The pollinators then carry pollen on their probosci or faces. The long-tongued bees cannot reach the nectar at the tube base and so collect just pollen. 
# 'Triandrus' form. Pollinated by long-tongued solitary bees (''[[Anthophora]]'', ''[[Bombus]]''), which forage for both pollen and nectar. The large corona allows the bees to crawl into the perianth but then the narrow tube prevents further progress, causing them to probe deeply for nectar. The pendant flowers prevent pollination by Lepidoptera. In ''N. albimarginatus'' there may be either a long stigma with short and mid-length anthers or a short stigma and long anthers ([[Polymorphism (biology)|dimorphism]]). In ''N. triandrus'' there are three patterns of sexual organs (trimophism) but all have long upper anthers but vary in stigma position and the length of the lower anthers.<ref name=Graham/><ref name=Barrett/>

[[Allogamy]] ([[outcrossing]]) on the whole is enforced through a late-acting ([[Ovary (botany)|ovarian]]) [[self-incompatibility]] system, but some species such as ''[[Narcissus dubius|N. dubius]]'' and ''[[Narcissus longispathus|N. longispathus]]'' are self-compatible producing mixtures of selfed and [[outcrossed]] seeds.{{sfn|Dobson|1997}}<ref name=Barrett/>

=== Pests and diseases ===
Diseases of ''Narcissus'' are of concern because of the economic consequences of losses in commercial cultivation. Pests include viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as arthropods and gastropods. For control of pests, see [[#Commercial uses|Commercial uses]].

; [[Viruses]] :
[[Aphid]]s such as ''[[Macrosiphum euphorbiae]]'' can transmit [[Virus|viral]] diseases which affect the colour and shape of the leaves, as can [[nematodes]].{{sfn|Zuckerman|Rohde|1981|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pU9Mz--9wwoC&pg=PA286 Longidorus transmitted viruses], p. 286}} Up to twenty-five viruses have been described as being able to infect narcissi.{{sfn|PNW|2014}}{{sfn|Berniak|Komorowska|Sochacki|2013}}{{sfn|Asjes|1996}} These include the ''[[Narcissus common latent virus]]'' (NCLV, ''Narcissus mottling-associated virus''{{sfn|Adams|2013|loc=[http://www.dpvweb.net/notes/search.php ''Find Viruses'': Narcissus]}}),<ref group="Note">This ''[[Carlavirus]]'' should not be confused with the similarly named'' Narcissus latent virus'' which is a ''[[Macluravirus]]''.</ref> ''[[Narcissus latent virus]]'' (NLV, ''Narcissus mild mottle virus''{{sfn|Adams|2013|loc=[http://www.dpvweb.net/notes/search.php ''Find Viruses'': Narcissus]}}) which causes green mottling near leaf tips,{{sfn|Smith|1988|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3gbPsC7i1IIC&pg=PA3 Viruses], p. 3}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dpvweb.net/dpv/showdpv.php?dpvno=170 |author1=A. A. Brunt |title=Narcissus latent virus |date=1976}} In {{harvnb|Adams|2013}}.</ref> ''[[Narcissus degeneration virus]]'' (NDV),{{sfn|Chen|2007}} ''[[Narcissus late season yellows virus]]'' (NLSYV) which occurs after flowering, streaking the leaves and stems,{{sfn|Mowat|Duncan|Dawson|1988a}}{{sfn|Mowat|Duncan|Dawson|1988b}} ''[[Narcissus mosaic virus]]'', ''[[Narcissus yellow stripe virus]]'' (NYSV, ''Narcissus yellow streak virus''{{sfn|Adams|2013|loc=[http://www.dpvweb.net/notes/search.php ''Find Viruses'': Narcissus]}}), ''[[Narcissus tip necrosis virus]]'' (NTNV) which produces necrosis of leaf tips after flowering<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dpvweb.net/dpv/showdpv.php?dpvno=166 |author1=W. P. Mowat |author2=C. J. Asjes |author3=A. A. Brunt |title=Narcissus tip necrosis virus |date=September 1976}} In {{harvnb|Adams|2013}}.</ref> and ''[[Narcissus white streak virus]]'' (NWSV).{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}}

Less host specific viruses include ''[[Raspberry ringspot virus]]'', ''[[Nerine latent virus]]'' (NeLV) =''[[Narcissus symptomless virus]]'',{{sfn|Chen|2006}} ''[[Arabis mosaic virus]]'' (ArMV),{{sfn|Iwaki|1974}} ''[[Fabavirus|Broad Bean Wilt Viruses]]'' (BBWV){{sfn|Iwaki|1972}} ''[[Cucumber mosaic virus]]'' (CMV), ''[[Tomato black ring virus]]'' (TBRV), ''[[Tomato ringspot virus]]'' (TomRSV) and ''[[Tobacco rattle virus]]'' (TRV).{{sfn|Iwaki|1972}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}}

Of these viruses the most serious and prevalent are NDV, NYSV and NWSV.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}}{{sfn|Berniak|Komorowska|Sochacki|2013}} NDV is associated with [[chlorotic]] leaf striping in ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]''.{{sfn|Chen|2007}} Infection with NYSV produces light or grayish-green, or yellow stripes or mottles on the upper two-thirds of the leaf, which may be roughened or twisted. The flowers which may be smaller than usual may also be streaked or blotched. NWSV produces greenish-purple streaking on the leaves and stem turning white to yellow, and premature senescence reducing bulb size and yield.{{sfn|PNW|2014}} These viruses are primarily diseases of commercial nurseries. The growth inhibition caused by viral infection can cause substantial economic damage.{{sfn|Daffodil Society|2014|loc=[http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/a-guide-to-dafodils/pests-diseases/ Pests & Diseases]}}{{sfn|UCIPM|2009}}{{sfn|RHS|2014|loc=[https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?PID=149 Daffodil viruses]}}

; [[Bacteria]] :
[[Bacterial]] disease is uncommon in ''Narcissus'' but includes ''[[Pseudomonas]]'' (bacterial streak) and ''[[Pectobacterium carotovorum]]'' sp. ''carotovorum'' (bacterial soft rot).{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}}

; [[Fungi]] :
More problematic for non-commercial plants is the [[fungus]], [[Fusarium oxysporum|''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''narcissi'']], which causes basal rot (rotting of the bulbs and yellowing of the leaves). This is the most serious disease of ''Narcissus''. Since the fungus can remain in the soil for many years it is necessary to remove infected plants immediately, and to avoid planting further narcissi at that spot for a further five years. Not all species and cultivars are equally susceptible. Relatively resistant forms include ''[[Narcissus triandrus|N. triandrus]]'', ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'' and ''[[Narcissus jonquilla|N. jonquilla]]''.{{sfn|RHS|2014|loc=[https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=222 Narcissus basal rot]}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}}{{sfn|Hanks|1996}}{{sfn|Hanks|Carder|2003}}

Another fungus which attacks the bulbs, causing narcissus smoulder, is ''[[Botrytis narcissicola]]'' (''Sclerotinia narcissicola'') and other species of ''[[Botryotinia|Botrytis]]'', including ''[[Botrytis cinerea]]'',{{sfn|O'Neill|Mansfield|1980}}{{sfn|Hong|2007}} particularly if improperly stored. Copper sulfate is used to combat the disease, and infected bulbs are burned. Blue mould rot of bulbs may be caused by infection with species of ''[[Penicillium]]'', if they have become damaged either through mechanical injury or infestation by mites (see below).{{sfn|Pirone|1978|loc=[https://archive.org/details/diseasespestsofo0000piro/page/366 Narcissus], p. 366}} Species of [[Rhizopus]] (''e.g.'' ''[[Rhizopus stolonifer]]'', ''[[Rhizopus nigricans]]'') cause bulb soft rot{{sfn|UCIPM|2009}}{{sfn|Horst|2013|loc=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-6049-3_17 Narcissus], pp. 95–96}} and ''[[Sclerotinia bulborum]]'', black slime disease.{{sfn|Boerema|1989}} A combination of both ''[[Peyronellaea curtisii]]'' (''Stagonosporopsis curtisii'') and ''Botrytis narcissicola'' causes neck rot in the bulbs.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}}

Fungi affecting the roots include ''[[Nectria radicicola]]'' (''Cylindrocarpon destructans''), a cause of root rot{{sfn|Boerema|1989}} and ''[[Rosellinia necatrix]]'' causing white root rot,{{sfn|Mantell|1973}} while others affect root and bulb, such as ''[[Aspergillus niger]]'' (black mold), and species of ''[[Trichoderma]]'', including ''[[Trichoderma viride|T. viride]]'' and ''[[Trichoderma harzianum|T. harzianum]]'' (=''T. narcissi'') responsible for green mold.{{sfn|Horst|2013|loc=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-6049-3_17 Narcissus], pp. 95–96}}

Other fungi affect the remainder of the plant. Another ''Botrytis'' fungus, ''[[Botrytis polyblastis]]'' (''Sclerotinia polyblastis'') causes brown spots on the flower buds and stems (narcissus fire), especially in damp weather and is a threat to the cut flower industry.{{sfn|Moore|1959|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=I_M8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA343 ''Sclerotinia polyblastis'' p.343]}}{{sfn|Elad|2007}} ''[[Ramularia vallisumbrosae]]'' is a leaf spot fungus found in warmer climates, causing narcissus white mould disease.<ref name=Gregory/> ''Peyronellaea curtisii'', the Narcissus leaf scorch, also affects the leaves{{sfn|Daffodil Society|2014|loc=[http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/a-guide-to-dafodils/pests-diseases/ Pests & Diseases]}}{{sfn|UCIPM|2009}}<ref name="vanLeeuwen" /><ref name="McCain" />{{sfn|RHS|2014|loc=[https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?PID=735 Narcissus leaf scorch]}} as does its [[synanamorph]], ''[[Phoma narcissi]]'' (leaf tip blight).{{sfn|Crous|2011}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}} ''[[Aecidium narcissi]]'' causes [[Rust (fungus)|rust]] lesions on leaves and stems.{{sfn|Boerema|1989}}

; [[Animals]] :
[[Arthropods]] that are ''Narcissus'' pests include [[insects]] such as three species of [[fly]] that have larvae that attack the plants, the narcissus bulb fly ''[[Merodon equestris]]'', and two species of [[hoverflies]], the lesser bulb flies ''[[Eumerus tuberculatus]]''<ref name="Creager" /> and ''[[Eumerus strigatus]]''. The flies lay their eggs at the end of June in the ground around the narcissi, a single female fly being able to lay up to fifty eggs. The hatching [[larva]]e then burrow through the soil towards the bulbs and consume their interiors. They then overwinter in the empty bulb shell, emerging in April to [[pupa]]te in the soil, from which the adult fly emerges in May.{{sfn|Daffodil Society|2014|loc=[http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/a-guide-to-dafodils/pests-diseases/ Pests & Diseases]}}{{sfn|RHS|2014|loc=[https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?PID=657 Narcissus bulb fly]}} The larvae of some [[moths]] such as ''[[Korscheltellus lupulina]]'' (the common swift moth) attack ''Narcissus'' bulbs.{{sfn|MAFF|1970}}{{sfn|Daffodil Society|2014|loc=[http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/a-guide-to-dafodils/pests-diseases/ Pests & Diseases]}}

Other arthropods include [[Mite]]s such as ''[[Steneotarsonemus laticeps]]'' (Bulb scale mite),{{sfn|Gratwick|1992|loc=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-1490-5_66 Bulb scale mite], pp. 334–337}} ''[[Rhizoglyphus]]'' and ''[[Histiostoma]]'' infest mainly stored bulbs and multiply particularly at high ambient temperature, but do not attack planted bulbs.{{sfn|Daffodil Society|2014|loc=[http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/a-guide-to-dafodils/pests-diseases/ Pests & Diseases]}}

Planted bulbs are susceptible to [[nematode]]s, the most serious of which is ''[[Ditylenchus dipsaci]]'' (Narcissus eelworm), the main cause of basal plate disease{{sfn|Mor|Spiegel|1993}} in which the leaves turn yellow and become misshapen. Infested bulbs have to be destroyed; where infestation is heavy avoiding planting further narcissi for another five years.{{sfn|Daffodil Society|2014|loc=[http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/a-guide-to-dafodils/pests-diseases/ Pests & Diseases]}}{{sfn|RHS|2014|loc=[https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?PID=659 narcissus eelworm]}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA107 107]}}{{sfn|Ravichandra|2014|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OfS_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA376 Stem and bulb nematode (''Ditylenchus dipsaci'')], pp. 11, 94, 376}} Other nematodes include ''[[Aphelenchoides subtenuis]]'', which penetrates the roots causing basal plate disease{{sfn|Mor|Spiegel|1993}}{{sfn|Singh|2013}} and ''[[Pratylenchus penetrans]]'' (lesion nematode) the main cause of root rot in narcissi.
{{sfn|Slootweg|1956}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}} Other nematodes such as the [[longodorids]] (''[[Longidorus]]'' spp. or needle nematodes and ''[[Xiphinema]]'' spp. or dagger nematodes) and the stubby-root nematodes or [[trichodorids]] (''[[Paratrichodorus]]'' spp. and ''[[Trichodorus]]'' spp.) can also act as vectors of virus diseases, such as TBRV and TomRSV, in addition to causing stunting of the roots.{{sfn|Zuckerman|Rohde|1981|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pU9Mz--9wwoC&pg=PA286 Longidorus transmitted viruses], p. 286}}{{sfn|Singh|2013}}

[[Gastropods]] such as [[snail]]s and [[slug]]s also cause damage to growth.{{sfn|Daffodil Society|2014|loc=[http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/a-guide-to-dafodils/pests-diseases/ Pests & Diseases]}}{{sfn|UCIPM|2009}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}}

== Conservation ==
Many of the smallest species have become extinct, requiring vigilance in the conservation of the wild species.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}<ref name=Bastida/><ref name=Dweck/><ref name=Hanks/> Narcissi are increasingly under threat by over-collection and threats to their natural habitats by urban development and tourism. ''[[Narcissus cyclamineus|N.&nbsp;cyclamineus]]'' has been considered to be either extinct or exceedingly rare<ref name=Mathew/> but is not currently considered endangered, and is protected.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Caldas, F.B. |author2=Moreno Saiz, J.C. |year=2011 |title=''Narcissus cyclamineus'' |volume=2011 |page=e.T161899A5510855 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T161899A5510855.en |access-date=8 August 2021}}</ref> The [[IUCN]] [[Red List]] describes five species as '[[Endangered]]' (''[[Narcissus alcaracensis]]'', ''[[Narcissus bujei]]'', ''[[Narcissus longispathus]]'', ''[[Narcissus nevadensis]]'', ''[[Narcissus radinganorum]]''). In 1999 three species were considered endangered, five as vulnerable and six as rare.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}

In response a number of species have been granted protected species status and protected areas (meadows) have been established such as the [[Negraşi Daffodil Meadow]] in [[Romania]], or [[Kempley Daffodil Meadow]] in the [[UK]]. These areas often host [[#Festivals|daffodil festivals]] in the spring.

==Cultivation==
=== History ===
{{Blockquote|text=''Magna cura non indigent Narcissi''<br/>Most easy of cultivation is the Narcissus |sign=[[Peter Lauremberg]]|source=''Apparatus plantarius: de plantis bulbosis et de plantis tuberosis'' 1632{{sfn|Lauremberg|1632|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JjRAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 Lib. I De Plantis bulbosis. cap. XVIII Narcissus. V. Cultura], p. 96}}}}<gallery>
File:Gerard N minor serotinus.jpg|''[[Narcissus serotinus|N. serotinus]]'', [[John Gerard]], ''The Herball'' 1597
File:Hortus Eystettensis, 1640 (BHL 45339 063) - Classis Verna 52.jpg|Narcissi, [[Hortus Eystettensis]] 1613
File:Hale Plate 42 Poetick Daffodil.jpg|''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'', [[Thomas Hale (agriculturist)|Thomas Hale]], ''Eden: Or, a Compleat Body of Gardening'' 1757
File:Lauremberg.png|Narcissus, [[Peter Lauremberg]] 1632
File:ParkinsonNarcissus101.jpg|Narcissi, [[John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]], ''Paradisus Terrestris'' 1629. (8. Great Double Yellow Spanish Daffodil)
</gallery>

Of all the flowering plants, the bulbous have been the most popular for cultivation.{{sfn|Krelage|1890}} Of these, narcissi are one of the most important spring flowering bulb plants in the world.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA103 103]}}{{sfn|Kubitzki|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC&pg=PA100 Narcissus], pp. 100–101}} [[Indigenous (ecology)|Indigenous]] in Europe, the wild populations of the parent species had been known since [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]. Narcissi have been cultivated from at least as early as the sixteenth century in the [[Netherlands]], when large numbers of bulbs where imported from the field, particularly ''[[Narcissus hispanicus]]'', which soon became nearly extinct in its native habitat of France and Spain, though still found in the southern part of that country.<ref name=Zonneveld11/> The only large-scale production at that time related to the double narcissus "Van Sion" and cultivars of ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'' imported in 1557.{{sfn|Doorenbos|1954}}

Cultivation is also documented in Britain at this time,<ref name=Turner/>{{sfn|Barr|Burbidge|1884|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dqxBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA7 p. 7]}}<ref name="Nesbitt2005"/> although contemporary accounts show it was well known as a favourite garden and wild flower long before that and was used in making [[garland]]s.{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884|loc=[https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog/page/n91 <!-- pg=73 --> Daffodils], p. 73}} This was a period when the development of exotic formal gardens and parks was becoming popular, particularly in what is known as the "Oriental period" (1560–1620). In his ''Hortus Medicus'' (1588), the first catalogue of a German garden's plants,<ref name=Paeonia/> [[Joachim Camerarius the Younger]] states that nine different types of daffodils were represented in his garden in [[Nuremberg]].<ref name=Camerarius/> After his death in 1598, his plants were moved by [[Basilius Besler]] to the gardens they had designed at [[Willibaldsburg]], the bishop's palace at [[Eichstätt]], Upper Bavaria. That garden is described in Besler's ''[[Hortus Eystettensis]]'' (1613) by which time there were 43 different types present.<ref name=Besler/> Another German source at this time was [[Peter Lauremberg]] who gives an account of the species known to him and their cultivation in his ''Apparatus plantarius: de plantis bulbosis et de plantis tuberosis'' (1632).{{sfn|Lauremberg|1632}}

While [[Shakespeare]]'s daffodil is the wild or true English daffodil (''[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|N. pseudonarcissus]]''),{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884|loc=[https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog/page/n91 <!-- pg=73 --> Daffodils], p. 73}} many other species were introduced, some of which escaped and naturalised, particularly ''[[Narcissus biflorus|N. biflorus]]'' (a hybrid) in [[Devon]] and the west of England.{{sfn|Barr|Burbidge|1884|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dqxBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA8 Preface], p. 8}} [[John Gerard|Gerard]], in his extensive discussion of daffodils, both wild and cultivated ("bastard daffodils") described twenty four species in London gardens (1597),{{sfn|Barr|Burbidge|1884|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dqxBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA8 Preface], p. 8}}{{sfn|Gerard|1597|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/108/mode/2up i. caps 75–76, pp. 108–116]}}{{sfn|UVA|2007}} ("we have them all and every one of them in our London gardens, in great abundance", p.&nbsp;114).

In the early seventeenth century, [[John Parkinson (botanist)|Parkinson]] helped to ensure the popularity of the daffodil as a cultivated plant{{sfn|Barr|Burbidge|1884|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dqxBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA8 Preface], p. 8}} by describing a hundred different varieties in his ''Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629),{{sfn|Parkinson|1629|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30647#page/77/mode/1up ''Narcissus''. The Daffodil. pp.&nbsp;67–108]}} and introducing the great double yellow Spanish daffodil (''Pseudonarcissus aureus Hispanicus flore pleno'' or Parkinson's Daffodil, see illustration) to England.{{sfn|Parkinson|1629|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30647#page/113/mode/1up p.&nbsp;103]}}
{{Blockquote|text=I thinke none ever had this kind before myselfe nor did I myself ever see it before the year 1618 for it is of mine own raising and flowering first in my own garden|sign=[[John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]]|source=''Paradisus Terrestris'' 1632{{sfn|Parkinson|1629|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30647#page/113/mode/1up p.&nbsp;103]}}}}

Although not achieving the sensationalism of [[tulips]], daffodils and narcissi have been much celebrated in art and literature {{See below|{{section link||Art}}, below}}. The largest demand for narcissi bulbs were large trumpet daffodils, ''N. poeticus'' and ''N. bulbocodium'', and [[Istanbul]] became important in the shipping of bulbs to western Europe. By the early [[baroque]] period both tulips and narcissi were an important component of the spring garden. By 1739 a Dutch nursery catalogue listed 50 different varieties. A catalog of a Dutch nursery from 1739 already counted 50 varieties. In 1757 [[John Hill (botanist)|Hill]] gave an account of the history and cultivation of the daffodil in his edited version of the works of [[Thomas Hale (agriculturist)|Thomas Hale]], writing "The garden does not afford, in its Kind, a prettier plant than this; nor do we know one that has been so early, or so honorably mention'd by all Kinds of Writers" (see illustration).{{sfn|Hale|1757|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/131789#page/585/mode/1up pp. 495–496]}} Interest grew further when varieties that could be grown indoors became available, primarily the bunch flowered (multiple flower heads) ''N. tazetta'' (Polyanthus Narcissus).{{sfn|Krelage|1890}} However interest varied by country. Maddock (1792) does not include narcissi in his list of the eight most important cultivated flowering plants in England,{{sfn|Maddock|1792}} whereas in the Netherlands van Kampen (1760) stated that ''N. tazetta'' (''Narcisse à bouquet'') is the fifth most important – "''Le Narcisse à bouquet est la premiere fleur, après les Jacinthes, les Tulipes les Renoncules, et les Anemones, (dont nous avons déja parlé,) qui merite nôtre attention''".{{sfn|van Kampen et fils|1760|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-3ZYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 p. 96]}}{{sfn|van Kampen & Son|1764|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DIYmAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA80 p. 80]}} Similarly [[Philip Miller]], in his ''[[Gardeners Dictionary]]'' (1731–1768) refers to cultivation in Holland, Flanders and France, but not England,{{sfn|Miller|1735|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/71189#page/177/mode/1up vol. ii Narcissus]}} because it was too difficult, a similar observation was made by [[Sir James Justice]] at this time.{{sfn|Justice|1771|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/69306#page/366/mode/1up The Gardiner's new Director p. 304]}} However, for most species of ''Narcissus'' Lauremberg's [[dictum]] ''Magna cura non indigent Narcissi'' was much cited.{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884|loc=[https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog/page/n94 <!-- pg=76 --> Daffodils], p. 76}}

Narcissi became an important [[horticultural]] crop in Western Europe in the latter part of the nineteenth century, beginning in England between 1835 and 1855 and the end of the century in the Netherlands.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}} By the beginning of the twentieth century 50&nbsp;million bulbs of ''N. Tazetta'' "Paperwhite" were being exported annually from the Netherlands to the United States. With the production of [[Polyploid|triploids]] such as "Golden Spur", in the late nineteenth century, and in the beginning of the twentieth century, tetraploids like "King Alfred" (1899), the industry was well established, with trumpet daffodils dominating the market.<ref name=Zonneveld11/> The [[Royal Horticultural Society]] has been an important factor in promoting narcissi, holding the first Daffodil Conference in 1884,<ref name=DaffConf/> while the [[Daffodil Society]], the first organisation dedicated to the cultivation of narcissi was founded in Birmingham in 1898. Other countries followed and the [[American Daffodil Society]] which was founded in 1954 publishes ''The Daffodil Journal'' quarterly, a leading trade publication.

