View source for Maritime history

{{Short description|Study of human activity at sea}}
[[File:Magic and Gracie off Castle Garden.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Magic and Gracie off Castle Garden'', painted by [[James E. Buttersworth]], c. 1871]]

'''Maritime history''' is the study of human interaction with and activity at sea. It covers a broad thematic element of [[history]] that often uses a global approach, although national and regional histories remain predominant. As an academic subject, it often crosses the boundaries of standard [[Academic discipline|discipline]]s, focusing on understanding humankind's various relationships to the oceans, [[list of seas|sea]]s, and major [[waterway]]s of the globe. [[Nautical]] history records and interprets past events involving ships, shipping, navigation, and seafarers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edumaritime.org/|title=Worldwide Maritime Logistics Supply Chain Jobs|access-date=2014-02-09|archive-date=2017-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027212132/https://www.edumaritime.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Maritime history is the broad overarching subject that includes [[fishing]], [[whaling]], international [[maritime law]], [[naval history]], the history of [[ship]]s, ship design, [[shipbuilding]], the history of [[navigation]], the history of the various maritime-related sciences ([[oceanography]], [[cartography]], [[hydrography]], etc.), sea exploration, maritime economics and trade, [[shipping]], [[yachting]], [[seaside resort]]s, the history of [[lighthouse]]s and aids to navigation, maritime themes in literature, maritime themes in art, the social history of [[sailor]]s and passengers and sea-related communities.<ref>[[John B. Hattendorf]], editor in chief, ''[[Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History]]'', (Oxford, 2007), volume 1, introduction.</ref>  There are a number of approaches to the field, sometimes divided into two broad categories: Traditionalists, who seek to engage a small audience of other academics, and Utilitarians, who seek to influence policy makers and a wider audience.<ref>[[Joshua M. Smith]], “Toward a Taxonomy of Maritime Historians,” [[International Journal of Maritime History]] XXV:2 (December, 2013), 1-16.</ref>

==Historiography==
Historians from many lands have published monographs, popular and scholarly articles, and collections of archival resources. A leading journal is ''International Journal of Maritime History'', a fully refereed scholarly journal published twice a year by the International Maritime Economic History Association. Based in Canada with an international editorial board, it explores the maritime dimensions of economic, social, cultural, and environmental history.<ref>See [https://www.mun.ca/mhp/ijmh.htm IJMH website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717014609/http://www.mun.ca/mhp/ijmh.htm |date=2014-07-17 }}</ref> For a broad overview, see the four-volume encyclopedia edited by [[John B. Hattendorf]], ''[[Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History]]'' (Oxford, 2007). It contains over 900 articles by 400 scholars and runs 2900 pages.<ref>It is online [http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195130751.001.0001/acref-9780195130751 at many libraries]</ref>  Other major reference resources are Spencer Tucker, ed., ''Naval Warfare: An International Encyclopedia'' (3 vol. ABC-CLIO, 2002) with 1500 articles in 1231, pages, and I. C. B. Dear and Peter Kemp, eds., ''Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea'' (2nd ed. 2005) with 2600 articles in 688 pages.<ref>It is [http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199205684.001.0001/acref-9780199205684 online at many libraries]</ref>

Typically, studies of merchant shipping and of defensive navies are seen as separate fields. [[Inland waterway]]s are included within 'maritime history,' especially inland seas such as the [[Great Lakes of North America]], and major navigable rivers and canals worldwide.

One approach to maritime history writing has been nicknamed 'rivet counting' because of a focus on the minutiae of the vessel. However, revisionist scholars are creating new turns in the study of maritime history. This includes a post-1980s turn towards the study of human users of ships (which involves sociology, cultural geography, gender studies and narrative studies);<ref>This began with the Maritime History Group,''Working men who got wet: Proceedings of the fourth conference of the Atlantic Canada Shipping Project, July 24-July 26, 1980'', (Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John, 1980)</ref> and post-2000 turn towards seeing sea travel as part of the wider history of transport and mobilities. This move is sometimes associated with [[Marcus Rediker]] and [[The Black Atlantic|Black Atlantic]] studies, but most recently has emerged from the International Association for the History of Transport, Traffic and Mobilities (T2M)<ref>See Yearbooks for 2009–2012, especially in the 2009 volume, article by Gijs Mom, Colin Divall and Peter Lyth, "Towards a Paradigm Shift? A Decade of Transport and Mobility History," [http://t2m.org/publications/yearbook/(ref) t2m.org]{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