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Narcissi are now popular as [[ornamental plants]] for gardens, parks and as [[cut flowers]], providing colour from the end of winter to the beginning of summer in [[temperateness|temperate]] regions. They are one of the most popular spring flowers{{sfn|Huxley|Griffiths|Levy|1992}} and one of the major ornamental spring flowering bulb crops, being produced both for their bulbs and cut flowers, though cultivation of private and public spaces is greater than the area of commercial production.<ref name=Bastida/> Over a century of breeding has resulted in thousands of varieties and [[cultivars]] being available from both general and specialist suppliers.<ref name=Graham/> They are normally sold as dry bulbs to be planted in late summer and autumn. They are one of the most economically important ornamental plants.<ref name=Graham/><ref name=Bastida/> [[Plant breeders]] have developed some daffodils with double, triple, or ambiguously multiple rows and layers of segments.<ref name=RHSAZ /> Many of the breeding programs have concentrated on the corona (trumpet or cup), in terms of its length, shape, and colour, and the surrounding perianth<ref name=Mathew/> or even as in varieties derived from ''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'' a very reduced form.

=== In gardens ===
While some wild narcissi are specific in terms of their ecological requirements, most garden varieties are relatively tolerant of soil conditions,{{sfn|Dana|Lerner|2001}} however very wet soils and clay soils may benefit from the addition of sand to improve drainage.{{sfn|Trinklein|2007}} The optimum soil is a neutral to slightly acid [[pH]] of 6.5–7.0.{{sfn|Dana|Lerner|2001}}

Bulbs offered for sale are referred to as either 'round' or 'double nose'. Round bulbs are circular in cross section and produce a single flower stem, while double nose bulbs have more than one bulb stem attached at the base and produce two or more flower stems, but bulbs with more than two stems are unusual.<ref name=CNLA/> Planted narcissi bulbs produce daughter bulbs in the axil of the bulb scales, leading to the dying off the exterior scales.{{sfn|Dana|Lerner|2001}} To prevent planted bulbs forming more and more small bulbs, they can be dug up every 5–7 years, and the daughters separated and replanted separately, provided that a piece of the basal plate, where the rootlets are formed, is preserved. For daffodils to flower at the end of the winter or early spring, bulbs are planted in [[autumn]] (September–November). This plant does well in ordinary soil but flourishes best in rich soil. Daffodils like the sun but also accept partial shade exposure.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

Narcissi are well suited for planting under small thickets of trees, where they can be grouped as 6–12 bulbs.{{sfn|Singh|2006|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bfb1T6QbfaAC&pg=251 ''Narcissus'' p.&nbsp;251]}} They also grow well in perennial borders,{{sfn|Dana|Lerner|2001}} especially in association with [[day lilies]] which begin to form their leaves as the narcissi flowers are fading.{{sfn|Trinklein|2007}} A number of wild species and hybrids such as "Dutch Master", "Golden Harvest", "Carlton", "Kings Court" and "Yellow Sun" naturalise well in lawns,{{sfn|Dana|Lerner|2001}} but it is important not to mow the lawn till the leaves start to fade, since they are essential for nourishing the bulb for the next flowering season.{{sfn|Dana|Lerner|2001}} Blue [[Scilla]] and [[Muscari]] which also naturalise well in lawns and flower at the same time as narcissus, make an attractive contrast to the yellow flowers of the latter. Unlike [[tulip]]s, narcissi bulbs are not attractive to rodents and are sometimes planted near tree roots in orchards to protect them.{{sfn|Steinbergs|2008}}

=== Propagation ===
The commonest form of commercial propagation is by [[twin-scaling]], in which the bulbs are cut into many small pieces but with the two scales still connected by a small fragment of the basal plate. The fragments are disinfected and placed in nutrient media. Some 25–35 new plants can be produced from a single bulb after four years. [[Micropropagation]] methods are not used for commercial production but are used for establishing commercial stock.{{sfn|Chow|1993}} {{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA107 107]}}

=== Breeding ===
For commercial use, varieties with a minimum stem length of {{convert|30|cm}} are sought, making them ideal for cut flowers. Florists require blooms that only open when they reach the retail outlet. For garden plants the objectives are to continually expand the colour palette and to produce hardy forms, and there is a particular demand for miniature varieties. The cultivars so produced tend to be larger and more robust than the wild types.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}} The main species used in breeding are ''[[Narcissus bulbocodium|N. bulbocodium]]'', ''[[Narcissus cyclamineus|N. cyclamineus]]'', ''[[Narcissus jonquilla|N. jonquilla]]'', ''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'', ''[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|N. pseudonarcissus]]'', ''[[Narcissus serotinus|N. serotinus]]'' and ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]''.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA105 105]}}

''Narcissus pseudonarcissus'' gave rise to trumpet [[cultivars]] with coloured tepals and corona, while its subspecies ''N. pseudonarcissus'' subsp. ''bicolor'' was used for white tepaled varieties. To produce large cupped varieties, ''N. pseudonarcissus'' was [[hybrid (biology)|crossed]] with ''N. poeticus'', and to produce small cupped varieties back crossed with ''N. poeticus''. Multiheaded varieties, often called "Poetaz" are mainly hybrids of ''N. poeticus'' and ''N. tazetta''.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}

=== Classification ===
[[File:Narcissus - Cultivars.jpg|thumb|Range of ''Narcissus'' [[cultivars]]]]
{{main|List of Narcissus horticultural divisions}}
For horticultural purposes, all ''Narcissus'' cultivars are split into 13 divisions as first described by Kington (1998),<ref name=Kington/> for [[the Royal Horticultural Society]] (RHS),<ref name="RHSAZ"/> based partly upon flower form (shape and length of corona), number of flowers per stem, flowering period and partly upon genetic background. Division 13, which includes wild daffodils, is the exception to this scheme.<ref name="RHSClass"/> The classification is a useful tool for planning planting. Most commercially available narcissi come from Divisions 1 (Trumpet), 2 (Large cupped) and 8 (Tazetta).

Growers register new daffodil cultivars by name and colour with the Royal Horticultural Society, which is the international registration authority for the genus.<ref name=RHSIRA/> Their ''International Daffodil Register'' is regularly updated with supplements available online<ref name=RHSIRA/> and is searchable.<ref name=Mathew/><ref name=RHSIRAS/> The most recent supplement (2014) is the sixth (the fifth was published in 2012).<ref name=Kington2008/> More than 27,000 names were registered as of 2008,<ref name=Kington2008/> and the number has continued to grow. Registered daffodils are given a division number and [[#Colour code|colour code]]<ref name=IDRI/> such as 5 W-W ("Thalia").<ref name=BBThalia/> In horticultural usage it is common to also find an unofficial Division 14: Miniatures, which although drawn from the other 13 divisions, have their miniature size in common.<ref name=BB14/> Over 140 varieties have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]] (See [[List of Award of Garden Merit narcissus]]).

====Colour code====
[[File:Narcissus Geranium.jpg|thumb|right|''Narcissus'' "Geranium" '''8 W-O''']]
Daffodil breeding has introduced a wide range of colours, in both the outer perianth tepal segment and the inner corona. In the registry, daffodils are coded by the colours of each of these two parts. Thus "Geranium", Tazetta (Division 8) as illustrated here with a white outer perianth and orange corona is classified as '''8 W-O'''.

== Toxicity ==
=== Pharmacology ===
All ''Narcissus'' species contain the [[alkaloid]] poison [[lycorine]], mostly in the bulb but also in the leaves.<ref name="Pupils ill after bulb put in soup"/> Members of the monocot subfamily [[Amaryllidoideae]] present a unique type of alkaloids, the norbelladine alkaloids, which are [[4-methylcatechol]] derivatives combined with [[tyrosine]]. They are responsible for the poisonous properties of a number of the species. Over 200 different chemical structures of these compounds are known, of which 79 or more are known from ''Narcissus'' alone.<ref name=Martin/>

The toxic effects of ingesting ''Narcissus'' products for both humans and animals (such as cattle, goats, pigs, and cats) have long been recognised and they have been used in suicide attempts. Ingestion of ''N. pseudonarcissus'' or ''N. jonquilla'' is followed by [[salivation]], acute abdominal pains, [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], and [[diarrhea]], then neurological and cardiac events, including [[trembling]], [[convulsions]], and [[paralysis]]. Death may result if large quantities are consumed.

The toxicity of ''Narcissus'' varies with species, ''N. poeticus'' being more toxic than ''N. pseudonarcissus'', for instance. The distribution of toxins within the plant also varies, for instance, there is a five times higher concentration of alkaloid in the stem of ''[[Narcissus papyraceus|N. papyraceus]]'' than in the bulb, making it dangerous to herbivores more likely to consume the stem than the bulb, and is part of the plant's defence mechanisms. The distribution of alkaloids within tissues may also reflect defence against parasites.<ref name=Bastida/> The bulbs can also be toxic to other nearby plants, including roses, rice, and cabbages, inhibiting growth.<ref name=Bastida/> For instance placing cut flowers in a vase alongside other flowers shortens the life of the latter.<ref name=Kornienko/>

=== Poisoning ===
Many cases of poisoning or death have occurred when narcissi bulbs have been mistaken for [[leek]]s or [[onion]]s and cooked and eaten. Recovery is usually complete in a few hours without any specific intervention. In more severe cases involving ingestion of large quantities of bulbs, [[activated carbon]], salts and [[laxatives]] may be required, and for severe symptoms intravenous [[atropine]] and [[emetics]] or [[stomach pumping]] may be indicated. However, ingestion of large quantities accidentally is unusual because of a strong unpleasant taste. When narcissi were compared with a number of other plants not normally consumed by animals, narcissi were the most repellent, specifically ''N. pseudonarcissus''. Consequently, narcissus alkaloids have been used as repellents and may also discourage fungi, molds, and bacteria.<ref name=Bastida/>

On 1 May 2009, a number of schoolchildren fell ill at Gorseland Primary School in [[Martlesham Heath]], Suffolk, England, after a daffodil bulb was added to soup during a cookery class.<ref name="Pupils ill after bulb put in soup"/>

=== Topical effects ===
One of the most common [[dermatitis]] problems for flower pickers, packers, florists, and gardeners, "daffodil itch", involves dryness, fissures, scaling, and [[erythema]] in the hands, often accompanied by [[Ungual|subungual]] [[hyperkeratosis]] (thickening of the skin beneath the nails). It is blamed on exposure to [[calcium oxalate]], [[chelidonic acid]] or alkaloids such as [[lycorine]] in the sap, either due to a direct irritant effect or an allergic reaction.<ref name=Floridata/><ref name="Botanical Dermatology"/> It has long been recognised that some cultivars provoke dermatitis more readily than others. ''N. pseudonarcissus'' and the [[cultivar]]s "Actaea", "Camparelle", "Gloriosa", "Grande Monarque", "Ornatus", "Princeps" and "Scilly White" are known to do so.<ref name=Bastida/><ref name=Schmidt/>

If bulb extracts come into contact with wounds, both central nervous system and cardiac symptoms may result. The scent can also cause toxic reactions such as headaches and vomiting from ''N. bulbocodium''.<ref name=Bastida/>

==Uses==
=== Traditional medicine ===
Despite the lethal potential of ''Narcissus'' alkaloids, they have been used for centuries as [[traditional medicine]]s for a variety of complaints, including cancer. Plants thought to be ''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'' and ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'' are described in the Bible in the treatment for what is thought to be cancer.<ref name=Kornienko/>{{sfn|Atta-ur-Rahman|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wjy24u4ubiUC&pg=PA391 Bastida ''et al.'' ''Narcissus'' alkaloids p.&nbsp;391]}}{{sfn|Pettit et al.|1990}}{{sfn|Hartwell|1967}} In the [[Classical Greece|Classical Greek]] world [[Hippocrates]] (ca. B.C. 460–370) recommended a pessary prepared from narcissus oil for [[uterine tumors]], a practice continued by [[Pedanius Dioscorides]] (ca. A.D. 40–90) and [[Soranus of Ephesus]] (A.D. 98–138) in the first and second centuries A.D., while the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[Pliny the Elder]] (A.D. 23–79), advocated [[topical]] use.<ref name=Kornienko/> The bulbs of ''N. poeticus'' contain the [[antineoplastic]] agent narciclasine. This usage is also found in later [[Arabs|Arabian]], North African, Central American and [[Chinese people|Chinese]] medicine during the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name=Kornienko/> In China [[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]] var. chinensis was grown as an ornamental plant but the bulbs were applied topically to tumors in traditional folk medicine. These bulbs contain pretazettine, an active antitumor compound.<ref name=Bastida/>{{sfn|Hartwell|1967}}<ref name=Ingrassia/>

''Narcissus'' products have received a variety of other uses. The Roman physician [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] listed narcissus root in ''[[De Medicina]]'' among [[Herbalism|medical herbs]], described as [[moisturizer|emollient]], erodent, and "powerful to disperse whatever has collected in any part of the body". N. tazetta bulbs were used in Turkey as a remedy for abscesses in the belief they were [[antiphlogistic]] and [[analgesic]]. Other uses include the application to wounds, strains, painful joints, and various local ailments as an [[ointment]] called 'Narcissimum'. Powdered flowers have also been used medically, as an [[emetic]], a [[decongestant]] and for the relief of [[dysentery]], in the form of a syrup or [[infusion]]. The French used the flowers as an [[antispasmodic]], the Arabs the oil for [[baldness]] and also an [[aphrodisiac]]. In the eighteenth century the Irish [[herbal]] of [[John K'Eogh]] recommended pounding the roots in honey for use on burns, bruises, [[Joint dislocation|dislocations]] and [[freckles]], and for drawing out thorns and splinters. ''N. tazetta'' bulbs have also been used for [[contraception]], while the flowers have been recommended for [[hysteria]] and [[epilepsy]].<ref name=Bastida/> In the traditional Japanese medicine of [[kampo]], wounds were treated with narcissus root and [[Wheatpaste|wheat flour paste]];<ref name=Altomonte/> the plant, however, does not appear in the modern [[kampo herb list]].

There is also a long history of the use of ''Narcissus'' as a [[stimulant]] and to induce [[trance]] like states and [[hallucinations]]. [[Sophocles]] referred to the narcissus as the "Chaplet of the infernal Gods",<ref name=Prior/> a statement frequently wrongly attributed to [[Socrates]] (see [[#Antiquity|Antiquity]]).<ref name=Bastida/>

=== Biological properties ===
Extracts of ''Narcissus'' have demonstrated a number of potentially useful biological properties including [[Antiviral drug|antiviral]], [[prophage induction]], [[antibacterial]], [[Fungicide|antifungal]], [[antimalarial]], [[insecticidal]], [[cytotoxic]], [[antitumor]], [[antimitotic]], [[antiplatelet]], [[hypotensive]], [[emetic]], [[acetylcholine esterase inhibitory]], [[antifertility]], [[antinociceptive]], [[chronotropic]], [[pheromone]], [[plant growth inhibitor]], and [[allelopathic]].<ref name=Bastida/> An [[ethanol]] extract of ''Narcissus'' bulbs was found effective in one mouse model of [[nociception]], para-[[benzoquinone]] induced abdominal constriction, but not in another, the hot plate test.<ref name=Cakici/> Most of these properties are due to alkaloids, but some are also due to [[mannose-binding lectins]]. The most-studied alkaloids in this group are [[galantamine]] (galanthamine),{{sfn|CID9651|2015}} [[lycorine]], narciclasine, and pretazettine.

It is likely that the traditional use of narcissi for the treatment of cancer was due to the presence of isocarbostyril constituents such as [[narciclasine]], [[pancratistatin]] and their congeners. ''N. poeticus'' contains about 0.12g of narciclasine per kg of fresh bulbs.<ref name=Kornienko/>

Acetylcholine esterase inhibition has attracted the most interest as a possible therapeutic intervention, with activity varying by a thousandfold between species, and the greatest activity seen in those that contain galantamine or epinorgalanthamine.<ref name=Ronsted2008/>

The [[rodent]] repellant properties of ''Narcissus'' alkaloids have been utilised in horticulture to protect more vulnerable bulbs.<ref name=Protectrodent/>

=== Therapeutics ===
[[File:Field of Daffodils - Pentre Meyrick - geograph.org.uk - 1260139.jpg|thumb|Daffodils growing in Wales]]
Of all the alkaloids, only galantamine has made it to therapeutic use in humans, as the drug galantamine for [[Alzheimer's]] disease. Galantamine is an acetylcholine esterase inhibitor which crosses the [[blood brain barrier]] and is active within the [[central nervous system]].<ref name=Bastida/> Daffodils are grown commercially near [[Brecon]] in Powys, Wales, to produce [[galantamine]].<ref name=BBC2008/>

=== Commercial uses ===
Throughout history the scent of narcissi has been an important ingredient of [[perfumes]], a quality that comes from [[essential oils]] rather than alkaloids.<ref name=Bastida/> Narcissi are also an important [[horticultural]] crop,<ref name=Zonneveld/><ref name=Dweck/> and source of [[cut flowers]] ([[floriculture]]).

[[File:Narcissus field near Keukenhof.jpg|thumb|Daffodil production in the Netherlands]]
The [[Netherlands]], which is the most important source of flower bulbs worldwide is also a major centre of narcissus production. Of 16,700 hectares (ha) under cultivation for flower bulbs, narcissi account for about 1,800 hectares. In the 1990s narcissus bulb production was at 260&nbsp;million, sixth in size after [[tulips]], [[gladioli]], [[Iris (plant)|irises]], [[crocuses]] and [[lilies]] and in 2012 it was ranked third.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA103 103]}} About two-thirds of the area under cultivation is dedicated to about 20 of the most popular varieties. In the 2009/2010 season, 470 cultivars were produced on 1578&nbsp;ha. By far the largest area cultivated is for the miniature [[Narcissus 'Tête-à-tête'|'Tête-à-Tête']], followed at some distance by 'Carlton'. The largest production cultivars are shown in Table II.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA106 106]}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+<big> Table II: Area under cultivation in the Netherlands, by cultivar</big>
! Cultivar !! Division||Colour||Area (ha)
|-
| "Tête-à-Tête" || 6: Cyclamineus||Yellow||663
|-
| "Carlton" || 2: Large cup||Yellow||54
|-
| "Bridal Crown" ||4: Double||White–Yellow ||51
|-
| "Dutch Master" ||1: Trumpet||Yellow||47
|-
| "Jetfire" ||6: Cyclamineus||Yellow–Orange|| 42
|-
| "Ice Follies" ||2: Large cup|| White||36
|}

"Carlton" and "Ice Follies" (Division 2: Large cup) have a long history of cultivation, together with "Dutch Master" and "Golden Harvest" (1: yellow). "Carlton" and "Golden Harvest" were introduced in 1927, and "Ice Follies" in 1953. "Carlton", with over 9 billion bulbs (350 000 tons), is among the more numerous individual plants produced in the world.{{sfn|Mabberley|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFFgAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA571 Narcissus], p. 571}} The other major areas of production are the [[United States]],{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA103 103]}} [[Israel]] which exported 25&nbsp;million ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'' cultivar bulbs in 2003,{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA106 106]}} and the [[United Kingdom]].

In the United Kingdom a total of 4100&nbsp;ha were planted with bulbs, of which 3800&nbsp;ha were Narcissi, the UK's most important bulb crop, much of which is for export,{{sfn|Alford|2000|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rxw5JvD7MN4C&pg=PA542 p. 542]}} making this the largest global production centre, about half of the total production area. While some of the production is for forcing, most is for dry bulb production. Bulb production and forcing occurs in the East, while production in the south west is mainly for outdoor flower production.{{sfn|Alford|2000|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rxw5JvD7MN4C&pg=PA551 p. 551]}} The [[farm gate value]] was estimated at £10m in 2007.{{sfn|Fellows|Hanks|2007}}

[[File:Kuekenhoff 006.jpg|thumb|Narcissi growing at [[Keukenhof]]]]
Production of both bulbs and cut flowers takes place in open fields in beds or ridges, often in the same field, allowing adaptation to changing market conditions. Narcissi grow best in mild maritime climates. Compared to the United Kingdom, the harsher winters in the Netherlands require covering the fields with straw for protection. Areas with higher rainfall and temperatures are more susceptible to [[#Pests and diseases|diseases]] that attack crops. Production is based on a 1 (UK) or 2 (Netherlands) year cycle. Optimal soil [[pH]] is 6.0–7.5. Prior to planting disinfection by hot water takes place, such as immersion at 44.4&nbsp;°C for three hours.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA107 107]}}

Bulbs are harvested for market in the summer, sorted, stored for 2–3 weeks, and then further disinfected by a hot (43.5&nbsp;°C) bath. This eliminates infestations by narcissus fly and nematodes. The bulbs are then dried at a high temperature, and then stored at 15.5&nbsp;°C.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}} The initiation of new flower development in the bulb takes place in late spring before the bulbs are lifted, and is completed by mid summer while the bulbs are in storage. The optimal temperature for initiation is 20&nbsp;°C followed by cooling to 13&nbsp;°C.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA104 104]}}

Traditionally, sales took place in the daffodil fields prior to harvesting the bulbs, but today sales are handled by Marketing Boards although still before harvesting. In the Netherlands there are special exhibition gardens for major buyers to view flowers and order bulbs, some larger ones may have more than a thousand narcissus varieties on display. While individuals can visit these gardens they cannot buy bulbs at [[retail]], which are only available at [[wholesale]], usually at a minimum of several [[hundredweight]]. The most famous display is at [[Keukenhof]], although only about 100 narcissus varieties are on display there.

====Forcing====
There is also a market for forced blooms, both as cut flowers and potted flowers through the winter from Christmas to Easter, the long season requiring special preparation by growers.

===== Cut flowers =====
For [[cut flowers]], bulbs larger than 12&nbsp;cm in size are preferred. To bloom in December, bulbs are harvested in June to July, dried, stored for four days at 34&nbsp;°C, two weeks at 30 and two weeks at 17–20&nbsp;°C and then placed in cold storage for precooling at 9 degrees for about 15–16 weeks. The bulbs are then planted in light compost in crates in a [[greenhouse]] for forcing at 13&nbsp;°C–15&nbsp;°C and the blooms appear in 19–30 days.{{sfn|Hanks|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA1 Hanks, "The biology of ''Narcissus''"], pp. 1–29}}{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA107 107]}}

===== Potted flowers =====
For potted flowers a lower temperature is used for precooling (5&nbsp;°C for 15 weeks), followed by 16&nbsp;°C–18&nbsp;°C in a greenhouse. For later blooming (mid- and late-forcing), bulbs are harvested in July to August and the higher temperatures are omitted, being stored a 17–20&nbsp;°C after harvesting and placed in cold storage at 9&nbsp;°C in September for 17–18 (cut flowers) or 14–16 (potted flowers) weeks. The bulbs can then be planted in cold frames, and then forced in a greenhouse according to requirements.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA107 107]}} ''[[Narcissus tazetta|N. tazetta]]'' and its cultivars are an exception to this rule, requiring no cold period. Often harvested in October, bulbs are lifted in May and dried and heated to 30&nbsp;°C for three weeks, then stored at 25&nbsp;°C for 12 weeks and planted. Flowering can be delayed by storing at 5&nbsp;°C–10&nbsp;°C.{{sfn|Okubo|Sochacki |2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA108 108]}}

== Culture ==
{{main|Narcissus in culture}}

=== Symbols ===
[[File:Narcissus 'Thalia'.jpg|thumb|[[Narcissus triandrus|N. triandrus]] [[Narcissus 'Thalia'|'Thalia']], considered a grave flower]]

The daffodil is the [[National symbols of Wales|national flower]] of [[Wales]], associated with [[Saint David's Day]] (March 1). The narcissus is also a national flower symbolising the new year or ''[[Nowruz]]'' in the [[Iranian culture]].

In the West the narcissus is perceived as a symbol of vanity, in the East as a symbol of wealth and good fortune {{See below|{{section link||Eastern cultures}}, below}}, while in [[Persian literature]], the narcissus is a symbol of beautiful eyes.

In western countries the daffodil is also associated with spring festivals such as [[Lent]] and its successor [[Easter]]. In Germany the wild narcissus, ''N. pseudonarcissus'', is known as the ''[[:de:Osterglocke|Osterglocke]]'' or "Easter bell." In the United Kingdom the daffodil is sometimes referred to as the Lenten lily.<ref name="Hereford" /><ref name="Oxford" /><ref group="Note">Rarely "Lentern", especially ecclesiastical usage as here, or dialect, particularly Scottish {{harv|Masefield|2014|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=V8l8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 p. 104]}}{{harv|Jamieson|1879|loc=[http://www.forgottenbooks.com/readbook_text/An_Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_Scottish_Language_Illustrating_the_v1_1000804762/283 Care Sonday vol I p. 284]}}{{harv|Wright|1905|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_R8QAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA575 vol 3 H–L, Lentren p. 575]}}</ref>

Although prized as an ornamental flower, some people consider narcissi unlucky, because they hang their heads implying misfortune.<ref name="Bastida" /> White narcissi, such as ''N triandrus'' "Thalia", are especially associated with death, and have been called grave flowers.<ref name="Paghat" /><ref name="Kandeler" /> In Ancient Greece narcissi were planted near tombs, and [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]] describes them as portents of death, an association which also appears in the myth of [[Persephone]] and the [[underworld]] {{See below|{{section link||Art}}, below}}.

=== Art ===
==== Antiquity ====
[[File:Demeter rejoiced, for her daughter was by her side.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Demeter]] and [[Persephone]] surrounded by daffodils - "''Demeter rejoiced, for her daughter was by her side''"]]
The decorative use of narcissi dates as far back as [[ancient Egyptian]] tombs, and [[frescoes]] at [[Pompeii]].{{sfn|Jashemski|Meyer|2002| p=131}} They are mentioned in the King James Version of the Bible<ref name=Isaiah/> as the [[Rose of Sharon]]<ref name=Dweck/><ref name=McClintock/><ref name=WFI1/><ref name=WFI2/> and make frequent appearances in classical literature.{{sfn|Hale|1757|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/131789#page/585/mode/1up pp. 495–496]}}

==== Greek culture ====
The narcissus appears in two [[Graeco-Roman]] [[myths]], that of the youth [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]] who was turned into the flower of that name, and of the Goddess [[Persephone]] [[Rape of Persephone|snatched]] into the [[Greek underworld|Underworld]] by the god [[Hades]] while picking the flowers. The narcissus is considered sacred to both Hades and Persephone,<ref name="Ruskin" /> and grows along the banks of the river [[Styx]] in the underworld.<ref name="Kandeler" />

The Greek poet [[Stasinos]] mentioned them in the ''[[Cypria]]'' amongst the flowers of Cyprus.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dhv2AV3eTsUC&pg=PA63 p. 63]}} The legend of Persephone comes to us mainly in the seventh century BC [[Homeric Hymn]] ''To Demeter'',<ref name="DemeterNagy" /> where the author describes the narcissus, and its role as a lure to trap the young Persephone. The flower, she recounts to her mother was the last flower she reached for before being seized.

Other Greek authors making reference to the narcissus include [[Sophocles]] and [[Plutarch]]. Sophocles, in ''[[Oedipus at Colonus]]'' utilises narcissus in a symbolic manner, implying fertility,{{sfn|Markantonatos|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=faciAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 p. 186]}} allying it with the cults of [[Demeter]] and her daughter [[Persephone|Kore (Persephone)]],<ref name="OedCol" /> and by extension, a symbol of death.{{sfn|Markantonatos|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=faciAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA206 pp. 206–207]}} [[Richard Claverhouse Jebb|Jebb]] comments that it is ''the flower of imminent death'' with its fragrance being narcotic, emphasised by its pale white colour. Just as Persephone reaching for the flower heralded her doom, the youth Narcissus gazing at his own reflection portended his own death.<ref name="OedCol" /> Plutarch refers to this in his ''Symposiacs'' as numbing the nerves causing a heaviness in the limbs.<ref name="Plutarch" /> He refers to Sophocles' "crown of the great Goddesses", which is the source of the English phrase "[[Chaplet (headgear)|Chaplet]] of the infernal Gods" incorrectly attributed to [[Socrates]].<ref name="Prior" />

A passage by [[Moschus]], describes fragrant narcissi.{{sfn|Moschus|1919|loc=l. 65}}{{sfn|Earley|1877}}{{sfn|Theocritus|Bion|Moschus|1880|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3okOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA183 Moschus. Idyll II, Europa and the Bull (pp. 181–187) at p. 183]}} [[Homer]] in his ''[[Odyssey]]''<ref name="Homer1" /><ref name="HomerGrk1" /><ref name="Homer2" /><ref name="HomerGrk2" /> described the underworld as having [[Elysian]] meadows carpeted with flowers, thought to be narcissus, as described by [[Theophrastus]].<ref name="Dweck" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/asphodel |title=Asphodel |work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |access-date=20 November 2014}}</ref><ref group="Note">The Asphodel of the Greek underworld has been variously associated with the white ''[[Asphodelus ramosus]]'' ({{Harvtxt|Macmillan|1887}}) or the yellow ''[[Asphodeline lutea]]'' ({{Harvtxt|Graves|1949}}), previously classified as ''Asphodelus luteus''.</ref> A similar account is provided by [[Lucian]] describing the flowers in the underworld.<ref name="Lucian1" /><ref name="Lucian2"/><ref name="LucianEng" /> The myth of the youth Narcissus is also taken up by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]]. He believed that the myth of Persephone long antedated that of Narcissus, and hence discounted the idea the flower was named after the youth.<ref name="Pausanias" />

==== Roman culture ====
[[Virgil]], the first known [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] writer to refer to the narcissus, does so in several places, for instance twice in the ''[[Georgics]]''.<ref name=DavidsonVirgil1/> Virgil refers to the cup shaped corona of the narcissus flower, allegedly containing the tears of the self-loving youth [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]].<ref name=DavidsonVirgil2/> [[John Milton|Milton]] makes a similar analogy "''And Daffodillies fill their Cups with Tears''".<ref name=Lycidas/> Virgil also mentions narcissi three times in the ''[[Eclogues]]''.<ref name=DavidsonVirgil5/><ref name=DavidsonVirgil3/>

The poet [[Ovid]] also dealt with the mythology of the narcissus. In his ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', he recounts the story of the youth Narcissus who, after his death, is turned into the flower,<ref name=Ovidmet/><ref name=Klinemet/> and it is also mentioned in Book 5 of his poem ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]''.<ref name=Ovidfast/><ref name=Klinefast/> This theme of metamorphosis was broader than just ''Narcissus''; for instance see [[crocus]], [[Laurus nobilis|laurel]] and [[Hyacinth (plant)|hyacinth]].<ref name=Panofsky/>

==== Western culture ====
{{Quote box|title=''I wandered lonely as a Cloud''|align=right|border=2px|bgcolor = Cornsilk|width=220|fontsize=75%
| title_fnt = blue
| quote=
<poem><br/>[[Image:Decorative I.jpg|15px|alt=I]] wandered lonely as a Cloud
That floats on high o'er Vales and Hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd
A host of dancing Daffodils;
Along the Lake, beneath the trees,
Ten thousand dancing in the breeze.

The waves beside them danced, but they
Outdid the sparkling waves in glee: –
A poet could not but be gay
In such a laughing company:
I gaz'd – and gaz'd – but little thought
What wealth the shew to me had brought:

For oft when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude,
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the Daffodils.</poem>|source=William Wordsworth (1804 version)<ref name=WW1/> [[File:282 Hager Bot Unterricht 1885.png|center|30px]]}}
Although there is no clear evidence that the flower's name derives directly from the Greek myth, this link between the flower and the myth became firmly part of western culture. The narcissus or daffodil is the most loved of all English plants,{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884|loc=[https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog/page/n91 <!-- pg=73 --> Daffodils], p. 73}} and appears frequently in English literature. Many English writers have referred to the cultural and symbolic importance of ''Narcissus''{{sfn|Anonymous|1823}}{{sfn|Burbidge|1875}}{{sfn|Barr|Burbidge|1884}}{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884}}). No flower has received more poetic description except the [[rose]] and the [[lily]], with poems by authors from [[John Gower]], [[Shakespeare]], Milton (see [[#Roman culture|Roman culture]], above), [[Wordsworth]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]] and [[Keats]]. Frequently the poems deal with self-love derived from Ovid's account.<ref name=PoetryNarcissus/>{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884|loc=[https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog/page/n92 <!-- pg=74 --> Daffodils], p. 4}} Gower's reference to the yellow flower of the legend has been assumed to be the daffodil or ''Narcissus'',{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884|loc=[https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog/page/n92 <!-- pg=74 --> Daffofils], p. 74}} though as with all references in the older literature to the flower that sprang from the youth's death, there is room for some debate as to the exact species of flower indicated, some preferring ''[[Crocus]]''.{{sfn|Yeager|1990|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SmH4Q4GMyHEC&pg=PA133 Transformations], pp. 133–135}} Spenser announces the coming of the Daffodil in ''Aprill'' of his ''[[Shepheardes Calender]]'' (1579).{{sfn|Spenser|1579|loc=[http://www.luminarium.org/renascence-editions/aprill.html Aprill ''l.'' 140]}}

Shakespeare, [[Shakespeare garden|who frequently uses flower imagery]],{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884}} refers to daffodils twice in ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'' {{sfn|Shakespeare|1623|loc=Perdita, IV 4}} and also ''[[The Two Noble Kinsmen]]''. [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]] alludes to their association with death in a number of poems.<ref name=Herrick2/><ref name=Herrick1/> Among the English [[romantic movement]] writers none is better known than [[William Wordsworth]]'s short 1804 poem ''[[I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud]]''<ref name=WW1/> which has become linked in the popular mind with the daffodils that form its main image.<ref name=Dweck/><ref name=Kandeler/><ref name=PoetryNarcissus/><ref name=WTrust/> Wordsworth also included the daffodil in other poems.<ref name=WW2/> Yet the description given of daffodils by his sister, [[Dorothy Wordsworth|Dorothy]] is just as poetic, if not more so,{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884|loc=[https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog/page/n94 <!-- pg=76 --> Daffodils], p. 76}} just that her poetry was prose and appears almost an unconscious imitation of the first section of the Homeric ''Hymn to Demeter'' (see [[#Greek culture|Greek culture]], above).{{sfn|Wordsworth|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SJTfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA112 112], Issue 183, January, p. 112}}{{sfn|Ellacombe|1884|loc=[https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog/page/n94 <!-- pg=76 --> Daffodils], p. 76}}{{sfn|Wordsworth|1802}} Among their contemporaries, Keats refers to daffodils among those things capable of bringing "joy for ever".{{sfn|Keats|1818}}

More recently [[A. E. Housman]], using one of the daffodil's more symbolic names (see [[#Symbols|Symbols]]), wrote ''The Lent Lily'' in ''[[A Shropshire Lad]]'', describing the traditional Easter death of the daffodil.{{sfn|Housman|1896|loc=XXIX ''The Lent Lily'', 1896}}

In ''Black Narcissus'', [[Rumer Godden]] describes the disorientation of English nuns in the Indian [[Himalayas]], and gives the plant name an unexpected twist, alluding both to [[narcissism]] and the effect of the perfume ''Narcisse Noir'' ([[Parfums Caron|Caron]]) on others. The novel was later adapted into the [[Black Narcissus|1947 British film of the same name]]. The narcissus also appears in German literature such as that of [[Paul Gerhardt]].<ref name=Gerhardt/>

In the visual arts, narcissi are depicted in three different contexts, mythological (Narcissus, Persephone), floral art, or landscapes. The Narcissus story has been popular with painters and the youth is frequently depicted with flowers to indicate this association.<ref name=SOED/><ref name=Panofsky/> The Persephone theme is also typified by Waterhouse in his ''Narcissus'', the floral [[motif (visual arts)|motif]] by [[Jan van Scorel|van Scorel]] and the landscape by [[Van Gogh]]'s ''Undergrowth''.

Narcissi first started to appear in western art in the [[late Middle Ages]], in [[panel paintings]], particularly those depicting [[crucifixion]]. For instance that of the Westfälischer Meister in Köln in the [[Wallraf-Richartz-Museum]], [[Cologne]],<ref name=Cologne/> where daffodils symbolise not only death but also hope in the [[resurrection]], because they are perennial and bloom at [[Easter]].<ref name=Kandeler/><ref name=resur/><ref name=Stuttgart/>
{{center|'''Narcissi in art'''}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170" style="font-size:95%; line-height:120%">
Jan van Scorel - Madonna of the Daffodils with the Child and Donors - WGA21080.jpg|[[Jan van Scorel]]: ''Madonna of the Daffodils with the Child and Donors'', 1535
Vincent van Gogh - Undergrowth with Two Figures (F773).jpg|[[Vincent van Gogh]]: ''[[Trees and Undergrowth (Van Gogh series)|Undergrowth with Two Figures]]'', 1890
Waterhouse, JW - Narcissus (1912).jpg|[[John William Waterhouse|Waterhouse]]: ''Narcissus'', 1912
WestfaelischerMeister GrosserKalvarienberg WRM 0353 c Rheinisches Bildarchiv-rba c004444.jpg|Crucifixion, Westfälischer Meister c. 1415
</gallery>

==== Eastern cultures ====
In [[Chinese culture]] ''[[Narcissus tazetta]]'' subsp. ''chinensis'' (Chinese sacred lilies), which can be grown indoors, is widely used as an ornamental plant.<ref name=FOC/><ref name=Todt/> It was probably introduced to China by Arab traders travelling the [[Silk Road]] prior to the [[Song dynasty]] for medicinal use.<ref name=Zonneveld/><ref name=FOC/><ref name=Todt/> Spring-flowering, they became associated with [[Chinese New Year]], signifying good fortune, prosperity and good luck<ref name=Mengjian/> and there are many legends in Chinese culture associated with ''Narcissus''.{{sfn|Hu|1989}}{{sfn|Bailey|1890}}{{sfn|''Gippsland Times''|1946}} In contrast to the West, narcissi have not played a significant part in [[Chinese Garden]] art,<ref name="Beuchert"/> however, [[Zhao Mengjian]] in the [[Culture of the Song dynasty|Southern Song dynasty]] was noted for his portrayal of narcissi.{{sfn|Hearn|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SLpZy5ouhcgC&pg=PA70 Zhao Mengjian], p. 70}}{{sfn|Hearn|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SLpZy5ouhcgC&pg=PA70 Zhao Mengjian], p. 70: "I pity the narcissus for not being the orchid, which at least had known the sober minister from Chu".}} Narcissus bulb carving and cultivation has become an art akin to Japanese [[bonsai]]. The Japanese novel ''[[Narcissu]]'' contains many references to the narcissus, where the main characters set out for the famed narcissus fields on [[Awaji Island]].{{sfn|Awaji|2006|loc=[http://www.eonet.ne.jp/~t-suisen/index.html Awaji Tachikawa Narcissus Farmland]}}{{sfn|Awaji|2006|loc=[http://www.city.minamiawaji.hyogo.jp/soshiki/shoukou/suisenkyou.html Nada Kurokawa Narcissus Field]}}

==== Islamic culture ====
Narcissi are one of the most popular garden plants in [[Islamic culture]].{{sfn|Schimmel|1998| p=71}} Prior to the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Arab conquest of Persia]], the Persian ruler [[Khosrau I]] ({{r.|531|579}}) is said to have not been able to tolerate them at feasts because they reminded him of eyes, an association that persists to this day.<ref name="Schimmel165">{{harvnb|Schimmel|1992|p=165}}</ref> The [[Persian language|Persian]] phrase {{lang|fa|[[wikt:نرگس شهلا|نرگس شهلا]]}} ({{transliteration|fa|narges-e šahlâ}}, literally "a reddish-blue narcissus")<ref name=Hayyim/> is a well-known metonymy for the "eye(s) of a mistress"<ref name=Hayyim>Hayyim, Sulayman (1934–1936), "شهلا", in New Persian–English dictionary, Teheran: Librairie-imprimerie Béroukhim</ref> in the classical poetries of the Persian, [[Urdu language|Urdu]],<ref>Naravane, V. S. (1999), ''The Rose and the Nightingale: Explorations in Indian Culture''; Nathani, S. (1992), ''Urdu for Pleasure for Ghazal Lovers''.</ref> [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] and [[Chagatai language|Chagatai]] languages; to this day also the vernacular names of some narcissus cultivars (for example, ''Shahla-ye Shiraz'' and ''Shahla-ye Kazerun'').<ref>Hanafi & Schnitzler, p. 75.</ref> As described by the poet [[Ghalib]] (1797–1869), "God has given the eye of the narcissus the power of seeing".<ref name=Schimmel165/> The eye imagery is also found in a number of poems by [[Abu Nuwas]].{{sfn|Meisami|Starkey|1998| p=545}}{{sfn|Meisami|Starkey|1998| p=583}}{{sfn|Meisami|Starkey|1998| p=662}}{{sfn|Schimmel|1998| p=72}} Another poet who refers to narcissi, is [[Rumi]]. Even the prophet [[Mohammed]] is said to have praised the narcissus,{{sfn|Krausch|2012| p=379}} though some of the [[Hadith|sayings]] that were cited as proof are considered "weak" records.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://semakhadis.com/hidulah-kalian-bunga-narcissus-sejenis-bunga/|title=Hidulah kalian bunga dafodil (sejenis bunga)|date=27 October 2020|access-date=25 September 2021|website=SemakHadis|language=ms|publisher=Islamic Studies Department, Faculty of the Humanities at the Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia}}</ref>
{{center|'''Narcissi in Eastern and Islamic cultures'''}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170" style="font-size:95%; line-height:120%">
Narcissus tazetta var chinensis1.jpg|Chinese Sacred Lily
Shuixiandiaoke.JPG|Chinese decorative carved ''Narcissus'' bulb
Narcissus poeticus.jpg|''[[Narcissus poeticus|N. poeticus]]'' symbolising the eye in Islamic culture
</gallery>

=== Popular culture ===
The word "daffodil" has been [[Daffodil (disambiguation)|used widely]] in popular culture, from Dutch cars ([[DAF Daffodil]]) to Swedish rock bands ([[The Daffodils]]) to slurs against homosexuals and cross-dressers (as in the film ''[[J. Edgar]]'', when Hoover's mother explains why real-life cross-dresser Barton Pinkus<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.advocate.com/arts-entertainment/film/2011/11/14/dustin-lance-black-hoover-dark-side-milk|work=Advocate|author=Kinser, Jeremy|date=14 November 2011|title=Dustin Lance Black: Hoover Is the Dark Side of Milk|access-date=16 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815194808/http://www.advocate.com/arts-entertainment/film/2011/11/14/dustin-lance-black-hoover-dark-side-milk|archive-date=15 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> was called "Daffy" (short for "Daffodil" and the equivalent of a [[pansy]]<ref>{{cite news|work=Christianity Today|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2011/novemberweb-only/jedgar.html |title=J. Edgar: Clint Eastwood directs Leonardo DiCaprio in a muddled biopic about the controversial FBI honcho|author=Greydanus, Steven D. Greydanus|date=11 November 2011|access-date=16 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325103616/http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2011/novemberweb-only/jedgar.html|archive-date=25 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>), and admonishes, "I'd rather have a dead son than a daffodil for a son".<ref>{{cite news|work=Austin Chronicle |title=''J. Edgar'', Directed by Clint Eastwood. Starring Leonardo DiCaprio, Naomi Watts, Armie Hammer, Judi Dench, Josh Lucas, Stephen Root, Dermot Mulroney (2011, R, 136 min.)|author=Baumgarten, Marjorie|date=11 November 2011 |url=http://www.austinchronicle.com/calendar/film/2011-11-11/j-edgar/ |access-date=16 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808091540/http://www.austinchronicle.com/calendar/film/2011-11-11/j-edgar/|archive-date=8 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>
{{cite news|title=Editorial Review: J. Edgar|author=Hornaday, Ann|date=9 November 2011|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/gog/movies/j.-edgar,1211735.html|access-date=5 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813193552/http://www.washingtonpost.com/gog/movies/j.-edgar,1211735.html|archive-date=13 August 2016|url-status=dead}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite news |author=von Tunzelmann, Alex |date=2 February 2012 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/feb/02/j-edgar-reel-history |work=The Guardian |title=J Edgar as a visionary vigilante? Don't believe this unreliable narrative: DiCaprio's Hoover is presented as the misguided hero of his anti-communist FBI empire but the film omits vital episodes such as the McCarthy witch-hunts |access-date=16 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817164408/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/feb/02/j-edgar-reel-history |archive-date=17 August 2016 |url-status=live}}
</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/edgar-hoover-sex-men-homosexual/story?id=14948447|work=ABC News|title=J. Edgar Hoover: Gay or Just a Man Who Has Sex With Men?|author=James, Susan Donaldson|date=16 November 2011|access-date=16 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621012923/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/edgar-hoover-sex-men-homosexual/story?id=14948447|archive-date=21 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/movie_script.php?movie=j-edgar|website=Springfield! Springfield!|title=Movie Scripts: ''J. Edgar'' (2012) Movie Script|access-date=2016-06-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806210120/http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/movie_script.php?movie=j-edgar|archive-date=2016-08-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Festivals ===
In some areas where narcissi are prevalent, their blooming in spring is celebrated in festivals. For instance, the slopes around [[Montreux]], Switzerland and its associated [[riviera]] come alive with blooms each May (''May Snow'') at the annual Narcissi Festival.<ref name=Montreux/> Festivals are also held in many other countries.