:''See also'': [[#Historiography articles|Historiography related articles]] below

==Prehistoric times==
[[Watercraft]] such as [[raft]]s and [[boat]]s have been used far into pre-historic times and possibly even by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' more than a million years ago crossing [[strait]]s between landmasses.<ref name="Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand 2019">{{cite web | title=Ancient voyaging in Near Oceania | website=Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand | date=2019-02-20 | url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/pacific-migrations/page-2 | access-date=2021-08-18}}</ref><ref name="Vaucher 2012">{{cite web | last=Vaucher | first=Jean | title=Prehistoric Craft | website=Université de Montréal | date=2012-01-08 | url=http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~vaucher/History/Ships/Prehistoric_Craft/#index | access-date=2021-08-18}}</ref>

Little evidence remains that would pinpoint when the first seafarer made their journey. We know, for instance, that a sea voyage had to have been made to reach Greater Australia ([[Sahul]]) {{circa|50,000}} or more years ago. Functional maritime technology was required to progress between the many islands of [[Wallacea]] before making this crossing. We do not know what seafaring predated the milestone of the first settling of Australia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McGrail |first=Sean |title=Boats of the World : From the Stone Age to Medieval Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=9780191590535 |pages=10–11}}</ref><ref name="O'Connor and Hiscock">{{cite book |last1=O'Connor |first1=Sue |last2=Hiscock |first2=Peter  |editor1-last=Cochrane |editor1-first=Ethan E |editor2-last=Hunt |editor2-first=Terry L. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania |date=2018 |publisher=OUP |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-19-992507-0 |chapter=The Peopling of Sahul and Near Oceania}}</ref>{{rp|26}} One of the oldest known boats to be found is the [[Pesse canoe]], and carbon dating has estimated its construction from 8040 to 7510 BCE. The Pesse canoe is the oldest physical object that can date the use of watercraft, but the oldest depiction of a watercraft is from Norway. The rock art at [[Valle, Norway]] depicts a carving of a more than 4 meter long boat and it is dated to be 10,000 to 11,000 years old.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gjerde |first=Jan Magne |date=2021 |title=The Earliest Boat Depiction in Northern Europe: Newly Discovered Early Mesolithic Rock Art At Valle, Northern Norway |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/ojoa.12214 |journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=136–152|doi=10.1111/ojoa.12214 |s2cid=234809731 }}</ref>

==Ancient times==
{{main|Ancient maritime history}}{{Further|Polynesian navigation|Austronesian expansion}}