=== Cancer ===
Various cancer charities around the world, such as the [[American Cancer Society]],<ref name=ACS/> [[Cancer Society (New Zealand)|Cancer Society]],<ref name=NZCS/> [[Cancer Council Australia|Cancer Council]],<ref name=CCA/> [[Irish Cancer Society]],<ref name=ICS/> and [[Marie Curie Cancer Care|Marie Curie]] in the UK<ref name=MCurie/> use the daffodil as a fundraising symbol on "Daffodil Days".<ref name=CCS/>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=27em}}
* [[List of Narcissus species]]
* [[List of Narcissus horticultural divisions]]
* [[List of AGM narcissus]] – Narcissus cultivars given the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]
* [[Narcissus in culture]]
* [[Pyrostegia venusta|Orange trumpet]]
* [[Taxonomy of Narcissus]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em|group="Note"}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=ACS>{{cite web |title=Daffodil Days |publisher=American Cancer Society |url= http://www.cancer.org/involved/participate/daffodildays/index |access-date=21 September 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141121232245/http://www.cancer.org/involved/participate/daffodildays/index |archive-date=21 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Altomonte>{{cite web |url = http://www.ittendojo.org/articles/general-8.htm |title = Kampo — The Japanese Art of Herbal Healing |author=Carmen Altomonte |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070815061353/http://ittendojo.org/articles/general-8.htm |archive-date=2007-08-15}}</ref>

<ref name=Baker>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UxdBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA61 |last = Baker |first = JG |title = Review of the genus Narcissus |pages=61–86 |access-date=1 October 2014 |year=1875}} In {{Harvtxt|Burbidge|1875}}</ref>

<ref name=Barrett>{{cite journal|last1=Barrett|first1=SC|last2=Harder|first2=LD|title=The evolution of polymorphic sexual systems in daffodils (Narcissus).|journal=The New Phytologist|date=January 2005|volume=165|issue=1|pages=45–53|pmid=15720619 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01183.x|doi-access=}}</ref>

<ref name=Bastida>{{cite book|last1=Bastida|first1=Jaume|last2=Lavilla|first2=Rodolfo|last3=Viladomat|first3=Francesc|editor1-last=Cordell|editor1-first=G. A.|title=The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Biology Vol. 63|volume=63|date=2006|publisher=Elsevier Inc|location=Amsterdam|pages=87–179|chapter=Chemical and biological aspects of "Narcissus" alkaloids|journal=The Alkaloids. Chemistry and Biology |doi=10.1016/S1099-4831(06)63003-4|pmid=17133715|pmc=7118783|isbn=9780124695634}}</ref>

<ref name=BBC2008>{{cite news|title=Daffodil drug's major investment|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/mid/7693203.stm|website=BBC News|access-date=8 October 2014|date=29 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102042029/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/mid/7693203.stm|archive-date=2 November 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=BB14>{{cite web|title=Division 14 - Miniatures|url=https://store.brentandbeckysbulbs.com/spring/genus.php?genusid=44&division=D14|website=Daffodils/Narcissus|publisher=Brent and Becky's Bulbs|access-date=9 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015080916/https://store.brentandbeckysbulbs.com/spring/genus.php?genusid=44&division=D14|archive-date=15 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=BBThalia>{{cite web|title=Thalia|url=https://store.brentandbeckysbulbs.com/--spring/Amaryllidaceae/Narcissus/Thalia/Daffodil/sku-01-0503|website=Daffodils/Narcissus|publisher=Brent and Becky's Bulbs|access-date=9 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015155023/https://store.brentandbeckysbulbs.com/--spring/Amaryllidaceae/Narcissus/Thalia/Daffodil/sku-01-0503|archive-date=15 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=Besler>{{cite book|pages=50–56|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/98364#page/61/mode/1up|access-date=10 October 2014|title=Classis vernae: Narcissus|year=1640|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028030655/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/98364#page/61/mode/1up|archive-date=28 October 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Besler|1613}}</ref>

<ref name="Beuchert">{{cite book|last1=Beuchert|first1=Marianne|title=Symbolik der Pflanzen, Von Akelei bis Zypresse. Mit 101 Aquarellen von Marie-Therese|date=1995|publisher=Insel-Verl.|location=Frankfurt am Main|isbn=978-3-458-34694-4}}</ref>

<ref name=Blanchard>{{cite book|last1=Blanchard|first1=J. W.|title=Narcissus: a guide to wild daffodils|date=1990|publisher=Alpine Garden Society|location=Surrey, UK|isbn=978-0900048531}}</ref>

<ref name="Botanical Dermatology">{{cite web|title=Botanical Dermatology: Occupational Plant Dermatoses|url=http://www.telemedicine.org/botanica/bot7.htm|website=Electronic Textbook of Dermatology|publisher=The Internet Dermatology Society|access-date=17 October 2014|year=2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524042642/http://telemedicine.org/botanica/bot7.htm|archive-date=24 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=BurbigeHaworth>{{cite book|title=Haworth's arrangement of Narcissus|last1=Burbidge|pages=59–61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UxdBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA59|access-date=1 November 2014 |first1=Frederick William |year=1875b}} In {{Harvtxt|Burbidge|1875}}</ref>

<ref name=Cakici>{{cite journal | author=Cakici I|author2=Ulug HY |author3=Inci S |author4=Tunçtan B |author5=Abacioglu N |author6=Kanzik I |author7=Sener B. |pmid = 9379365 | volume=49 | issue=8 | title=Antinociceptive effect of some amaryllidaceae plants in mice |date=August 1997 | journal=J. Pharm. Pharmacol. | pages=828–30 | doi=10.1111/j.2042-7158.1997.tb06121.x|s2cid=39707890|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=Cambridge>{{cite web|title=narcissus|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/narcissus|website=Cambridge Dictionaries online|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=16 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108001715/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/narcissus|archive-date=8 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Camerarius>{{cite book|title=Narcissus|pages=104–105|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11111583?page=124|access-date=10 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016215356/http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb11111583_00124.html|archive-date=16 October 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Camerarius|1588}}</ref>

<ref name=Candolle2>{{cite book|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/88297#page/204/mode/1up|title=Des familles et des tribus|pages=192–195|access-date=5 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304022641/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/88297#page/204/mode/1up|archive-date=4 March 2014|url-status=live|publisher=Déterville}} In {{Harvtxt|A. P. de Candolle|1813}}.</ref>

<ref name=Candollea>{{cite book|last1=De Candolle|title=Narcissus|pages=230–232|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C_MHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA230|access-date=29 October 2014|year=1815|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402131924/https://books.google.com/books?id=C_MHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA230|archive-date=2 April 2018|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|De Lamarck|De Candolle|1815a}}</ref>

<ref name=Candolleb>{{cite book|last1=De Candolle|title=Narcissus|pages=319–327|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYTiP3RlkToC&pg=PA319|access-date=29 October 2014|year=1815}} In {{Harvtxt|De Lamarck|De Candolle|1815b}}</ref>

<ref name=CCA>{{cite web|title=Daffodil Day|url=http://daffodilday.com.au/|publisher=Cancer Council (Australia)|access-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000815080005/http://www.daffodilday.com.au/|archive-date=15 August 2000|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=CCS>{{cite web|title=What is Daffodil Month?|url=http://www.cancer.ca/en/get-involved/events-and-participation/find-an-event-near-you/daffodil-month/?region=ns|publisher=Canadian Cancer Society|access-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821122917/http://www.cancer.ca/en/get-involved/events-and-participation/find-an-event-near-you/daffodil-month/?region=ns|archive-date=21 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=CNLA>{{cite web|title=R. Bulbs, Corms and Tubers: 16.6 Narcissus And Daffodils|url=http://www.canadanursery.com/Page.asp?PageID=122&ContentID=880|website=Canadian Nursery Landscape Association|access-date=17 October 2014|year=2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014225105/http://www.canadanursery.com/Page.asp?PageID=122&ContentID=880|archive-date=14 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Cologne>{{cite web|title=Westfälischer Meister in Köln (tätig um 1415 – 1435): Der große Kalvarienberg, um 1415 – 1420. Eichenholz, 197 x 129 cm. Sammlung Ferdinand Franz Wallraf. WRM 0353|url=http://www.wallraf.museum/uploads/tx_imagecycle/WestfaelischerMeister_GrosserKalvarienberg_WRM_0353__c__Rheinisches_Bildarchiv-rba_c004444.jpg|website=Sammlungen: Mittelalter - Rundgang, Raum 4|publisher=Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne|access-date=24 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511080251/http://www.wallraf.museum/uploads/tx_imagecycle/WestfaelischerMeister_GrosserKalvarienberg_WRM_0353__c__Rheinisches_Bildarchiv-rba_c004444.jpg|archive-date=11 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Creager>{{cite journal|last1=Creager|first1=D. B.|last2=Spruijt|first2=F. J.|title=The relation of certain fungi to larval development of ''Eumerus tuberculatus'' Rond. (Syrphidae, Diptera).|journal=Annals of the Entomological Society of America|date=December 1935|volume=28|issue=4|pages=425–437|doi=10.1093/aesa/28.4.425}}</ref>

<ref name=Cullen>{{cite book|last1=Cullen|first1=James|editor1-last=Cullen|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Knees|editor2-first=Sabina G.|editor3-last=Cubey|editor3-first=H. Suzanne Cubey|title=The European Garden Flora, Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass: Vol. 1. Alismataceae to Orchidaceae|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521761475 |page=205 ff|edition=2nd|chapter=Narcissus |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkxWrDqtWLQC&pg=PA207|access-date=21 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=DaffConf>{{cite book|last1=Barr|title=The Daffodil Conference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqxBAAAAIAAJ&q=narcissus%20queltia&pg=PA32|access-date=2 November 2014|year=1884}} In {{Harvtxt|Barr|Burbidge|1884|p=32}}</ref>

<ref name=DavidsonVirgil1>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155|last1=Publius Vergilius Maro|title=Georgics IV|format=line 122|page=155|year=1770|author-link1=Publius Vergilius Maro|access-date=2016-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227164522/https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155|archive-date=2018-12-27|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Vergilius Maro|1770}}</ref>

<ref name=DavidsonVirgil2>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157|last1=Publius Vergilius Maro|title=Georgics IV|format=line 159|page=157|year=1770|author-link1=Publius Vergilius Maro|access-date=2016-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227164525/https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157|archive-date=2018-12-27|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Vergilius Maro|1770}}</ref>

<ref name=DavidsonVirgil3>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA24|last1=Publius Vergilius Maro|title=Eclogues V|format=line 38|page=24|year=1770|author-link1=Publius Vergilius Maro}} In {{Harvtxt|Vergilius Maro|1770}}</ref>

<ref name=DavidsonVirgil5>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA9|last1=Publius Vergilius Maro|title=Eclogues II|format=line 48|page=9|year=1770|author-link1=Publius Vergilius Maro|access-date=2016-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227164529/https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA9|archive-date=2018-12-27|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Vergilius Maro|1770}}</ref>

<ref name=DemeterNagy>
{{cite web|author1=Gregory Nagy (trans.)|title=Homeric Hymn to Demeter|url=http://www.uh.edu/~cldue/texts/demeter.html|format=line 428|website=[[Casey Dué Hackney]], University of Houston|access-date=3 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010140456/http://www.uh.edu/%7Ecldue/texts/demeter.html|archive-date=10 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Dioscurides>{{cite book|last1=Dioscurides|title=''νάρκισσος''|pages=302–303, IV: 158|url=https://archive.org/stream/pedaniidioscuri01pedagoog#page/n333/mode/2up|access-date=20 October 2014|year=1906|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113112628/https://archive.org/stream/pedaniidioscuri01pedagoog#page/n333/mode/2up|archive-date=13 January 2016|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Dioscuridis Anazarbei|1906}}</ref>

<ref name=Dweck>{{cite book|url=http://www.dweckdata.co.uk/Published_papers/Narcissus.pdf|last1=Dweck|first1=A. C.|title=The folklore of ''Narcissus''|pages=19–29|access-date=2014-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095738/http://www.dweckdata.co.uk/Published_papers/Narcissus.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Hanks|2002}}</ref>

<ref name=Erhardt>{{cite book|last1=Erhardt|first1=Walter|title=Narzissen : Osterglocken, Jonquillen, Tazetten|date=1993|publisher=E. Ulmer|location=Stuttgart (Hohenheim)|isbn=978-3800164899|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_feiAAAACAAJ|access-date=18 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=Fernandes51>{{cite journal|url=http://bibdigital.bot.uc.pt/obras/UCFCTBt-E-21-26-29_72/UCFCTBt-E-21-26-29_72_item1/UCFCTBt-E-21-26-s2-25/UCFCTBt-E-21-26-s2-25_item1/P119.html|access-date=4 October 2014 |last1=Fernandes|first1=A|title=Sur la phylogenie des especes du genre Narcissus L.|journal=Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana II|date=1951|volume=25|pages=113–190|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006151144/http://bibdigital.bot.uc.pt/obras/UCFCTBt-E-21-26-29_72/UCFCTBt-E-21-26-29_72_item1/UCFCTBt-E-21-26-s2-25/UCFCTBt-E-21-26-s2-25_item1/P119.html|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=Fernandes68>{{cite book|last1=Fernandes|first1=A.|title=Daffodil and Tulip Year Book|date=1968|pages=37–66|chapter-url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Fernandes-Keys-v2.pdf|access-date=23 October 2014|volume=33 |chapter=Keys to the identification of native and naturalized taxa of the genus ''Narcissus'' L.}}</ref>

<ref name=Fernandes75>{{cite journal|last1=Fernandes|first1=A.|title=L'évolution chez le genre Narcissus L.|journal=Anales del Instituto Botanico Antonio Jose Cavanilles|date=1975|volume=32|pages=843–872|url=http://www.rjb.csic.es/jardinbotanico/ficheros/documentos/pdf/anales/1975/Anales_32(3)_0843_0872.pdf|access-date=25 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924091534/http://www.rjb.csic.es/jardinbotanico/ficheros/documentos/pdf/anales/1975/Anales_32(3)_0843_0872.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=FE5>{{cite book|last1=Webb|first1=D. A.|title=Narcissus L|pages=78–84|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v11xJgWbUDcC&pg=PA78|access-date=4 October 2014|isbn=9780521201087|year=1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press }} In {{Harvtxt|Tutin et al.|1980}}</ref>

<ref name=FCasas2008>{{cite journal|last1=Fernández-Casas|first1=Francisco Javier|title=Narcissorum notulae, X|journal=Fontqueria|date=2008|volume=55|pages=547–558|url=http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/PDF/Fontqueria_55_67.pdf|access-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020142638/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/PDF/Fontqueria_55_67.pdf|archive-date=20 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Floridata>{{cite web|last1=Van Beck|first1=John|last2=Christman|first2=Steve|title=Narcissus|url=http://www.floridata.com/ref/n/narc_spp.cfm|website=Floridata|access-date=25 October 2014|date=3 Oct 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025130801/http://www.floridata.com/ref/n/narc_spp.cfm|archive-date=25 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=FOC>{{cite web|title=Narcissus tazetta var. chinensis|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=240001489|website=Flora of China vol 24|access-date=15 October 2014|page=269|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408215526/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=240001489|archive-date=8 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Fowler>{{cite book|editor1-last=Allen|editor1-first=Robert|title=Pocket Fowler's Modern English usage|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0199232581|edition=2nd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvSAl4Ng8SYC&pg=PA455|page=455|chapter=narcissus|access-date=16 November 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=Gage>{{cite journal|last1=Gage|first1=Ewan|last2=Wilkin|first2=Paul|last3=Chase|first3=Mark W.|last4=Hawkins|first4=Julie|title=Phylogenetic systematics of Sternbergia (Amaryllidaceae) based on plastid and ITS sequence data|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=June 2011|volume=166|issue=2|pages=149–162|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01138.x|s2cid=84007862 |doi-access=}}</ref>

<ref name=Gardener>{{cite book|title=Gardeners Chronicle & New Horticulturist vol VI, III series, No 156|date=21 December 1889|publisher=Haymarket Publishing|location=London|page=718|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_M9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA718|access-date=6 October 2014|chapter=Tongues in trees}}</ref>

<ref name=Garner>{{cite book|last1=Garner|first1=Brian|title=Garner's Modern American Usage|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|location=New York|isbn=978-0199888771|page=559|edition=3rd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FwmQpyibKkAC&pg=PA559|access-date=16 November 2014|chapter=narcissus}}</ref>

<ref name=Gerhardt>{{cite book|last1=Gerhardt|first1=Paul|editor1-last=Crüger|editor1-first=Johann|title=Praxis Pietatis Melica. Das ist: Übung der Gottseligkeit in Christlichen und trostreichen Gesängen|date=1653|publisher=V. Runge|location=Berlin|pages=779–782|chapter-url=http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0006/bsb00065813/images/index.html?fip=193.174.98.30&id=00065813&seite=399|access-date=12 October 2014|chapter=404. Geh aus, mein Herz, und suche Freud}}</ref>

<ref name=Graham>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=S. W.|last2=Barrett|first2=S. C. H.|title=Phylogenetic reconstruction of the evolution of stylar polymorphisms in Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=American Journal of Botany|date=1 July 2004|volume=91|issue=7|pages=1007–1021|doi=10.3732/ajb.91.7.1007|pmid=21653457|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=Gregory>{{cite journal|last1=Gregory|first1=P.H.|title=The life history of Ramularia Vallisumbrosae Cav. on Narcissus|journal=Transactions of the British Mycological Society|volume=23|issue=1|pages=24–54|doi=10.1016/s0007-1536(39)80013-4|year=1939}}</ref>

<ref name="Groom1997">{{cite book|author=Nigel Groom|title=The New Perfume Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UYrDPqLVD-kC&pg=PA225|access-date=28 July 2012|date=30 June 1997|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7514-0403-6|pages=225–226|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102092936/http://books.google.com/books?id=UYrDPqLVD-kC&pg=PA225|archive-date=2 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Hanks>{{cite book|last1=Hanks|first1=G. R.|title=Commercial production of ''Narcissus'' bulbs|pages=53–130}} In {{Harvtxt|Hanks|2002}}</ref>

<ref name=Haworth>{{cite book|last1=Haworth|first1=A.H.|title=Narcissinearum Monographia|date=1831|publisher=Ridgway|location=London|edition=2nd|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Haworth-Narcissinearum-searchable-Second-Edition-1831-better-copycomp.pdf|access-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914074849/http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Haworth-Narcissinearum-searchable-Second-Edition-1831-better-copycomp.pdf|archive-date=14 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Herbert>{{harvnb|Herbert|1837|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EusCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA62 62–63]}}</ref>

<ref name=Hereford>{{cite web|last1=Evans|first1=Anthony|title=The Cathedral Gardens in Spring|url=http://www.herefordcathedral.org/about-us/news/the-cathedral-gardens-in-winter/|publisher=Hereford Cathedral|access-date=11 November 2014|date=2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111054314/http://www.herefordcathedral.org/about-us/news/the-cathedral-gardens-in-winter/|archive-date=11 November 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=Herrick1>{{cite book|last1=Herrick|first1=Robert|title=Divination by a Daffadill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LV8iAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA47|access-date=1 October 2014|year=1846}} In {{Harvtxt|Singer|1846}}</ref>

<ref name=Herrick2>{{cite book|last1=Herrick|first1=Robert|title=To Daffadills|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LV8iAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA167|access-date=1 October 2014|year=1846}} In {{Harvtxt|Singer|1846}}</ref>

<ref name=Homer1>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D11%3Acard%3D538|last1=Homer|editor1-last=Murray|editor1-first=A.T.|title=Odyssey|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|edition=Harvard University Press 1919|access-date=8 October 2014|chapter-format=line 539|chapter=11|quote=over the field of asphodel}}</ref>

<ref name=HomerGrk1>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0135%3Abook%3D11%3Acard%3D538|last1=Homer|editor1-last=Murray|editor1-first=A.T.|title=Odyssey|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|edition=Harvard University Press 1919|access-date=8 October 2014|chapter-format=line 539|chapter=11|quote= ἀσφοδελὸν λειμῶνα}}</ref>

<ref name=Homer2>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D24%3Acard%3D1|last1=Homer|editor1-last=Murray|editor1-first=A.T.|title=Odyssey|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|edition=Harvard University Press 1919|access-date=8 October 2014|chapter-format=line 14|chapter=24|quote=came to the mead of asphodel, where the spirits dwell}}</ref>

<ref name=HomerGrk2>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0135%3Abook%3D24%3Acard%3D1|last1=Homer|editor1-last=Murray|editor1-first=A.T.|title=Odyssey|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|edition=Harvard University Press 1919|access-date=8 October 2014|chapter-format=line 14|chapter=24|quote=ἀσφοδελὸν λειμῶνα, ἔνθα τε ναίουσι ψυχαί, εἴδωλα καμόντων}}</ref>

<ref name=icn18.2>{{cite book |chapter=Names of families and subfamilies, tribes and subtribes |chapter-url=http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=art18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927152429/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=art18 |archive-date=2013-09-27|title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants |publisher=[[International Association for Plant Taxonomy]] |access-date=2 February 2014 |year=2011}}</ref>

<ref name=ICS>{{cite web|title=Daffodil Day|url=http://www.cancer.ie/get-involved/fundraise/major-fundraising-drives/daffodil-day|publisher=Irish Cancer Society|access-date=25 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025133223/http://www.cancer.ie/get-involved/fundraise/major-fundraising-drives/daffodil-day|archive-date=25 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=IDRI>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffregister2008.pdf|title=Introduction to The International Daffodil Register and Classified List 2008|publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]]|access-date=September 10, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207171036/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffregister2008.pdf|archive-date=February 7, 2019|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

<ref name=Ingrassia>{{cite journal|last1=Ingrassia|first1=Laurent|last2=Lefranc|first2=Florence|last3=Dewelle|first3=Janique|last4=Pottier|first4=Laurent|last5=Mathieu|first5=Véronique|last6=Spiegl-Kreinecker|first6=Sabine|last7=Sauvage|first7=Sébastien|last8=El Yazidi|first8=Mohamed|last9=Dehoux|first9=Mischaël|last10=Berger|first10=Walter|last11=Van Quaquebeke|first11=Eric|last12=Kiss|first12=Robert|title=Structure−Activity Relationship Analysis of Novel Derivatives of Narciclasine (an Amaryllidaceae Isocarbostyril Derivative) as Potential Anticancer Agents|journal=Journal of Medicinal Chemistry|date=26 February 2009|volume=52|issue=4|pages=1100–1114|doi=10.1021/jm8013585|pmid=19199649}}</ref>

<ref name=Isaiah>{{cite book|last1=Book of Isaiah|title=Holy Bible|date=1611|edition=King James Version|chapter-url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+35%3A1-10&version=KJV|access-date=8 October 2014|chapter-format=line 1|chapter=XXXV|quote=The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice, and blossom as the rose.}}</ref>

<ref name=JSH>{{cite book|last1=Jaume-Saint-Hilaire|first1=Jean Henri|title=Exposition de familles naturales |volume=1|date=1805|publisher=Treutel et Würtz|location=Paris|page=138|chapter=Narcissus |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEQAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA138|access-date=25 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=Jussieu>{{cite book |last=Jussieu |first=Antoine Laurent de |title=Genera Plantarum, secundum ordines naturales disposita juxta methodum in Horto Regio Parisiensi exaratam |year=1789 |location=Paris |chapter=Narcissi |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125#page/149/mode/1up |pages=54–56|access-date=2 October 2014 |publisher=apud viduam Herissant et Theophilum Barrois |oclc=5161409}}</ref>

<ref name=Kandeler>{{cite journal|last1=Kandeler|first1=R.|last2=Ullrich|first2=W. R.|title=Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: FEBRUARY: Sea-daffodil and narcissus|journal=Journal of Experimental Botany|date=6 January 2009|volume=60|issue=2|pages=353–355|doi=10.1093/jxb/erp012|pmid=19264756|doi-access=}}</ref>

<ref name=Kington>{{cite book|last1=Kington|first1=Sally|title=The International Daffodil Register and Classified List 1998|date=1998|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|location=London|isbn= 978-1874431695}}</ref>

<ref name=Kington2008>{{cite book|url=http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/Plant-register-supplements/Daffodils/6th-Daffodil-Supplement|last=Kington|first=Sally|title=The Daffodil Register And Classified List (2008). 6th supplement|year=2014|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|location=United Kingdom|isbn=9781907057502|access-date=25 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110010101/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/Plant-register-supplements/Daffodils/6th-Daffodil-Supplement|archive-date=10 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Klinemet>{{cite book|last1=Kline|first1=Anthony S|title=Ovid's Metamorphoses in translation. Bk III|date=2004|publisher=Borders Classics|location=Ann Arbor, MI|isbn=978-1587261565|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ovidmetamorphose00ovid/page/474 474–510]|url=https://archive.org/details/ovidmetamorphose00ovid/page/474|access-date=25 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=Klinefast>{{cite book|last1=Kline|first1=Anthony S|title=Ovid's Fasti in translation. Book V|date=2004|publisher=Poetry in Translation|url=http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/OvidFastiBkFive.htm|access-date=25 October 2014|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120913085412/http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/OvidFastiBkFive.htm|archive-date=13 September 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Kornienko>{{cite journal|last1=Kornienko|first1=Alexander|last2=Evidente|first2=Antonio|title=Chemistry, Biology, and Medicinal Potential of Narciclasine and its Congeners|journal=Chemical Reviews|date=2008|volume=108|issue=6|pages=1982–2014|doi=10.1021/cr078198u|pmc=2856661|pmid=18489166}}</ref>

<ref name=Levy>{{cite web|title=Key to the sections (following Blanchard 1990)|url=http://www.andrelevy.net/narcissus/|publisher=André Levy.|access-date=23 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023052155/http://www.andrelevy.net/narcissus/|archive-date=23 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=LinSP>{{cite book|last1=Linnaeus|first1=Carl|author-link=Carl Linnaeus|title=Species Plantarum |volume=1|date=1753|page=289|chapter=Narcissus|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358308#page/301/mode/1up|access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref> ''see also'' [[Species Plantorum]]

<ref name=Lucian1>{{cite book|last1=Lucian|editor1-last=Harmon|editor1-first=A. M.|title=Μένιππος ἢ Νεκυομαντεία|date=1925|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|edition=Harvard University Press|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0454%3Asection%3D11|access-date=9 October 2014|chapter-format=line 2|chapter=11|quote=ἀσφοδέλῳ κατάφυτον}}</ref>

<ref name=Lucian2>{{cite book|last1=Lucian|editor1-last=Harmon|editor1-first=A. M.|title=Μένιππος ἢ Νεκυομαντεία|date=1925|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|edition=Harvard University Press|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0454%3Asection%3D21|access-date=9 October 2014|chapter-format=line 10|chapter=21|quote= ἀσφοδελὸν λειμῶνα}}</ref>

<ref name=LucianEng>{{cite web|last1=Lucian|title=MENIPPUS: A NECROMANTIC EXPERIMENT|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl1/wl176.htm|website=Sacred Texts|access-date=9 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924125132/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl1/wl176.htm|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Lycidas>{{cite web|last1=John Milton|first1=John|title=Lycidas|website=The Milton Reading Room |url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/lycidas/text.shtml|access-date=25 October 2014 |date=1637 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025170654/https://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/lycidas/text.shtml|archive-date=25 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Martin>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=S.F.|editor1-last=Brossi|editor1-first=Arnold|title=The Alkaloids|volume=30|date=1987|publisher=Academic Press|pages=251–356|chapter=3: The Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids |doi=10.1016/S0099-9598(08)60208-4|series=The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Pharmacology|isbn=9780124695306}}</ref>

<ref name=Mathew>{{cite book|last1=Mathew|first1=B|title=Classification of the genus Narcissus|pages=30–52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA30 |access-date=2 October 2014|isbn=9780203219355 |date=2003-09-02 |publisher=CRC Press|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103133153/http://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC&pg=PA30 |archive-date=3 January 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Hanks|2002}}</ref>

<ref name=McCain>{{cite journal|last1=McCain|first1=A|last2=Pyeatt|first2=L|last3=Pierce|first3=L|title=Leaf scorch of Narcissus: progress report|journal=California Plant Pathology|date=1980|volume=Winter|issue=50 |page=1 |url=http://hortscans.ces.ncsu.edu/library/floriculture/doc_id/276/Protea-Nursery-Production-Trial.pdf |access-date=21 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129150221/http://hortscans.ces.ncsu.edu/library/floriculture/doc_id/276/Protea-Nursery-Production-Trial.pdf|archive-date=29 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=McClintock>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1rUqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA128 |last1=McClintock|first1=John|last2=Strong|first2=James|title=Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, Vol. IX RH-ST|date=1889|publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York |chapter=Rose|page=128|access-date=8 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=MCurie>{{cite web|title=The Great Daffodil Appeal|url=http://www.mariecurie.org.uk/en-GB/fundraising-volunteering/great-daffodil-appeal/|website=Marie Curie Cancer Care|access-date=25 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123120959/http://www.mariecurie.org.uk/en-gb/fundraising-volunteering/great-daffodil-appeal/|archive-date=23 January 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Medrano>{{cite journal|last1=Medrano|first1=Mónica|last2=López-Perea|first2=Esmeralda|last3=Herrera|first3=Carlos M.|title=Population Genetics Methods Applied to a Species Delimitation Problem: Endemic Trumpet Daffodils (''Narcissus'' Section ''Pseudonarcissi'') from the Southern Iberian Peninsula|journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences|volume=175|issue=5|pages=501–517|date=June 2014|doi=10.1086/675977|hdl=10261/101673|s2cid=44161272|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=Meerow>{{Cite journal |first1=Alan W. |last1=Meerow |first2=Michael F. |last2=Fay |first3=Charles L. |last3=Guy |first4=Qin-Bao |last4=Li |first5=Faridah Q. |last5=Zaman |first6=Mark W. |last6=Chase |year=1999 |title=Systematics of Amaryllidaceae based on cladistic analysis of plastid sequence data |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=1325–1345 |url=http://www.amjbot.org/content/86/9/1325.full |name-list-style=amp |doi=10.2307/2656780 |pmid=10487820|jstor=2656780}}</ref>

<ref name=Mengjian>{{cite web|last1=Cultural China|title=Narcissus|url=http://arts.cultural-china.com/en/63Arts4309.html|publisher=Shanghai News and Press Bureau|access-date=14 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227063529/http://arts.cultural-china.com/en/63Arts4309.html|archive-date=27 February 2015}}</ref>

<ref name=Meyer>{{cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=F. G.|title=Narcissus species and wild hybrids|journal=Amer. Hort. Mag.|date=January 1966|volume=45|issue=1|pages=47–76|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Daffodil-Handbook-a-special-issue-of-the-American-Horticultural-Magazine-1966-part-2.pdf|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208131613/http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Daffodil-Handbook-a-special-issue-of-the-American-Horticultural-Magazine-1966-part-2.pdf|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|American Horticultural Society|1966}}</ref>

<ref name=Montreux>{{cite web|title=Narcissi Forecast|url=http://www.narcisses.com/|publisher=Montreux Riviera|access-date=2 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117230607/http://www.narcisses.com/|archive-date=17 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Nesbitt2005">{{cite book|author=Mark Nesbitt|title=The Cultural History of Plants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ejo63Wk5rgC&pg=PA698|access-date=29 July 2012|year=2005|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-92746-8|pages=267–268}}</ref>

<ref name=NZCS>{{cite web|title=Daffodil Day|url=http://www.daffodilday.org.nz/|publisher=Cancer Society (New Zealand)|access-date=26 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026044744/http://www.daffodilday.org.nz/|archive-date=26 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Obel>{{cite book|last1=de l'Obel|first1=Matthias|title=Icones stirpium|date=1591|location=Antwerp|pages=112–122|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/37876#page/119/mode/1up|access-date=26 October 2014|author-link1=Matthias de l'Obel|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101165832/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/37876#page/119/mode/1up|archive-date=1 November 2014|url-status=live|publisher=Ex officina plantiniana :Apud Viduam et Ioannem Moretum}}</ref>

<ref name=OedCol>{{cite book|last1=Sophocles|title=Oedipus at Colonus|format=line 683|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_HUe5xe20C&pg=PA114|year=1889}} In {{Harvtxt|Jebb|1889}}</ref>

<ref name=Ovidmet>{{cite web|last1=Ovid|title=Metamorphosis: Book 3 |publisher=The Latin Library |url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ovid/ovid.met3.shtml|access-date=26 October 2014|page=509|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702135927/http://thelatinlibrary.com/ovid/ovid.met3.shtml|archive-date=2 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Ovidfast>{{cite web|last1=Ovid|title=Fasti: Book V: May 2, ''l'' |publisher=The Latin Library |url=http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/OvidFastiBkFive.htm#anchor_Toc69367920|access-date=26 October 2014 |page=201 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120913085412/http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/OvidFastiBkFive.htm#anchor_Toc69367920|archive-date=13 September 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Oxford>{{cite journal|last1=Morgan|first1=Theresa|title=The Lent Lily|journal=The Door|date=March 2012|issue=233|page=2|url=http://issuu.com/oxforddiocese/docs/td_march_2012/2|access-date=11 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111041506/http://issuu.com/oxforddiocese/docs/td_march_2012/2 |archive-date=11 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Paghat>{{cite web|title='Thalia', White Miniature, Angel Tears|url=http://www.paghat.com/narcissusthalia.html|website=Paghat's Garden|access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063316/http://www.paghat.com/narcissusthalia.html |archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Panofsky>{{cite journal|last1=Panofsky|first1=Dora|title=Narcissus and Echo; Notes on Poussin's Birth of Bacchus in the Fogg Museum of Art|journal=The Art Bulletin|date=June 1949|volume=31|issue=2|pages=112–120|jstor=3047225|doi=10.2307/3047225}}</ref>

<ref name=Pausanias>{{cite web|last1=Pausanias|title=9. Boeotia|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D31%3Asection%3D9|access-date=19 October 2014|pages=31: 9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027003610/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D31%3Asection%3D9|archive-date=27 October 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Pausanias|1918}}</ref>

<ref name=Paeonia>{{cite web|title=Camerarius, J. (the younger).|url=http://www.paeon.de/h1/camerar/1.html|website=Carsten Burkhardt's Web Project Paeonia|access-date=10 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014233105/http://www.paeon.de/h1/camerar/1.html|archive-date=14 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=PERLENBACH>{{cite web|title=Perlenbach- und Fuhrtsbachtal bei Höfen: Narzissenreiche Bachtäler in der Westeifel|url=http://www.nrw-stiftung.de/projekte/projekt.php?pid=19|publisher=Nordrhein-Westfalen-Stiftung|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429065329/http://www.nrw-stiftung.de/projekte/projekt.php?pid=19|archive-date=29 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Pliny>{{cite book|last1=Pliny|first1=The Elder|pages=367–368|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IUoMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA367|access-date=3 October 2014|title=75. Sixteen remedies derived from the Narcissus|year=1856|publisher=H. G. Bohn |isbn=9780598910783 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816195221/https://books.google.com/books?id=IUoMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA367&lpg=PA367|archive-date=16 August 2018|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Plinius Secundus|1856}}</ref>

<ref name=Pliny2>{{cite book|last1=Pliny|first1=The Elder|page=316|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IUoMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA316|access-date=3 October 2014|title = 12. The Narcissus: Three varieties of it|year=1856|publisher=H. G. Bohn |isbn=9780598910783 }} In {{Harvtxt|Plinius Secundus|1856}}</ref>

<ref name=PlinyLat>{{cite web|last1=Gaius Plinius|first1=Secundus|title=Naturalis Historia xxi:74.|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0138%3Abook%3D21%3Achapter%3D74|access-date=3 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019100055/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0138%3Abook%3D21%3Achapter%3D74|archive-date=19 October 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Plinius Secundus|1906}}</ref>

<ref name=PlinyLat2>{{cite web|last1=Gaius Plinius|first1=Secundus|title=Naturalis Historia xxi:14.|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0138%3Abook%3D21%3Achapter%3D14|access-date=4 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018090155/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0138%3Abook%3D21%3Achapter%3D14|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Plinius Secundus|1906}}</ref>

<ref name=Plutarch>{{cite book|last1=Plutarch|chapter=Symposiacs|publisher=University of Adelaide |chapter-url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/chapter3.html#section24|access-date=6 October 2014 |title=The complete works of Plutarch: essays and miscellanies, New York: Crowell, 1909. Vol.III. Book III c.1|year=2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009023532/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/chapter3.html#section24 |archive-date=9 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=PoetryNarcissus>{{cite book|title=''"Poetry of the Narcissus"''|pages=4–8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UxdBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA4|access-date=1 October 2014|last1=Burbidge |first1=Frederick William |year=1875a}} In {{Harvtxt|Burbidge|1875}}</ref>

<ref name=Prior>{{harvnb|Prior|1870|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iKtWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA163 163]|loc="Narcissus"}}</ref>

<ref name=Protectrodent>{{cite web|last1=Rhoades|first1=Heather|title=Tips On How To Protect Flower Bulbs From Rodent Damage|url=http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/plant-problems/pests/protect-flower-bulbs.htm|website=Gardening Know How|access-date=5 October 2014|date=October 18, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006200053/http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/plant-problems/pests/protect-flower-bulbs.htm|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Pupils ill after bulb put in soup">{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/suffolk/8031344.stm | work=BBC News | title=Pupils ill after bulb put in soup | date=3 May 2009 | access-date=26 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508140354/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/suffolk/8031344.stm | archive-date=8 May 2009 | url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Reece>{{cite journal|last1=Reece|first1=Steve|title=Homer's Asphodel Meadow|journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies|date=2007|volume=47|issue=4|pages=389–400|url=http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/811|access-date=7 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010194701/http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/811|archive-date=10 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=resur>{{cite web|title=The Daffodils of Resurrection |url=http://stjohndfw.info/sunday-of-the-holy-cross-the-daffodils-of-resurrection.html |publisher=St John the Baptist Greek Orthodox Church, Euless |access-date=5 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006094204/http://stjohndfw.info/sunday-of-the-holy-cross-the-daffodils-of-resurrection.html |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=RHSAZ>{{cite book|editor1-last=Brickell|editor1-first=Christopher|title=RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants|year=2008|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1405332965|page=1136}}</ref>

<ref name=RHSBC>{{cite web|title=Botanical Classification|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffbotanical|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=27 October 2014|date=23 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910215838/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffbotanical|archive-date=10 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=RHSbotnames>{{cite web|title=Botanical names in the genus ''Narcissus''|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffalpha|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=2 November 2014|date=October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020214113/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffalpha|archive-date=20 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="RHSClass">{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffhortclass|title=Horticultural Classification of Narcissus|publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]]|access-date=20 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911184144/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffhortclass|archive-date=11 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=RHSIRA>{{cite web|title=Daffodil cultivar registration|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/plantsmanship/plant-registration/daffodil-cultivar-registration|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006154332/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/plantsmanship/plant-registration/daffodil-cultivar-registration|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=RHSIRAS>{{cite web|title=Search The International Daffodil Register & Classified List|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/horticulturaldatabase/daffodilregister/daffsearch.asp|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014134908/http://apps.rhs.org.uk/horticulturaldatabase/daffodilregister/daffsearch.asp|archive-date=14 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=RHSSegregate>{{cite web|title=Segregate and other genera|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffsegregate|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=1 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911183034/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/daffsegregate|archive-date=11 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Ronsted2008>{{cite journal|last1=Rønsted|first1=Nina|last2=Savolainen|first2=Vincent|last3=Mølgaard|first3=Per|last4=Jäger|first4=Anna K.|title=Phylogenetic selection of Narcissus species for drug discovery|journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology|date=May–June 2008|volume=36|issue=5–6|pages=417–422|doi=10.1016/j.bse.2007.12.010}}</ref>

<ref name=Ruskin>{{cite web|last1=Davis|first1=Alan|title=Ruskin and the Persephone Myth|url=http://www.lancs.ac.uk/users/ruskinlib/Pages/persephone.html|publisher=Lancaster University: Ruskin Library|access-date=27 October 2014|date=2007}}</ref>

<ref name=Salisbury>{{cite book|last1=Salisbury|title=Narcisseae|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wU4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA98|pages=98ff|access-date=26 October 2014|year=1866}} In {{Harvtxt|Salisbury|Gray|1866}}</ref>

<ref name=Santos-Gally>{{cite journal|last1=Santos-Gally|first1=Rocío|last2=Vargas|first2=Pablo|last3=Arroyo|first3=Juan|title=Insights into Neogene Mediterranean biogeography based on phylogenetic relationships of mountain and lowland lineages of (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Journal of Biogeography|date=April 2012|volume=39|issue=4|pages=782–798|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02526.x|s2cid=82002008|url=https://www.academia.edu/708994|access-date=20 October 2014}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

<ref name=Schimmel165>{{harvnb|Schimmel|1992|p=165}}</ref>

<ref name="Schmidt">[https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermFolder/AMARY.html#Narcissus ''Narcissus''] in [https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/ BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database]</ref>

<ref name=Schultes>{{cite book|last1=Schultes|year=1830|title=Narcissus, Vol. VII, pt.2|page=932 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15274#page/245/mode/1up|access-date=25 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101105849/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15274#page/245/mode/1up|archive-date=1 November 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Linnaeus|1829}}</ref>

<ref name="SOED">{{cite book|title=Shorter Oxford English dictionary |edition=6th|year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-0199206872|page=3804 |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/narcissus|access-date=26 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140925035143/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/narcissus|archive-date=25 September 2014|url-status=dead}} American usage: {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/narcissus |title=Narcissus |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129043752/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/narcissus |archive-date=2014-11-29}}</ref>

<ref name=Spach>{{cite book|last1=Spach|title=Genre NARCISSE - Narcissus Linn, Vol. 23 [t.12]|pages=430–455 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/98300#page/442/mode/1up|access-date=21 October 2014|date=1834–1848 |publisher=Librairie encyclopédique de Roret|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101022824/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/98300#page/442/mode/1up|archive-date=1 November 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Spach|1846}}</ref>

<ref name=Stuttgart>{{cite web|last1=Wiemann|first1=Elsbeth|title=Master of the Göttingen "Barfüsseraltar", also known as "Master of the Hildesheim Legend of Magdalen" active during the first quarter of the 15th century "Noli me tangere (Do Not Touch Me)"|url=http://www.staatsgalerie.de/malereiundplastik_e/altdeu_rundg.php?id=3|website=Collection: Paintings and sculptures|publisher=[[Staatsgalerie Stuttgart]]|access-date=24 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512131437/http://www.staatsgalerie.de/malereiundplastik_e/altdeu_rundg.php?id=3|archive-date=12 May 2015}}</ref>

<ref name=Tazetta>{{cite web|last1=Michaux|first1=Jean|date=2009|title=Narcissus tazetta|website=La Flore |url=http://crdp.ac-besancon.fr/flore/Amaryllidaceae/ESPECES/narcissus_tazetta.htm|publisher=Académie de Besançon |access-date=26 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506070032/http://crdp.ac-besancon.fr/flore/Amaryllidaceae/ESPECES/narcissus_tazetta.htm |archive-date=6 May 2015}}</ref>

<ref name=Todt>{{cite journal|last1=Todt|first1=Donn L.|journal=Pacific Horticulture|date=January 2012 |url=http://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/relict-gold-the-long-journey-of-the-chinese-narcissus/ |access-date=14 October 2014 |title=Relict Gold: The Long Journey of the Chinese Narcissus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907181957/http://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/relict-gold-the-long-journey-of-the-chinese-narcissus/ |archive-date=7 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Turner>{{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=William|title=A New Herball - The Seconde Parte|date=1562 |pages=61–62|chapter=Of Narcissus|author-link1=William Turner (naturalist)}} In {{Harvtxt|Turner|1995}}</ref>

<ref name=vanLeeuwen>{{cite journal|last1=van Leeuwen|first1=Paul J|date=October 2014|title=Fungal diseases and hot-water treatment in ''Galanthus''|journal=Daffodil, Snowdrop and Tulip Yearbook 2014|pages=48–50}}</ref>

<ref name="WCSP_Narcissus">{{cite web |title=''Narcissus''|work=[[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]] |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do?plantName=Narcissus |access-date=13 October 2016}}</ref>

<ref name=Webster>{{cite web|title=narcissus|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/narcissus|website=Merriam-Webster|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129184405/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/narcissus|archive-date=29 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=WFI1>{{cite web|title=Narcissus tazetta|url=http://www.wildflowers.co.il/english/plant.asp?ID=249|access-date=8 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013021803/http://www.wildflowers.co.il/english/plant.asp?ID=249|archive-date=13 October 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Gold|Eshel|Plotnizki|2014}}</ref>

<ref name=WFI2>{{cite web|title=Endangered and Protected Species|url=http://www.wildflowers.co.il/english/protectedIndex.asp|access-date=8 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025132736/http://www.wildflowers.co.il/english/protectedIndex.asp|archive-date=25 October 2014|url-status=live}} In {{Harvtxt|Gold|Eshel|Plotnizki|2014}}</ref>

<ref name=WW1>{{cite book|last1=Wordsworth|first1=William|year=1807a|title=''"I wandered lonely as a Cloud"'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPA9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49|pages=49–50|access-date=12 October 2014}} In {{Harvtxt|Wordsworth|1807}}</ref>

<ref name=WW2>{{cite book|last1=Wordsworth|first1=William|year=1807b|title=''"Foresighrt"'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPA9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115|pages=115–116|access-date=12 October 2014}} In {{Harvtxt|Wordsworth|1807}}</ref>

<ref name=WTrust>{{cite web|title=Wordsworth's Daffodils|publisher=Wordsworth Trust |format=Skip any introductory screen |url=https://wordsworth.org.uk/daffodils.html |access-date=13 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018040421/https://wordsworth.org.uk/daffodils.html|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Zonneveld>{{cite journal|last1=Zonneveld|first1=B. J. M.|title=The systematic value of nuclear DNA content for all species of Narcissus L. (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |date=24 September 2008|volume=275|issue=1–2|pages=109–132|doi=10.1007/s00606-008-0015-1|author-link1=Ben Zonneveld|doi-access=free|hdl=1887/13962|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=Zonneveld11>{{cite journal|last1=Zonneveld|first1=B.J.M.|title=The involvement of ''Narcissus hispanicus'' Gouan in the origin of ''Narcissus bujei'' and of cultivated trumpet daffodils (Amaryllidaceae) |journal=Anales del Jardín Botánico de Madrid|date=8 July 2010|volume=67|issue=1|pages=29–39|doi=10.3989/ajbm.2219|doi-access=free}}</ref>

}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
=== General ===
==== Antiquity ====
* {{cite book|last1=Plinius Secundus|first1=Gaius (Pliny the Elder)|editor1-last=Bostock|editor1-first=John|editor2-last=Riley|editor2-first=H. T.|title=Natural History Book XXI (Volume Four)|date=1856|publisher=Henry G Bohn|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryp02bostgoog|access-date=3 October 2014}}
* {{cite web|last1=Plinius Secundus|first1=Gaius (Pliny the Elder)|editor1-last=Mayhoff|editor1-first=Karl Friedrich Theodor|title=Naturalis Historia|year=1906|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0138|website=Perseus Digital Library|access-date=3 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Vergilius Maro|first1=Publius (Virgil)|editor1-last=Davidson|editor1-first=Joseph|title=The Works of Virgil: Translated Into English Prose, as Near the Original as the Different Idioms of the Latin and English Languages Will Allow & etc.|date=1770|publisher=J Beecroft et al.|location=London|edition=5th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ|access-date=27 September 2014}}
* {{cite web|last1=Pausanias|title=Description of Greece|editor1-last=Jones|editor1-first=W.H.S.|date=1918|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1|website=[[Perseus Digital Library]]|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|access-date=19 October 2014|location=Cambridge, MA}}
* {{cite book|last1=Dioscuridis Anazarbei|first1=Pedanii|editor1-last=Wellman|editor1-first=Max|title=De materia medica libri quinque. Volume II|date=1906|publisher=Apud Weidmannos|location=Berlin|ol=20439608M}}
* {{cite book|last1=Theophrastus|author-link=Theophrastus|editor1-last=Hort|editor1-first=Arthur|title=Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία|trans-title=Enquiry into Plants|volume=II|date=1916|orig-date=4th century BC|publisher=William Heinemann and G.P. Putnam's Sons|series=[[Loeb Classical Library]]|location=London and New York|isbn=978-0-674-99077-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/theophrastusiien00theo}}
* {{cite book|last1=Theocritus|last2=Bion|last3=Moschus|editor1-last=Lang|editor1-first=Andrew|title=Theocritus, Bion and Moschus rendered into English prose|date=1880|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3okOAAAAQAAJ|access-date=8 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Moschus|editor1-last=Edmonds|editor1-first=John Maxwell|title=Moschus. The Greek Bucolic Poets|date=1919|publisher=William Heinemann|location=London|edition=Perseus Digital Library|chapter=Εὐρώπη|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0644|access-date=8 November 2014}}

==== Renaissance ====
* {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=William|editor1-last=Chapman|editor1-first=George T. L.|editor2-last=Tweddle|editor2-first=Marilyn N.|editor3-last=McCombie|editor3-first=Frank|title=William Turner: A New Herball Parts II and III|date=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521445498|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bc8Z6otwklgC|access-date=2 November 2014|orig-date=Reproduces parts II and III, originally published in 1562 and 1568 respectively}} Original at [http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/turher/index.html Rare Book Room Spread 188]
* {{cite book|last1=Clusius|first1=Carolus|title=Atrebat Rariorum alioquot stirpium per Hispanias observatarum historia: libris duobus expressas|date=1576|publisher=Plantinus|location=Antwerp|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/847#/summary|access-date=5 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Camerarius|first1=Joachim (The Younger)|title=Hortus medicus et philosophicus: In quo plurimorum stirpium breves descriptiones|date=1588|publisher=S. Feyerabend, H. Dack, & P. Fischer|location=Frankfurt|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11111583?page=5|access-date=10 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=de l'Obel|first1=Matthias|title=Icones stirpium|date=1591|location=Antwerp|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/9308#/summary|access-date=26 October 2014|author-link1=Matthias de l'Obel|publisher=Ex officina plantiniana :Apud Viduam et Ioannem Moretum}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gerard|first1=John|title=The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes|date=1597|publisher=John Norton|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000817749|access-date=26 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Besler|first1=Basilius|title=Hortus Eystettensis, sive, Diligens et accurata omnium plantarum, florum, stirpium : ex variis orbis terrae partibus, singulari studio collectarum, quae in celeberrimis viridariis arcem episcopalem ibidem cingentibus, olim conspiciebantur delineatio et ad vivum repraesentatio et advivum repraesentatio opera.|date=1613|location=Nuremberg|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/45339#/summary|access-date=10 October 2014|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.45339}}
* {{cite book|last=Parkinson|first=John|title=Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris: Or A Garden of All Sorts of Pleasant Flowers which our English Ayre will Permitt to be Noursed Vp. With a Kitchen Garden of All Manner of Herbes, Rootes, & Fruites, for Meate or Sause Vsed with Vs, and an Orchard of All Sorte of Fruitbearing Trees and Shrubbes Fit for Our Land. Together with the Right Orderinge, Planting & Preserving of Them and Their Uses and Vertues Collected by Iohn Parkinson Apothecary of London|location=London|publisher=Printed by Hvmfrey Lownes and Robert Yovng at the Signe of the Starre on Bread-Street Hill|year=1629|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/7100#/summary|access-date=29 December 2014|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.7100}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lauremberg|first1=Peter|title=Apparatus plantarius: de plantis bulbosis et de plantis tuberosis|date=1632|publisher=Matthias Merian|location=Frankfurt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JjRAAAAAcAAJ|access-date=24 December 2014|language=la}}

==== Eighteenth century ====
* {{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Philip|title=The Gardeners Dictionary: containing the methods of cultivating and improving the kitchen, fruit and flower garden, as also the physick garden, wilderness, conservatory, and vineyard|date=1735|publisher=Rivington|location=London|edition=Abridged|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/28437#/summary|access-date=27 December 2014|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.28437|hdl=2027/uma.ark:/13960/t44q8633p}}
* {{cite book|last=Linnaeus|first=Carl|title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|year=1753|publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii|location=Stockholm|access-date=13 October 2016|author-link=Carl Linnaeus}} see also [[Species Plantarum]]
* {{cite book|last1=Hale|first1=Thomas|editor1-last=[[John Hill (botanist)|Hill]]|editor1-first=John|title=Eden, or, A compleat body of gardening : containing plain and familiar directions for raising the several useful products of a garden, fruits, roots, and herbage, from the practice of the most successful gardeners, and the result of a long experience|date=1757|publisher=Osborne|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/65153#/summary|access-date=3 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=van Kampen et fils|first1=Nicolas|title=Traité des fleurs à oignons: contenant tout ce qui est nécessaire pour les bien cultiver, fondé sur une expérience de plusieurs années|date=1760|publisher=Bohn|location=Harlem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3ZYAAAAcAAJ|access-date=26 December 2014|language=fr}} ''translated into English as'' {{harv|van Kampen & Son|1764}}
* {{cite book|last1=van Kampen & Son|first1=Nicolas|title=The Dutch florist, or, True method of managing all sorts of flowers with bulbous roots|date=1764|publisher=Baldwin|location=London|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIYmAQAAMAAJ|access-date=26 December 2014|format=translated (Harrison) from French: {{harv|van Kampen et fils|1760}}|quote=Next to the Hyacinths, Tulips, Ranunculuses, and Anemones, of which we have treated already, the ''Polyanthus Narcissus'' holds the first place and demands our chief attention}}
* {{cite book|last1=Justice|first1=James|author-link=James Justice (horticulturalist)|title=The British gardener's new director : chiefly adapted to the climate of the northern counties: directing the necessary works in the kitchen, fruit and pleasure gardens, and in the nursery, greenhouse, and stove|date=1771|publisher=Exshaw|location=Dublin|edition=5th|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.26951|hdl=2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t6445sk1k|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/26951#/summary|access-date=27 December 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Maddock|first1=James|title=The florist's directory : or, A treatise on the culture of flowers ; to which is added a supplementary dissertation on soils, manures, &c.|date=1792|publisher=B. White & Sons|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/16498#/summary|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.16498|access-date=26 December 2014|hdl=2027/ncs1.ark:/13960/t25b0nj3t}}

==== Nineteenth century ====
* {{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Perthensis; or, Universal dictionary of Knowledge vol. 25|date=1806|location=Perth|pages=565–566|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k2gIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA565|access-date=28 November 2014|chapter=Narcissus|last1=Perthensis|first1=Encyclopaedia}}
* {{cite book|last1=Linné|first1=Carl von|editor1-last=[[Johan Andreas Murray|Murray]]|editor1-first=Johann Andreas|title=Systema vegetabilium (14th edition of Systema Naturae)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03gZAAAAYAAJ|access-date=3 November 2014|year=1784|publisher=Typis et impensis Jo. Christ. Dieterich}}
* {{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Robert|title=Prodromus florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van-Diemen, exhibens characteres plantarum|date=1810|publisher=Taylor|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/3678#/summary|access-date=30 October 2014|author-link1=Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)}}
* {{cite book|last1=De Lamarck|first1=Jean-Baptiste|last2=De Candolle|first2=Augustin Pyramus|title=Flore française ou descriptions succinctes de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France disposées selon une nouvelle méthode d'analyse ; et précédées par un exposé des principes élémentaires de la botanique|year=1815a|publisher=Desray|location=Paris|edition=3rd|url=https://archive.org/details/florefrancaiseou31815lama|access-date=29 October 2014|volume=III|author-link1=De Lamarck}}
* {{cite book|last1=De Lamarck|first1=Jean-Baptiste|last2=De Candolle|first2=Augustin Pyramus|title=Flore française ou descriptions succinctes de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France disposées selon une nouvelle méthode d'analyse ; et précédées par un exposé des principes élémentaires de la botanique|year=1815b|publisher=Desray|location=Paris|edition=3rd|url=https://archive.org/details/florefranaiseou00goog|access-date=29 October 2014|volume=V}}
* {{cite book|last1=Redouté|first1=Pierre Joseph|last2=De Candolle|first2=Augustin Pyramus|author-link1=Redouté|author-link2=De Candolle|title=Les liliacées|date=1805–1808|publisher=Redouté|location=Paris|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/537#/summary|access-date=1 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|author = A. P. de Candolle|year = 1813|title = Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, ou exposition des principes de la classification naturelle et de l'art de décrire et d'etudier les végétaux|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/39705#/summary|access-date = 5 February 2014|author-link = A. P. de Candolle}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=[[John Wilkes|Wilkes]]|editor1-first=John|title=Encyclopaedia Londinensis vol. 16|date=1819|location=London|pages=576–580|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z6XHGGuzduAC&pg=PA575|access-date=2 November 2014|chapter=Narcissus}}
* {{cite book|last1=Anonymous|title=Flora Domestica, Or, The Portable Flower-garden : with Directions for the Treatment of Plants in Pots and Illustrations From the Works of the Poets|date=1823|publisher=Taylor and Hessey|location=London|pages=264–269|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N05KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264|access-date=21 December 2014|chapter=Narcissus}} ''Later attributed to [[Elizabeth Kent (writer)|Elizabeth Kent]] and [[Leigh Hunt]]''.
* {{cite book|last1=Linnaeus|first1=Carl|author-link1=Carl Linnaeus|editor1-last=[[Josef August Schultes|Schultes]]|editor1-first=Josef August|editor2-last=Schultes|editor2-first=Julius Hermann|title=Systema vegetabilium|date=1829|publisher=J. G. Cottae|location=Stuttgardt|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/825#/summary|access-date=25 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Herbert|first1=William|chapter=Suborder 5. Narcisseae|title=Amaryllidaceae: Preceded by an Attempt to Arrange the Monocotyledonous Orders, and Followed by a Treatise on Cross-bred Vegetables, and Supplement|date=1837|publisher=Ridgway|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EusCAAAAYAAJ|access-date=20 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Curtis|editor1-first=Thomas|title=London Encyclopaedia vol. 15|date=1839|location=London|pages=449–451|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=948pOSOcj_QC&pg=PA449|access-date=27 November 2014|chapter=Narcissus}}
* {{cite book|last1=Spach|first1=Edouard|title=Histoire naturelle des végétaux: Phanérogames|volume=12|date=1846|publisher=Roret|location=Paris|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/44839#/summary|access-date=20 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Burnett|first1=M. A.|title=Plantae utiliores: or illustrations of useful plants, employed in the arts and medicine, Part VIII|date=1850|publisher=Whittaker|location=London|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JR0aAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT113|access-date=2 November 2014|chapter=Narcissus angustifolius}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wilkinson|first1=Caroline Catharine, Lady|title=Weeds and wild flowers : their uses, legends, and literature|date=1858|publisher=J. Van Voorst|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/weedswildflowers00wilkrich|access-date=26 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Salisbury|first1=Richard Anthony|last2=Gray|first2=J. E.|title=The Genera of Plants|publisher=J. Van Voorst|date=1866|url=https://archive.org/details/generaplantsafr00saligoog|access-date=26 October 2014|format=Unpublished fragment|author-link2=John Edward Gray}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/onpopularnamesof00prioiala|last1=Prior|first1=Richard Chandler Alexander|title=On the popular names of British Plants, being an explanation of the origin and meaning of the names of our indigenous and most commonly cultivated species|date=1870|publisher=Williams & Norgate|location=London|edition=2nd|access-date=6 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Earley|first1=W|title=The Villa Gardener vol. 7 (December)|date=1877|location=London|pages=394–396|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSI7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA394|access-date=8 November 2014|chapter=The Narcissus}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ellacombe|first1=Henry Nicholson|author-link=Henry Nicholson Ellacombe|title=The Plant-lore & Garden-craft of Shakespeare|date=1884|publisher=W Satchell and Co|location=London|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/plantloregarden01ellagoog|access-date=26 November 2014}}

==== Twentieth century ====
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Daffodil|volume=7|page=728}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Doorenbos|first1=J.|s2cid=5615677|title=Notes on the history of bulb breeding in the Netherlands|journal=Euphytica|date= 1954|volume=3|issue=1 february|pages=1–18|doi=10.1007/BF00028123}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Rees|editor1-first=A.R.|title=The Growth of Bulbs: Applied Aspects of the Physiology of Ornamental Bulbous Crops|date=1972|publisher=Elsevier Science|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0323155861|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tpdAkF2Av0gC|access-date=15 December 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Halevy|editor1-first=Abraham H.|title=CRC Handbook of flowering vol. I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xy4NAQAAMAAJ|date=1985|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Fla.|isbn=978-0849339110|access-date=29 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Huxley|first1=Anthony|author-link = Anthony Huxley|last2=Griffiths|first2=Mark|last3=Levy|first3=Margot|title=The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening. (4 vols.)|date=1992|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|isbn=978-0333474945}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Lloyd|editor1-first=David G|editor2-last=Barrett|editor2-first=Spencer C.H.|title=Floral biology : studies on floral evolution in animal-pollinated plants|date=1995|publisher=Chapman & Hall|location=New York|isbn=978-0412043413|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HgFA7mFHp2QC|access-date=29 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Leeds|editor1-first=Rod|editor2-last=Hedge|editor2-first=Ronald|editor3-last=Hawthorne|editor3-first=Linden|title=RHS Plant Guides: Bulbs|date=1997|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|location=London|isbn=978-0751303056}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Kubitzki|editor-first=K.|editor-link=Klaus Kubitzki|title=The families and genera of vascular plants. Vol.3|year=1998|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin, Germany|isbn=978-3-540-64060-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC|access-date=14 January 2014}}

==== Twenty first century ====
* {{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=A.K.|title=Flower crops : cultivation & management|date=2006|publisher=New India Pub. Agency|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8189422356|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bfb1T6QbfaAC|access-date=7 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Duke|first1=James A.|title=Duke's Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible|date=2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis Ltd.|location=Hoboken|isbn=978-0849382031|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UcLYLpwdcm8|access-date=29 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Leyel|first1=C. F.|title=Cinquefoil|date=2007|publisher=Health Research Books|location=Pomeroy, WA|isbn=978-0787314132|page=289|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kz6q3Alkm4C&pg=PA289|access-date=3 November 2014|chapter=Herbs for the Skin}}
* {{cite book |last=Mabberley |first=David J |title=Mabberley's Plant-Book |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107782594 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFFgAgAAQBAJ |edition=3rd |access-date=8 January 2014 }}
* {{cite book|title=Beyond Cladistics: The Branching of a Paradigm|year=2010|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26772-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aH5B3ifHmuwC|editor1-last=Williams|editor1-first=D. M.|editor2-last=Knapp|editor2-first=Sandra|access-date=15 February 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor-first1=Rina|editor-last1=Kamenetsky|editor-first2=Hiroshi|editor-last2=Okubo|title=Ornamental Geophytes: From Basic Science to Sustainable Production|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC|year=2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8|last1=Okubo|first1=Hiroshi|last2=Sochacki|first2=Dariusz|chapter=Botanical and horticultural aspects of major ornamental geophytes: VII Narcissi|pages=103–108|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA103}}
* {{cite book|last1=S.J. Enna|first1=S.J.|last2=Norton|first2=Stata|title=Herbal Supplements and the Brain: Understanding Their Health Benefits and Hazards|date=2012|publisher=FT Press Science|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|isbn=978-0132825016|pages=149–160|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HY7EjVJ9sYMC&pg=PA149|access-date=29 October 2014|chapter=12. Daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus)}}

=== Flora ===
* {{cite book|last1=Cullen|first1=James|editor1-last=Cullen|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Knees|editor2-first=Sabina G.|editor3-last=Cubey|editor3-first=H. Suzanne Cubey|title=The European Garden Flora, Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass: Vol. 1. Alismataceae to Orchidaceae|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521761475|edition=2nd|chapter=Narcissus|pages=205 ff|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkxWrDqtWLQC|access-date=21 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Tutin|editor1-first=T. G.|title=Flora Europaea. Volume 5, Alismataceae to Orchidaceae (monocotyledones)|date=1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521201087|edition=Reprinted|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v11xJgWbUDcC|access-date=4 October 2014|ref={{harvid|Tutin et al.|1980}}|display-editors=etal}}
* {{cite book|last1=Thomé|first1=Otto Wilhelm|title=Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz|volume=I|date=1903|publisher=Zezschwitz|location=Gera|edition=2nd|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/35974#/summary|access-date=22 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sell|first1=Peter|last2=Murrell|first2=Gina|title=Flora of Great Britain and Ireland: : Volume 5, Butomaceae - Orchidaceae|date=1996|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521553391|pages=285–293|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKGlBap0FRYC&pg=PA285|access-date=29 October 2014|chapter=''Narcissus''}}
* {{cite web|title=Narcissus|url=http://www.floraiberica.es/eng/PHP/cientificos_.php?gen=Narcissus|website=Flora Iberica|publisher=[[Real Jardín Botánico]]|access-date=29 October 2014|date=2014}}
** {{cite book |vauthors=Aedo C |veditors=Talavera S, Andrés C, Arista M, Fernández Piedra MP, Rico E, Crespo MB, Quintanar A, Herrero A, Aedo C |title=Flora Iberica. Vol 20 |date=2014 |publisher=[[Real Jardín Botánico]], Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas |location=Madrid |chapter=''Narcissus'' L. |chapter-url=http://www.floraiberica.es/floraiberica/texto/imprenta/tomoXX/20_184_05_Narcissus.pdf |access-date=30 November 2014 |language=es }}
* {{cite book |veditors=Blanca G, Cabezudo B, Cueto M, Salazar C, Morales-Torres C |title=Flora vascular de Andalucía oriental |volume=I |date=2009 |publisher=Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía |location=Sevilla |isbn=9788492807130 |pages=171–180 |chapter=''Narcissus'' |chapter-url=http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/medioambiente/web/1_consejeria_de_medio_ambiente/dg_gestion_medio_natural/biodiversidad/static_files/flora_y_hongos/libro_flora_vascular/flora_vascular_tomo_1.pdf |language=es }}
** [http://floresdeordesa.files.wordpress.com/2014/04/flora_vascular_andalucia_oriental_20111.pdf 2nd ed. 2011. ''Narcissus''] pp.&nbsp;173–182 {{ISBN|9788433852175}}
* {{cite web|last1=Cebrian|first1=Jordi|title=Flora Catalana|url=http://www.floracatalana.es/INICI/INICI.html|access-date=31 December 2014|date=2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230202834/http://www.floracatalana.es/INICI/INICI.html|archive-date=30 December 2014|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|last1=Quiles|first1=José|title=Flora silvestre del Mediterráneo|url=http://www.florasilvestre.es/mediterranea/index.htm|access-date=1 January 2015|date=2014}}
* {{cite web|title=Narcissus|website=Flora of China: Vol. 24|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=121652|access-date=15 October 2014|page=269}}
* {{cite web|last1=Straley|first1=Gerald B.|last2=Utech|first2=Frederick H.|title=Narcissus|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=121652|website=Flora of North America vol 26|date=2003|access-date=19 October 2014|pages=53–54}}
* {{cite web|last1=Gathe|first1=J|last2=Watson|first2=L|title=Narcissus L.|url=https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/21239|website=Florabase: Western Australian Flora|publisher=Western Australian Herbarium|date=2008|access-date=2 December 2014|ref={{harvid|WAH|2008}}}}

=== Narcissus ===
==== Articles ====
* {{cite journal|last1=Krelage|first1=JH|title=On Polyanthus Narcissi|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society]]|date=17 April 1890|volume=12|issue=Daffodil Conference and Exhibition|pages=339–346|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2YXAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA339|access-date=25 December 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Wylie|first1=Ann P|date=1952|title=The history of the garden Narcissi|journal=Heredity|volume=6|issue=2|pages=137–156|doi=10.1038/hdy.1952.16|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=Frederick G|title=Exploring for Wild Narcissus|journal=The American Horticultural Magazine|date=April 1961|volume=40|issue=2|pages=211–220|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Meyer-F-Exploring-for-Wild-Narcissus-April-1961-American-Hort-Magazine-searchable.pdf|access-date=19 October 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last=American Horticultural Society|author-link=American Horticultural Society|title=The Daffodil Handbook|url=http://dafflibrary.org/american-horticultural-society-daffodil-handbook-1966/|journal=Amer. Hort. Mag.|date=January 1966|volume=45|issue=1|access-date=19 October 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mcintosh|first1=P. D.|last2=Allen|first2=R. B.|title=Narcissi bulb production at southern South island sites, New Zealand|journal=New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science|date=January 1992|volume=20|issue=1|pages=17–27|doi=10.1080/01140671.1992.10422321|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Chow|first1=Y|title=Basal Plate Tissue in ''Narcissus Bulbs'' and in Shoot Clump Cultures: Its Structure and Role in Organogenic Potential of Single Leaf Cultures|journal=Annals of Botany|date=1993|volume=71 may|issue=5|pages=437–443|doi=10.1006/anbo.1993.1057}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Dobson|first1=Heidi E.M.|last2=Arroyo|first2=Juan|last3=Bergström|first3=Gunnar|last4=Groth|first4=Inga|title=Interspecific variation in floral fragrances within the genus Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology|date=December 1997|volume=25|issue=8|pages=685–706|doi=10.1016/S0305-1978(97)00059-8|ref={{harvid|Dobson|1997}}|citeseerx=10.1.1.493.2278}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Dana|first1=Michael N.|last2=Lerner|first2=B. Rosie|title=The Narcissus|journal=Purdue Extension: Horticulture|date=1 April 2001|issue=HO-11-W|url=https://mdc.itap.purdue.edu/item.asp?itemID=10448|access-date=20 December 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Spaulding|first1=Daniel D.|last2=Barger|first2=T. Wayne|title=Key to the wild daffodils (Narcissus, Amaryllidaceae) of Alabama and adjacent states|journal=Phytoneuron|date=2014|volume=82|pages=1–10|url=http://phytoneuron.net/2014Phytoneuron/82PhytoN-NarcissusAlabama.pdf|access-date=3 November 2014|issn=2153-733X}}

===== Taxonomy =====
* {{cite journal|last1=Pugsley|first1=H.W|title=A monograph of Narcissus, subgenus Ajax.|journal=Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society|date=1933|volume=58|pages=17–93|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Pugsley-Monograph-of-Narcissus-Subgenus-Ajax-Journal-of-the-RHS-Vol.-LVIII-pt1-1933-p1-86comp.pdf|access-date=20 October 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=F. G.|title=Narcissus species and wild hybrids|journal=Amer. Hort. Mag.|date=January 1966|volume=45|issue=1|pages=47–76|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Daffodil-Handbook-a-special-issue-of-the-American-Horticultural-Magazine-1966-part-2.pdf|access-date=19 October 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Webb|first1=DA|title=Taxonomic notes on Narcissus L|journal=Bot J Linn Soc|date=June 1978|volume=76|issue= 4|pages=298–307|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1978.tb01817.x}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fernández-Casas|first1=Francisco Javier|title=Narcissorum notulae, VI|journal=Fontqueria|date=2005|volume=55|pages=265–272|url=http://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2304281.pdf|access-date=25 November 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fernández-Casas|first1=Francisco Javier|title=Narcissorum notulae, X|journal=Fontqueria|date=2008|volume=55|pages=547–558|url=http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/PDF/Fontqueria_55_67.pdf|access-date=20 October 2014|archive-date=2014-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020142638/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/PDF/Fontqueria_55_67.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Jiménez|first1=Juan F.|last2=Sánchez-Gómez|first2=Pedro|last3=Guerra|first3=Juan|last4=Molins|first4=Arántzazu|last5=Rosselló|first5=Josep A.|s2cid=13095365|title=Regional Speciation or Taxonomic Inflation? The Status of Several Narrowly Distributed and Endangered Species of Narcissus Using ISSR and Nuclear Ribosomal ITS Markers|journal=Folia Geobotanica|date=12 June 2009|volume=44|issue=2|pages=145–158|doi=10.1007/s12224-009-9040-2}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Medrano|first1=M.|last2=Herrera|first2=C. M.|title=Geographical Structuring of Genetic Diversity Across the Whole Distribution Range of ''Narcissus longispathus'', a Habitat-specialist, Mediterranean Narrow Endemic|journal=Annals of Botany|date=12 May 2008|volume=102|issue=2|pages=183–194|doi=10.1093/aob/mcn086|pmid=18556752|ref={{harvid|Medrano|2008}}|pmc=2712358}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Aedo|first1=Carlos|title=Typifications of the names of Iberian accepted species of ''Narcissus'' L. (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Acta Botanica Malacitana|date=2010|volume=35|pages=133–142|url=http://www.biolveg.uma.es/abm/Volumenes/vol35/35_Aedo.pdf|access-date=29 November 2014|doi=10.24310/abm.v35i0.2860}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fernández-Casas|first1=Francisco Javier|title=Narcissorum Notulae, XXXI|journal=Fontqueria|date=2011|volume=56|issue=26|pages=239–248|url=http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/PDF/Fontqueria_56_26.pdf|access-date=5 October 2014|archive-date=2014-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131912/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/PDF/Fontqueria_56_26.pdf|url-status=dead}}

===== Phylogenetics =====
* {{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=S. W.|last2=Barrett|first2=S. C. H.|title=Phylogenetic reconstruction of the evolution of stylar polymorphisms in Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=American Journal of Botany|date=1 July 2004|volume=91|issue=7|pages=1007–1021|doi=10.3732/ajb.91.7.1007|pmid=21653457|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Barrett|first1=Spencer C. H.|last2=Harder|first2=Lawrence D.|title=The evolution of polymorphic sexual systems in daffodils (Narcissus)|journal=New Phytologist|date=2 September 2004|volume=165|issue=1|pages=45–53|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01183.x|pmid=15720619|doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Rønsted|first1=Nina|last2=Savolainen|first2=Vincent|last3=Mølgaard|first3=Per|last4=Jäger|first4=Anna K.|title=Phylogenetic selection of Narcissus species for drug discovery|journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology|date=May–June 2008|volume=36|issue=5–6|pages=417–422|doi=10.1016/j.bse.2007.12.010}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Zonneveld|first1=B. J. M.|title=The systematic value of nuclear DNA content for all species of Narcissus L. (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution|date=24 September 2008|volume=275|issue=1–2|pages=109–132|doi=10.1007/s00606-008-0015-1|doi-access=free|hdl=1887/13962|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Zonneveld|first1=B. J. M.|title=The involvement of ''Narcissus hispanicus'' Gouan in the origin of ''Narcissus bujei'' and of cultivated trumpet daffodils (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Anales del Jardín Botánico de Madrid|date=8 July 2010|volume=67|issue=1|pages=29–39|doi=10.3989/ajbm.2219|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Marques|first1=I.|last2=Nieto Feliner|first2=G.|last3=Martins-Loucao|first3=M. A.|last4=Fuertes Aguilar|first4=J.|title=Genome size and base composition variation in natural and experimental Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae) hybrids|journal=Annals of Botany|date=11 November 2011|volume=109|issue=1|pages=257–264|doi=10.1093/aob/mcr282|pmid=22080093|pmc=3241596}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Gage|first1=Ewan|last2=Wilkin|first2=Paul|last3=Chase|first3=Mark W.|last4=Hawkins|first4=Julie|title=Phylogenetic systematics of Sternbergia (Amaryllidaceae) based on plastid and ITS sequence data|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=2011|volume=166|issue=2|pages=149–162|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01138.x|s2cid=84007862 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Santos-Gally|first1=Rocío|last2=Vargas|first2=Pablo|last3=Arroyo|first3=Juan|title=Insights into Neogene Mediterranean biogeography based on phylogenetic relationships of mountain and lowland lineages of Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Journal of Biogeography|date=April 2012|volume=39|issue=4|pages=782–798|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02526.x|s2cid=82002008|url=https://www.academia.edu/708994|access-date=30 October 2014}}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Medrano|first1=Mónica|last2=López-Perea|first2=Esmeralda|last3=Herrera|first3=Carlos M.|title=Population Genetics Methods Applied to a Species Delimitation Problem: Endemic Trumpet Daffodils (''Narcissus'' Section ''Pseudonarcissi'') from the Southern Iberian Peninsula|journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences|volume=175|issue=5|pages=501–517|date=June 2014|doi=10.1086/675977|jstor=675977|url=https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/101673/1/accesoRestringido.pdf|hdl=10261/101673|s2cid=44161272}}

===== Pharmacology =====
* {{cite journal|last1=John M. Riddle|first1=John M.|title=Ancient and Medieval Chemotherapy for Cancer|journal=Isis|date=September 1985|volume=76|issue=3|pages=319–330|url=http://rbedrosian.com/Gardens/Riddle_1985_Ancient_Chemo.pdf|access-date=31 October 2014|doi=10.1086/353876|pmid=3902714|s2cid=44932623}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Bastida|first1=Jaume|last2=Lavilla|first2=Rodolfo|last3=Viladomat|first3=Francesc Viladomat|editor1-last=Cordell|editor1-first=G. A.|title=Chemical and biological aspects of "Narcissus" alkaloids|date=2006|volume=63|pages=87–179|doi=10.1016/S1099-4831(06)63003-4|pmid=17133715|series=The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Biology|pmc=7118783|isbn=9780124695634}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Hartwell|first1=J. L.|title=Plants Used Against Cancer|journal=Lloydia|date=1967|volume=30|pages=379–436}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kornienko|first1=Alexander|last2=Evidente|first2=Antonio|title=Chemistry, Biology, and Medicinal Potential of Narciclasine and its Congeners|journal=Chemical Reviews|date=2008|volume=108|issue=6|pages=1982–2014|doi=10.1021/cr078198u|pmc=2856661|pmid=18489166}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Pettit|first1=GR|last2=Cragg|first2=GM|last3=Singh|first3=SB|last4=Duke|first4=JA|last5=Doubek|first5=DL|title=Antineoplastic agents, 162. Zephyranthes candida|journal=Journal of Natural Products|date=1990|volume=53|issue=1|pages=176–178|pmid=2348199|ref={{harvid|Pettit et al.|1990}}|doi=10.1021/np50067a026}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Pettit|first1=George R.|last2=Tan|first2=Rui|last3=Bao|first3=Guan-Hu|last4=Melody|first4=Noeleen|last5=Doubek|first5=Dennis L.|last6=Gao|first6=Song|last7=Chapuis|first7=Jean-Charles|last8=Williams|first8=Lee|title=Antineoplastic Agents. 587. Isolation and Structure of 3-Epipancratistatin from Narcissus cv. Ice Follies|journal=Journal of Natural Products|date=27 April 2012|volume=75|issue=4|pages=771–773|doi=10.1021/np200862y|pmid=22413911|pmc=3372531}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Pigni|first1=Natalia B.|last2=Ríos-Ruiz|first2=Segundo|last3=Martínez-Francés|first3=Vanessa|last4=Nair|first4=Jerald J.|last5=Viladomat|first5=Francesc|last6=Codina|first6=Carles|last7=Bastida|first7=Jaume|title=Alkaloids from ''Narcissus serotinus''|journal=Journal of Natural Products|date=28 September 2012|volume=75|issue=9|pages=1643–1647|doi=10.1021/np3003595|pmid=22917000}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Pigni|first1=Natalia B.|last2=Ríos-Ruiz|first2=Segundo|last3=Luque|first3=F. Javier|last4=Viladomat|first4=Francesc|last5=Codina|first5=Carles|last6=Bastida|first6=Jaume|title=Wild daffodils of the section Ganymedes from the Iberian Peninsula as a source of mesembrane alkaloids|journal=Phytochemistry|volume=95|pages=384–393|date=November 2013|doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.07.010|pmid=23932506|bibcode=2013PChem..95..384P }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Takos|first1=Adam|last2=Rook|first2=Fred|title=Towards a Molecular Understanding of the Biosynthesis of Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids in Support of Their Expanding Medical Use|journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences|date=31 May 2013|volume=14|issue=6|pages=11713–11741|doi=10.3390/ijms140611713|pmid=23727937|pmc=3709753|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Berkov|first1=Strahil|last2=Martínez-Francés|first2=Vanessa|last3=Bastida|first3=Jaume|last4=Codina|first4=Carles|last5=Ríos|first5=Segundo|title=Evolution of alkaloid biosynthesis in the genus Narcissus|journal=Phytochemistry|date=March 2014|volume=99|pages=95–106|doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.11.002|pmid=24461780|bibcode=2014PChem..99...95B }}
* {{cite web|title=Galanthamine CID 9651|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/galanthamine|website=PubChem|publisher=National Institutes of Health|access-date=9 March 2015|ref={{harvid|CID9651|2015}}}}

====Books====
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Atta-ur-Rahman|title=Studies in natural products chemistry. Vol 20 Structure and Chemistry (Part F)|date=1998|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam|isbn=9780080541990|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wjy24u4ubiUC|access-date=2 April 2015}}
* {{cite book|last1=Haworth|first1=Adrian Hardy|author-link=Adrian Hardy Haworth|title=Narcissinearum Monographia|date=1831|publisher=Ridgway|location=London|edition=2nd|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Haworth-Narcissinearum-searchable-Second-Edition-1831-better-copycomp.pdf|access-date=20 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Burbidge|first1=Frederick William|title=The Narcissus: Its History and Culture: With Coloured Plates and Descriptions of All Known Species and Principal Varieties.|date=1875|publisher=L. Reeve & Company|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UxdBAAAAYAAJ|access-date=28 September 2014}} ([http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Narcissus-its-history-and-culture-Burbidge-and-Baker-1875.pdf also available as pdf])
* {{cite book|last1=Barr|first1=Peter|author-link=Peter Barr (nurseryman)|last2=Burbidge|first2=F.W.|title=Ye Narcissus Or Daffodyl Flowere, Containing Hys Historie and Culture, &C., With a Compleat Liste of All the Species and Varieties Known to Englyshe Amateurs|date=1884|publisher=Barre & Sonne|location=London|isbn=978-1104534271|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqxBAAAAIAAJ|access-date=2 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Blanchard|first1=J. W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4aBFAAAAYAAJ|title=Narcissus: a guide to wild daffodils|date=1990|publisher=Alpine Garden Society|location=Surrey, UK|isbn=978-0900048531|access-date=2 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Erhardt|first1=Walter|title=Narzissen: Osterglocken, Jonquillen, Tazetten|date=1993|publisher=E. Ulmer|location=Stuttgart (Hohenheim)|isbn=978-3800164899|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_feiAAAACAAJ|access-date=18 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hanks|first1=Gordon R|title=Narcissus and Daffodil: The Genus Narcissus|date=2002|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=London|isbn=978-0415273442|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4_kH_BffGDgC|access-date=2 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kingsbury|first1=Noël|last2=Whitworth|first2=Jo|title=Daffodil : the remarkable story of the world's most popular spring flower|date=2013|publisher=Timber Press|isbn=978-1604695595|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVFFAQAAQBAJ|access-date=8 November 2014}}

==== Websites ====
* {{cite web|last1=Cook|first1=Danielle|title=Daffodil|url=https://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2013/cook_dani/index.htm|access-date=14 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531003709/http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2013/cook_dani/index.htm|archive-date=31 May 2014}}
* {{cite web|last1=Johnston|first1=Brian|title=A Close-up View of the "Daffodil"|url=http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artapr07/bj-daffodil.html|work=Micscape Magazine|access-date=14 November 2014|format=Close up images|date=April 2007}}
* {{cite web|last1=Kraft|first1=Rachel|title=Propagation of Daffodils (Narcissus pseudonarcissus)|url=http://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/chiwonlee/plsc368/student/papers01/rkraft/daffodilprop.htm|website=Plant Propagation|publisher=North Dakota State University, Department of Plant Sciences|access-date=14 November 2014|date=April 30, 2001}}
* {{cite web|last1=Trinklein|first1=David|title=Spring Flowering Bulbs: Daffodils|url=http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G6610|publisher=[[University of Missouri]] Extension|access-date=25 October 2014|date=2007}}
* {{cite web|last1=Van Beck|first1=John|last2=Christman|first2=Steve|title=Narcissus|url=http://www.floridata.com/ref/n/narc_spp.cfm|website=Floridata|access-date=25 October 2014|date=3 Oct 2005}}
* {{cite web|last1=Vigneron|first1=Pascal|title=Narcissus|url=http://www.amaryllidaceae.org/Narcissus/index.htm|website=Amaryllidaceae.org|access-date=23 October 2014|language=fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229023329/http://www.amaryllidaceae.org//Narcissus/index.htm|archive-date=29 December 2014|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|title=Daffodil Festivals and Fields|url=http://daffodilfestivals.com/|access-date=3 November 2014}}
* {{cite web|title=Narcissus|url=http://www.dryad-home.co.uk/gallery/NARCISSUS/index.html|publisher=Dryad Nursery|access-date=12 November 2014|format=Image galleries|date=2014}}
* {{cite web|last1=Steinbergs|first1=A|title=Daffodils|url=http://www.theplantexpert.com/springbulbs/DaffodilIntro.html|website=Spring-flowering Bulbs|publisher=The Plant Expert|access-date=26 November 2014|date=2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319232416/http://www.theplantexpert.com/springbulbs/DaffodilIntro.html|archive-date=19 March 2015|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|title=Narcissus Horticultural Tips|url=http://www.vanengelen.com/narcissus.html|publisher=Van Engelen|access-date=27 November 2014|date=2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206201657/http://www.vanengelen.com/narcissus.html|archive-date=6 December 2014}}

===== History =====
* {{cite web|last1=Libertiny|first1=Susan|title=Peter Barr – The King of Daffoldils|url=http://www.allaboutmygarden.com/2013/02/peter-barr-the-king-of-daffoldils/|website=All about my garden|date=5 February 2013|access-date=2 November 2014|archive-date=2014-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102073605/http://www.allaboutmygarden.com/2013/02/peter-barr-the-king-of-daffoldils/|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|title=John Gerard (1545–1612)|url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/treasures/john-gerard-1545-1612/|website=Historical Collections at the Claude Moore Health Sciences Library|publisher=University of Virginia|access-date=26 November 2014|date=2007|ref={{harvid|UVA|2007}}}}

=== Pests and diseases ===
==== Books ====
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Alford|editor1-first=David|title=Pest and Disease Management Handbook|date=2000|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Chichester|isbn=978-0470680193|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxw5JvD7MN4C|access-date=4 December 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pirone|first1=Pascal Pompey|title=Diseases and pests of ornamental plants|date=1978|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|isbn=978-0471072492|edition=5th|url=https://archive.org/details/diseasespestsofo0000piro|url-access=registration|access-date=4 December 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Gratwick|editor1-first=Marion|title=Crop Pests in the UK|date=1992 |publisher=Springer Netherlands|location=Dordrecht|isbn=978-94-011-1490-5 |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-1490-5 |s2cid=38067491}}
* {{cite book|last1=Horst|first1=R. Kenneth|title=Field manual of diseases on garden and greenhouse flowers|date=2013|publisher=Springer|location=Dordrecht|isbn=978-94-007-6049-3|url=https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/plant+sciences/book/978-94-007-6048-6|access-date=4 December 2014}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=ndhEAAAAQBAJ Additional excerpts]
* {{cite book|last1=Dreistadt|first1=Steve H.|title=Integrated pest management for floriculture and nurseries|date=2001|publisher=University of California, Statewide Integrated Pest Management Project, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|location=Oakland, Calif.|isbn=978-1879906464|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1s6Tmbu72kC}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Smith|editor1-first=I.M.|title=European Handbook of Plant Diseases|date=1988|publisher=Wiley|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1444314182|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3gbPsC7i1IIC|access-date=8 December 2014}}

===== Fungi =====
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Elad|editor1-first=Yigal|editor2-last=Williamson|editor2-first=Brian|editor3-last=Tudzynski|editor3-first=Paul|editor4-last=Delen|editor4-first=Nafiz|title=Botrytis biology, pathology and control|date=2007|publisher=Springer|location=Dordrecht, Netherlands|isbn=978-1-4020-2626-3|ref={{harvid|Elad|2007}}|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-2626-3|s2cid=83681757 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=o3MLLfk8JXMC Further excerpts]
* {{cite book|last1=Moore|first1=WC|title=British Parasitic Fungi|date=1959|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_M8AAAAIAAJ|access-date=22 November 2014}}

===== Viruses =====
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Fauquet|editor1-first=C.M.|title=Virus taxonomy classification and nomenclature of viruses ; 8th report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|date=2005|publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0080575483|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Wy7Jgy5RWYC|access-date=12 December 2014|display-editors=etal}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=King|editor1-first=Andrew M. Q.|title=Virus taxonomy : classification and nomenclature of viruses : ninth report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|date=2012|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0123846846|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KXRCYay3pH4C|access-date=9 December 2014|display-editors=etal}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Tidona|editor1-first=Christian|editor2-last=Darai|editor2-first=Gholamreza|title=The Springer index of viruses|date=2012|publisher=Springer|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-387-95919-1|edition=2nd |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-95919-1}}

===== Nematodes =====
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Lee|editor1-first=Donald L|title=The biology of nematodes|date=2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=London|isbn=978-0415272117|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=omQLBAAAQBAJ|access-date=16 December 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Zuckerman|editor1-first=Bert M.|editor2-last=Rohde|editor2-first=Richard A.|title=Plant Parasitic Nematodes vol. 3|date=1981|publisher=Elsevier Science|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0323147033|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pU9Mz--9wwoC|access-date=14 December 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ravichandra|first1=N. G.|title=Horticultural Nematology|date=2014|publisher=Springer|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788132218418|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OfS_AwAAQBAJ|access-date=14 December 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Perry|editor1-first=Roland N.|editor2-last=Moens|editor2-first=Maurice|title=Plant nematology|date=2013|publisher=CABI|location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-1780641515|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LTv7AgAAQBAJ|access-date=16 December 2014}}

==== Articles ====
* {{cite journal|last1=McWhorter|first1=Frank P.|last2=Weiss|first2=Freeman|title=Diseases of Narcissus|journal=Station Bulletin|date=June 1932|volume=304|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Diseases-of-Narcissus-opt.pdf|access-date=6 December 2014}}
* {{cite journal|title=Narcissus pests, 6th ed.|journal=Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Bulletin|date=1970|issue=51|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Narcissus-Pests-opt.pdf|access-date=20 December 2014|ref={{harvid|MAFF|1970}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mor|first1=M.|last2=Spiegel|first2=Y.|title=Infection of Narcissus Roots by ''Aphelenchoides subtenuis''|journal=J. Nematol.|date=1993|volume=25|issue=3, September|pages=476–479|pmc=2619407|pmid=19279798}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Slootweg|first1=A.F.G.|title=Rootrot of Bulbs Caused By Pratylenchus and Hoplolaimus Spp|journal=Nematologica|date=1 January 1956|volume=1|issue=3|pages=192–201|doi=10.1163/187529256X00041}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=S. K.|last2=Hodda|first2=M.|last3=Ash|first3=G. J.|title=Plant-parasitic nematodes of potential phytosanitary importance, their main hosts and reported yield losses|journal=EPPO Bulletin|date=August 2013|volume=43|issue=2|pages=334–374|doi=10.1111/epp.12050|url=https://www.academia.edu/4091452|access-date=15 December 2014|ref={{harvid|Singh|2013}}}}

===== Fungi =====
* {{cite journal|last1=Hong|first1=Sung Kee|last2=Kim|first2=Wan Gyu|last3=Cho|first3=Weon Dae|last4=Kim|first4=Hong Gi|title=Occurrence of Narcissus Smoulder Caused by ''Botrytis narcissicola'' in Korea|journal=Mycobiology|date=2007|volume=35|issue=4|pages=235–7|doi=10.4489/MYCO.2007.35.4.235|pmid=24015104|pmc=3763179 |ref={{harvid|Hong|2007}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Hanks|first1=G.R.|title=Control of ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f.sp. ''narcissi'', the cause of narcissus basal rot, with thiabendazole and other fungicides|journal=Crop Protection|date= 1996|volume=15|issue=6 September|pages=549–558|doi=10.1016/0261-2194(96)00023-3}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Hanks|first1=Gordon|last2=Carder|first2=John|s2cid=54515245|title=Management of basal rot - the narcissus disease|journal=Pesticide Outlook|date=2003|volume=14|issue=6|page=260|doi=10.1039/B314848N}}
* {{cite journal|last1=O'Neill|first1=T.M|last2=Mansfield|first2=J.W.|title=Infection of ''Narcissus'' by ''Borytis narcissicola'' and ''Botrytis cinerea''|url=http://www.actahort.org/books/109/109_57.htm|journal=Acta Hort.|access-date=4 December 2014|date=1980|issue=109|pages=403–408|doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.1980.109.57}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Boerema|first1=G. H.|last2=Hamers|first2=Maria E. C.|s2cid=9422139|title=Check-list for scientific names of common parasitic fungi. Series 3b: Fungi on bulbs: Amaryllidaceae and Iridaceae|journal=Netherlands Journal of Plant Pathology|date=May 1989|volume=95|issue=S3|pages=1–29|doi=10.1007/BF01981520|ref={{harvid|Boerema|1989}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mantell|first1=S.H.|last2=Wheeler|first2=B.E.J.|title=''Rosellinia'' and white root rot of ''Narcissus'' in the Scilly Isles|journal=Transactions of the British Mycological Society|date=February 1973|volume=60|issue=1|pages=23–IN1|doi=10.1016/S0007-1536(73)80056-7|ref={{harvid|Mantell|1973}}}}
* {{cite report|last1=Fellows|first1=Jane|last2=Hanks|first2=Gordon|title=Narcissus: The cause of 'physiological rust' disorder|date=October 2007|issue=BOF 62|url=http://www.hdc.org.uk/sites/default/files/research_papers/BOF%2062%20Final%20Report%202007.pdf|access-date=7 December 2014|publisher=Horticultural Development Council|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220080135/http://www.hdc.org.uk/sites/default/files/research_papers/BOF%2062%20Final%20Report%202007.pdf|archive-date=20 December 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Crous|first1=P.W.|last2=Summerell|first2=B.A.|last3=Shivas|first3=R.G.|last4=Romberg|first4=M.|last5=Mel'nik|first5=V.A.|last6=Verkley|first6=G.J.M.|last7=Groenewald|first7=J.Z.|title=Fungal Planet description sheets: 92–106|journal=Persoonia|date=31 December 2011|volume=27|issue=1|pages=130–162|doi=10.3767/003158511X617561|ref={{harvid|Crous|2011}}|pmc=3251320|pmid=22403481}}

===== Viruses =====
* {{cite journal|last1=Asjes|first1=C.J.|title=Control situation of virus diseases in ''Narcissus'' in the Netherlands|journal=Acta Hort. |date=1996|volume=432|issue=432|pages=166–175|doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.1996.432.21}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Berniak|first1=Hanna|last2=Komorowska|first2=Beata|last3=Sochacki|first3=Dariusz|title=Detection of Narcissus Latent Virus Isolates Using One-Step Rt-Pcr Assay|journal=Journal of Horticultural Research|date=January 2013|volume=21|issue=1|pages=11–14|s2cid=3700211|doi=10.2478/johr-2013-0002|url=http://www.inhort.pl/files/journal_IO/contents/2013_1/JHortRes21_1_02.pdf|access-date=12 December 2014|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Brunt|first1=A. A.|title=Virus diseases of ''Narcissus''|journal=Daffodil Tulip Yb.|date=1970|volume=36|pages=18–37|url=http://dafflibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Brunt-virus-v2.pdf|access-date=8 December 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Brunt|first1=A.A.|title=Occurrence and importance of viruses infecting narcissus in Britain|journal=Acta Hort.|date=1971|volume=23|issue=23|pages=292–299|doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.1971.23.47|url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=23_47|access-date=11 December 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=J.|last2=Shi|first2=Y.-H.|last3=Adams|first3=M. J.|last4=Zheng|first4=H.-Y.|last5=Qin|first5=B.-X.|last6=Chen|first6=J.-P.|s2cid=28044644|title=Characterisation of an isolate of ''Narcissus degeneration virus'' from Chinese narcissus (''Narcissus tazetta'' var. ''chinensis'')|journal=Archives of Virology|date=February 2007|volume=152|issue=2|pages=441–448|doi=10.1007/s00705-006-0841-9|pmid=16932980|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6855428|access-date=9 December 2014|ref={{harvid|Chen|2007}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=J.|last2=Shi|first2=Y.-H.|last3=Lu|first3=Y.-W.|last4=Adams|first4=M. J. |last5=Chen|first5=J.-P.|s2cid=19997956|title=Narcissus symptomless virus: a new carlavirus of daffodils |journal=Archives of Virology|date=9 June 2006|volume=151|issue=11|pages=2261–2267|pmid=16763730 |doi=10.1007/s00705-006-0801-4|ref={{harvid|Chen|2006}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Iwaki|first1=Mitsuro|last2=Komuro|first2=Yasuo|title=Viruses Isolated from Narcissus (''Narcissus'' spp.) in Japan I. Narcissus mosaic virus|journal=Japanese Journal of Phytopathology|date=1970|volume=36|issue=2|pages=81–86|doi=10.3186/jjphytopath.36.81|language=ja|ref={{harvid|Iwaki|1970}}|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Iwaki|first1=Mitsuro|last2=Komuro|first2=Yasuo|title=Viruses Isolated from Narcissus (''Narcissus'' spp.) in Japan II. Tomato ringspot virus and its transmission by ''Xiphinema americanum''|journal=Japanese Journal of Phytopathology|date=1971|volume=37|issue=2|pages=108–116|doi=10.3186/jjphytopath.37.108|language=ja|ref={{harvid|Iwaki|1971}}|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Iwaki|first1=Mitsuro|last2=Komuro|first2=Yasuo|title=Viruses Isolated from Narcissus (''Narcissus'' spp.) in Japan III. Cucumber mosaic virus, tobacco rattle virus and broad bean wilt virus |journal=Japanese Journal of Phytopathology|date=1972|volume=38|issue=2|pages=137–145|doi=10.3186/jjphytopath.38.137|language=ja|ref={{harvid|Iwaki|1972}}|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Iwaki|first1=Mitsuro|last2=Komuro|first2=Yasuo|title=Viruses Isolated from Narcissus (''Narcissus'' spp.) in Japan IV. Tomato black ring virus|journal=Japanese Journal of Phytopathology|date=1973|volume=39|issue=4|pages=279–287|doi=10.3186/jjphytopath.39.279|url=http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110002760785/en|access-date=11 December 2014|language=ja|ref={{harvid|Iwaki|1973}}|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Iwaki|first1=Mitsuro|last2=Komuro|first2=Yasuo|title=Viruses isolated from Narcissus (Narcissus spp.) in Japan V. Arabis mosaic virus.|journal=Japanese Journal of Phytopathology|date=1974|volume=40|issue=4|pages=344–353|doi=10.3186/jjphytopath.40.344|language=ja|ref={{harvid|Iwaki|1974}}|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mowat|first1=W.P.|last2=Duncan|first2=G.H.|last3=Dawson|first3=S.|title=An appraisal of the identities of ''Potyviruses'' infecting ''Narcissus''|journal=Acta Hort. |date=1988a|volume=234|issue=234|pages=207–208 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.1988.234.24}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mowat|first1=W.P.|last2=Duncan|first2=G.H.|last3=Dawson|first3=S.|title=Narcissus late season yellows potyvirus: symptoms, properties and serological detection|journal=Annals of Applied Biology |date=December 1988b|volume=113|issue=3|pages=531–544|doi=10.1111/j.1744-7348.1988.tb03330.x}}

==== Websites ====
* {{cite web|title=Narcissus (''Narcissus'' spp.)|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r280112311.html|website=UC Pest Management Guidelines|publisher=Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. Integrated pest management program|access-date=21 November 2014|date=March 2009|ref={{harvid|UCIPM|2009}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Daffodil viruses|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=149|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=8 December 2014|date=2014|ref={{harvid|RHSDV|2014}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Daffodil (''Narcissus'' spp.)-Virus Diseases|url=http://pnwhandbooks.org/plantdisease/daffodil-narcissus-spp-virus-diseases|website=Pacific Northwest Plant Disease Management Handbook|publisher=Oregon State University|access-date=8 December 2014|date=2014|ref={{harvid|PNW|2014}}|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217230024/http://pnwhandbooks.org/plantdisease/daffodil-narcissus-spp-virus-diseases|archive-date=17 December 2014}}
* {{cite web|title=Virus Taxonomy: 2013 Release|url=http://ictvonline.org/virusTaxonomy.asp|publisher=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|access-date=10 December 2014|date=2014}}
* {{cite web|last1=Adams|first1=Mike|title=Overview|url=http://www.dpvweb.net/index.php|website=Descriptions of Plant Viruses|publisher=Association of Applied Biologists|access-date=22 December 2014|date=2013}}

===Historical research===
* {{cite journal|last1=Anonymous|title=Homer the botanist|journal=Macmillan's Magazine|date=May–October 1887|volume=56|pages=428–436|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uZBHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA428|access-date=3 November 2014|ref={{harvid|Macmillan|1887}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Graves|first1=Robert|title=The Common Asphodel|date=1949|publisher=Haskell|location=New York|pages=327–330|edition=1970|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDw7sdhIdlEC&pg=PA328|access-date=20 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Arber|first1=Agnes|title=Herbals, Their Origin and Evolution: A Chapter in the History of Botany 1470-1670|date=1912|publisher=Cambridge University Press 1912|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46889/46889-h/46889-h.htm|access-date=2 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Krausch|first1=Heinz D|title='Kaiserkron und Päonien rot?': Entdeckung und Einführung unserer Gartenblumen|date=2012|publisher=Dölling und Galitz Verlag G|location=Munich|isbn=978-3862180226|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVki2C3StvYC|access-date=16 October 2014}}

=== Literature and art ===
* {{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=meFkAwAAQBAJ|last1=Ferber|first1=Michael|title=A Dictionary of Literary Symbols|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139466394|edition=2nd|access-date=24 November 2014|chapter=Daffodil}}

==== Antiquity ====
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Singer|editor1-first=Samuel Weller|title=Hesperides: or, The works both humane and divine of Robert Herrick, Volume 1|date=1846|publisher=William Pickering|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LV8iAAAAMAAJ|access-date=1 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Jebb|editor1-first=Sir Richard Claverhouse|title=Sophocles: the plays and fragments with critical notes, commentary, and translation in English prose. Part II. The Oedipus Coloneus|date=1889|publisher=Cambridge University Press|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_HUe5xe20C}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1rUqAAAAYAA|last1=McClintock|first1=John|last2=Strong|first2=James|title=Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, Vol. IX RH-ST|date=1889|publisher=Harper & Brothers|location=New York|access-date=8 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Clayton|title=The pastoral Narcissus : a study of the first idyll of Theocritus|date=1994|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham|isbn=978-0847679621|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kGzK8Mpkl4EC|access-date=19 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Jashemski|editor1-first=Wilhelmina Feemster|editor2-last=Meyer|editor2-first=Frederick G.|title=The natural history of Pompeii|date=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0521800549|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xfjyTqqR7IC|access-date=19 October 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Reece|first1=Steve|title=Homer's Asphodel Meadow|journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies|date=2007|volume=47|issue=4|pages=389–400|url=http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/811|access-date=7 October 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Markantonatos|first1=Andreas|title=Tragic narrative : a narratological study of Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus|date=2002|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3110895889|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faciAAAAQBAJ|access-date=23 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Cyrino|first1=Monica S.|title=Aphrodite|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0415775229|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhv2AV3eTsUC|access-date=23 November 2014}}
* {{cite web|last1=Stasinos|title=Homerica: The Cypria (fragments)|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/homer/cypria.htm|website=Internet Sacred Text Archive|date=1914|access-date=23 November 2014|format=translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White 1914}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=West|editor1-first=Martin L.|title=Greek epic fragments from the seventh to the fifth centuries BC|date=2003|publisher=Harvard Univ. Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=978-0-674-99605-2|url=https://archive.org/details/L497GreekEpicFragmentsVIIVcBC|access-date=25 November 2014|language=el, en}}

==== Mediaeval and Renaissance ====
* {{Cite book|last1=Gower|first1=John|title=Confessio Amantis or Tales of the Seven Deadly Sins. Liber primus|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/266/266-h/266-h.htm#link2H_4_0002|via=Project Gutenberg|access-date=30 November 2014|date=2008}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gower|first1=John|editor1-last=Pauli|editor1-first=Reinhold|title=Confessio Amantis of John Gower, Volume 1|date=1390|publisher=Bell and Daldy 1857|edition=1857|url=https://archive.org/details/confessioamanti10paulgoog|access-date=30 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Yeager|first1=R.F.|title=John Gower's poetic : the search for a new Arion|date=1990|publisher=Brewer|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0859912808|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SmH4Q4GMyHEC|access-date=30 November 2014}}
* {{cite web|last1=Spenser|first1=Edmund|title=The Shepheardes Calender|url=http://www.luminarium.org/renascence-editions/ren.htm|publisher=Renascence Editions|access-date=25 November 2014|date=1579}}
* {{cite book|last1=Constable|first1=Henry|editor1-last=Hazlitt|editor1-first=WC|title=Diana: The Sonnets and other poems by Henry Constable|url=https://archive.org/details/dianasonnetsothe00consuoft|access-date=25 November 2014|date=1859|publisher=Basil Montagu Pickering|location=London|ref={{harvid|Constable|1600}}}}
* {{cite web|last1=Shakespeare|first1=William|title=The Winter's Tale|url=http://shakespeare.mit.edu/winters_tale/full.html|website=The Complete Works of William Shakespeare|access-date=6 November 2014|date=1623}}
* {{cite web|last1=Shakespeare|first1=William|title=The Two Noble Kinsmen|url=http://william-shakespeare.classic-literature.co.uk/the-two-noble-kinsmen/|website=Classic Literature Library|access-date=26 November 2014|date=1634}}
* {{cite book|last1=D'Ancona|first1=Mirella Levi|title=Garden of the Renaissance: Botanical Symbolism in Italian Painting|date=1977|publisher=Casa Editrice Leo S.Olschki|location=Firenze|isbn=9788822217899}}
* {{cite web|last1=Sparrow|first1=Lady Amie|title=Flowers and Their Renaissance Symbolism|url=http://amiesparrow.wordpress.com/16th-century-england/sweet-bags/flowers-and-their-renaissance-symbolism/|publisher=The Bull, Newsletter for the Barony of Stierbach, Vol. 10 Issue XI|access-date=6 October 2014|date=November 2007}}

==== Modern ====
* {{cite book|last1=Wordsworth|first1=William|title=Poems in Two Volumes, VOL. II|date=1807|publisher=Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPA9AAAAYAAJ|access-date=12 October 2014}}
* {{cite web|last1=Wordsworth|first1=Dorothy|title=Excerpt from Dorothy Wordsworth's Grasmere Journal, 15 April 1802|url=http://www.rc.umd.edu/sites/default/RCOldSite/www/rchs/reader/dwdaff.html|website=Journals of Dorothy Wordsworth: The Alfoxden Journal 1798, The Grasmere Journals 1800-1803, ed. Mary Moorman|publisher=New York: Oxford UP, 1971|access-date=22 December 2014|pages=109–110|date=1802|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905114252/http://www.rc.umd.edu/sites/default/RCOldSite/www/rchs/reader/dwdaff.html|archive-date=5 September 2017|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|last1=Keats|first1=John|title=The Poetical Works of John Keats. 1884. 32: Endymion|url=http://www.bartleby.com/126/32.html|website=Great Books Online|publisher=Bartleby|access-date=22 December 2014|date=1818}}
* {{cite web|last1=Shelley|first1=Percy Bysshe|title=The Sensitive Plant|url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/s/shelley/percy_bysshe/s54cp/volume25.html|website=The Complete Poetical Works, by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Volume 25. Poems written in 1820. 1.|publisher=University of Adelaide|access-date=22 December 2014|format=Oxford Edition 1914, edited by Thomas Hutchinson|date=1820|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222215914/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/s/shelley/percy_bysshe/s54cp/volume25.html|archive-date=22 December 2014|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Wordsworth |first=Chistoper |title=Memoirs of William Wordsworth, Poet-Laureate, D.C.L. |magazine=London Quarterly Review |date=January 1853 |volume=92 |pages=96–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SJTfAAAAMAAJ |access-date=24 December 2014 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Housman|first1=A. E.|title=A Shropshire Lad|date=1896|publisher=Gutenberg|edition=1919|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/5720/5720-h/5720-h.htm|access-date=11 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=C. Day|title=The Complete Poems|date=1992|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, California|isbn=978-0804725859|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FdFmmsHbsZsC|access-date=5 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Masefield|first1=Richard|title=Brimstone|date=2014|publisher=Red Door Publishing|isbn=978-1783013326|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8l8AwAAQBAJ|access-date=17 November 2014|quote=if you ain't as white as a lentern lily}}

==== Islam ====
* {{cite book|last1=Schimmel|first1=Annemarie|title=Stern und Blume : die Bilderwelt der persischen Poesie|date=1984|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|location=Wiesbaden|isbn=978-3447024341|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Erjw3tDToN0C|access-date=16 October 2014|author-link1=Annemarie Schimmel}}
* {{cite book|last1=Schimmel|first1=Annemarie|title=Two-colored brocade : the imagery of Persian poetry.|date=1992|publisher=Univ Of North Carolina|isbn=978-0807856208|url=https://archive.org/details/twocoloredbrocad00schi_0|url-access=registration|access-date=15 October 2014|author-link1=Annemarie Schimmel}}
* {{cite book|last1=Schimmel|first1=Annemarie|title=Die Träume des Kalifen : Träume und ihre Deutung in der islamischen Kultur|date=1998|publisher=Beck|location=München|isbn=978-3406440564|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_b2D4m6kLUC|access-date=16 October 2014|author-link1=Annemarie Schimmel}}
* {{cite book|last1=Schimmel|first1=Annemarie|title=Kleine Paradiese : Blumen und Gärten im Islam|date=2001|publisher=Herder|location=Freiburg im Breisgau|isbn=978-3451051920}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Meisami|editor1-first=Julie Scott|editor2-last=Starkey|editor2-first=Paul|title=Encyclopedia of Arabic literature, vol. 2|date=1998|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0415185721|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbCFBX6b3eEC|access-date=16 October 2014}}

==== Eastern ====
* {{cite book|last1=Hearn|first1=Maxwell K.|title=How to read Chinese paintings|date=2008|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|location=New York|isbn=978-1588392817|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLpZy5ouhcgC|access-date=17 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hu|first1=William C.|title=Narcissus, Chinese new year flower : legends and folklore|date=1989|publisher=Ars Ceramica with the Honolulu Academy of Arts|location=Ann Arbor, Mich.|isbn=978-0893440350}}
* {{cite web|last1=Bailey|first1=LH|title=Legend Of The Chinese Lily (Narcissus Orientalis)|url=http://chestofbooks.com/gardening-horticulture/American/Legend-Of-The-Chinese-Lily-Narcissus-Orientalis.html#.VG5NvskXIQM|publisher=The Rural Publishing Company|access-date=20 November 2014|work=The American Garden vol XI|date=1890}}
* {{Cite news|last1=Anonymous|title=The legend of the Chinese lily|journal=Gippsland Times|date=12 September 1946|page=10|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article65420802|access-date=20 November 2014|ref={{harvid|Gippsland Times|1946}}}}

=== Databases ===
* {{cite web|title=''Narcissus''|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Amaryllidaceae/Narcissus/|website=The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1.|access-date=3 November 2014|date=2013|ref={{harvid|The Plant List|2013}}|archive-date=2017-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905230508/http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Amaryllidaceae/Narcissus/|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|title=''Narcissus'' L.|url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=66318-3&back_page=%2Fipni%2FeditSimplePlantNameSearch.do%3Ffind_wholeName%3DNarcissus%26output_format%3Dnormal|website=International Plant Names Index|access-date=16 October 2014}}
* {{cite web|title=''Narcissus''|work=[[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]]|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do?plantName=Narcissus|access-date=16 October 2014}}
* {{cite web|title=''Narcissus'' L.|url=http://e-monocot.org/taxon/urn:kew.org:wcs:taxon:282547|website=eMonocot|access-date=31 December 2014|date=2014|ref={{harvid|eMonocot|2014}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101031509/http://e-monocot.org/taxon/urn:kew.org:wcs:taxon:282547|archive-date=1 January 2015|url-status=dead}} Distribution maps
* {{cite web|title=''Narcissus''|url=http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/PTaxonDetail.asp?NameId=84509&PTRefFk=8000000|website=Euro+Med Plantbase|publisher=Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem|access-date=1 January 2015}}
* {{citation |last=Stevens |first=P. F. |date=2015 |orig-date=1st. Pub. 2001 |title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website: Amaryllidaceae - 3. Amaryllidoideae - 3H. Narcisseae |url=http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Amaryllidaceae }}

=== Societies and organisations ===
* {{cite web|title=The Daffodil Society|format=UK|url=http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/|access-date=16 November 2014|date=2014|ref={{harvid|Daffodil Society|2014}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117191635/http://thedaffodilsociety.com/wordpress/|archive-date=17 November 2014|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|title=The American Daffodil Society|url=http://daffodilusa.org|access-date=4 November 2014|date=2014}}
** {{cite web|title=DaffLibrary – books, articles, and journals about daffodils|url=http://dafflibrary.org/|publisher=American Daffodil Society|access-date=4 November 2014}}
** {{cite web|title=DaffSeek - Daffodil Database with Photos|url=http://daffseek.org/|publisher=American Daffodil Society|access-date=4 November 2014}}
** {{cite web|title=International Daffodil Organizations|url=http://daffodilusa.org/links/international-daffodil-organizations/|publisher=American Daffodil Society|access-date=16 November 2014}}
* {{cite web|title=Daffodils|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Advice/Profile?PID=365|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=4 November 2014|ref={{harvid|RHS|2014}}}}
** {{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/plantsmanship/plant-registration/daffodil-cultivar-registration|title=Daffodil cultivar registration|publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]]|access-date=November 20, 2014}}
* {{cite web|title=IBS Gallery|url=http://www.bulbsociety.org/newgallery560e.html?acode=1&b_char=N|website=Gallery of the world's bulbs|publisher=International Bulb Society|access-date=4 November 2014|date=2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104061857/http://www.bulbsociety.org/newgallery560e.html?acode=1&b_char=N|archive-date=4 November 2014|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|title=National Daffodil Society of New Zealand|url=http://www.daffodil.org.nz/|access-date=23 October 2014|date=2014}}
* {{cite web|title=Narcissus|url=http://encyclopaedia.alpinegardensociety.net/plants/Narcissus|website=Plant Encyclopaedia|publisher=Alpine Garden Society|access-date=29 October 2014|date=2011}}
* {{cite web|title=Narcissus|url=http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Narcissus|publisher=Pacific Bulb Society|access-date=29 December 2014|date=2014}}
** {{cite web|title=Overview of the Narcissus Species|url=http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/NarcissusSpeciesOverview|publisher=Pacific Bulb Society|access-date=29 December 2014|date=2014|ref={{harvid|PBS Overview|2014}}}}

=== Cultivation ===
* {{cite web|title=Flower Bulb Research Program|url=http://www.flowerbulbs.cornell.edu/index.html|publisher=Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University|access-date=3 November 2014}}
** {{cite web|title=Research Newsletter|url=http://www.flowerbulbs.cornell.edu/newsletter/|access-date=3 November 2014}}
* {{cite web|title=International Flower Bulb Centre|url=http://www.bulbsonline.org/ibc/en/publiek/index.jsf|access-date=3 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103180736/http://www.bulbsonline.org/ibc/en/publiek/index.jsf|archive-date=3 November 2014}}
** {{cite web|title=Bulb flower production: Narcissus|url=http://www.bulbsonline.org/ibc-jsp/en/education/beroepsonderwijs/introduction/Narcissus.xml|access-date=3 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195128/http://www.bulbsonline.org/ibc-jsp/en/education/beroepsonderwijs/introduction/Narcissus.xml|archive-date=23 September 2015}}
** {{cite web|title=Narcissus|url=http://video.bulbsonline.org/emag/PicturebookSpring/flash.html#/18/|website=Narcissus, Hyacinth & Special Flower Bulbs Picture Book|access-date=3 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103181112/http://video.bulbsonline.org/emag/PicturebookSpring/flash.html#/18/|archive-date=3 November 2014|url-status=dead}}

=== Reference material ===
* {{cite web|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]].|access-date=18 November 2014|date=2014|ref={{harvid|IUCN|2014}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Oxford Dictionaries|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010516042450/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 May 2001|website=Oxford dictionaries online|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=17 November 2014|date=2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jamieson|first1=John|title=An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language|date=1879|publisher=Alexander Gardener|location=Paisley|edition=Forgotten Books|url=http://www.forgottenbooks.com/readbook/An_Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_Scottish_Language_To_Which_Is_v1_1000691793|access-date=25 November 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wright|first1=Joseph|title=The English dialect dictionary|date=1905|publisher=Frowde|location=Oxford|isbn=9785880963072|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_R8QAwAAQBAJ|access-date=25 November 2014}}

=== Geography ===
* {{cite web|last1=Gold|first1=Sara|last2=Eshel|first2=Amram|last3=Plotnizki|first3=Abraham|title=Wild Flowers of Israel|url=http://www.wildflowers.co.il/english/|access-date=7 October 2014|date=2014}}
* {{cite web|title=Awaji Yumebutai International Conference Center|url=http://www.yumebutai.org/english/link/link.html|access-date=17 November 2014|location=[[Awaji Island]], Japan|format=Narcissus fields|date=2006|ref={{harvid|Awaji|2006}}|archive-date=2015-01-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103030605/http://www.yumebutai.org/english/link/link.html|url-status=dead}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{wiktionary-inline|Narcissus}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Narcissus}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q29465}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Narcissus (plant)| ]]
[[Category:Amaryllidaceae genera]]
[[Category:Bulbous plants]]
[[Category:Chattian genus first appearances]]
[[Category:Extant Chattian first appearances]]
[[Category:Garden plants]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:National symbols of Wales]]
[[Category:Regional symbols of Fujian]]
[[Category:Symbols of Hades]]