[[File:Treasures of THALASSA Museum Ayia Napa 52.JPG|thumb|A replica of the [[Kyrenia ship]], a 4th-century BCE Greek merchant ship]]
Throughout history sailing has been instrumental in the development of civilization, affording humanity greater mobility than travel over land, whether for trade, transport or warfare, and the capacity for fishing. The earliest depiction of a maritime sailing vessel is from the [[Ubaid period]] of [[Mesopotamia]] in the [[Persian Gulf]], from around 3500 to 3000 BCE. These vessels were depicted in clay models and painted disks. They were made from bundled reeds encased in a lattice of ropes. Remains of [[barnacle]]-encrusted [[bituminous]] amalgams have also been recovered, which are interpreted to have been part of the water-proof coating applied on these vessels. The depictions lack details, but an image of a vessel on a shard of pottery shows evidence of what could be bipod masts and a sail, which would make it the earliest known evidence of the use of such technology. The location of the sites indicate that the Ubaid culture was engaging in maritime trade with Neolithic Arabian cultures along the coasts of the Persian Gulf for high-value goods.<ref>Carter, Robert "Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf during the sixth and fifth millennia BC"''Antiquity'' Volume 80 No.307 March 2006 [https://www.academia.edu/173149/Boat_remains_and_maritime_trade_in_the_Persian_Gulf_during_the_sixth_and_fifth_millennia_BC]</ref> Pictorial representation of sails are also known from [[Ancient Egypt]], dated to circa 3100 BCE.<ref name="Casson 1995">{{cite book |last1=Casson |first1=Lionel |title=Ships and seamanship in the ancient world |date=1995 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=0-8018-5130-0}}</ref>{{rp|figure 6}} The earliest seaborne trading route, however, is known from the 7th millennium BCE in the [[Aegean Sea]]. It involved the seaborne movement of [[obsidian]] by an unknown [[Neolithic Europe]] seafaring people. The obsidian was mined from the volcanic island of [[Milos]] and then transported to various parts of the [[Balkans]], [[Anatolia]], and [[Cyprus]], where they were refined into obsidian blades. However, the nature of the seafaring technologies involved have not been preserved.<ref name="Horejs">{{cite journal |last1=Horejs |first1=B. |last2=Milić |first2=B. |last3=Ostmann |first3=F. |last4=Thanheiser |first4=U. |last5=Weninger |first5=B. |last6=Galik |first6=A. |title=The Aegean in the Early 7th Millennium BC: Maritime Networks and Colonization |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |date=2015 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=298–330 |doi=10.1007/s10963-015-9090-8 |jstor=24766210 |pmid=27453633 |pmc=4939275 }}</ref><ref name="Perlès">{{cite journal |last1=Perlès |first1=Catherine |last2=Takaoğlu |first2=Turan |last3=Gratuze |first3=Bernard |title=Melian obsidian in NW Turkey: Evidence for early Neolithic trade |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |date=2011 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=42–49 |doi=10.1179/009346910X12707321242313 |jstor=24406991 |s2cid=129923666 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24406991}}</ref>

[[File:Canoe racing, Fiji (NYPL Hades-2359171-4043527).jpg|thumb|Traditional Austronesian craft being raced, Fiji]]
[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]] started a dispersal from Taiwan across [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] around 3000 BCE. This started to spread into the islands of the Pacific {{circa|1300 BCE}}, steadily advanced across the Pacific and culminated with the settlement of Hawaii {{circa|1250 CE}}, and New Zealand {{circa|1300 CE}}. Distinctive maritime technology was used for this, including the [[lashed-lug]] boatbuilding technique, the [[catamaran]], and the [[crab claw sail]], together with extensive navigation techniques. This allowed them to colonize a large part of the [[Indo-Pacific]] region during the [[Austronesian expansion]].<ref name="Horridge 2006">{{cite book |last1=Horridge |first1=Adrian |editor1-last=Bellwood |editor1-first=Peter |title=The Austronesians : historical and comparative perspectives |date=2006 |location=Canberra, ACT |isbn=978-0731521326}}</ref>{{rp|144}} Prior to the 16th century [[Early modern period|Colonial Era]], Austronesians were the most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from [[Easter Island]] in the eastern Pacific Ocean to [[Madagascar]] in the western [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name="Bellwood2006">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |last2=Fox |first2=James J. |last3=Tryon |first3=Darrell |title=The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives |date=2006 |publisher=Australian National University Press |isbn=9781920942854 |url=https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/series/comparative-austronesian-series/austronesians}}</ref>

The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians had knowledge of [[sail]] construction.<ref>[[Hatshepsut]] oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and ''with several sails''. Various others exist, also.</ref>  The [[Greece|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]] states that [[Necho II]] sent out an expedition of [[Phoenicians]], which in two and a half years sailed from the [[Red Sea]] around Africa to the mouth of the [[Nile]]. As they sailed south and then west, they observed that the mid-day sun was to the north. Their contemporaries did not believe them, but modern historians take this as evidence that they were south of the equator<ref name="McGrail 2014">{{cite book |last1=McGrail |first1=Sean |title=Early ships and seafaring : European water transport |date=2014 |publisher=Pen and Sword Archaeology |location=South Yorkshire, England |isbn=9781781593929}}</ref>{{rp|92}} as crossing the equator changes the angle of the sun resulting in the change of season.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Causes the Seasons? {{!}} NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids |url=https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/seasons/en/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=spaceplace.nasa.gov}}</ref>

{{further|Greco-Persian Wars|Peloponnesian War|Achaean League|Punic Wars|Norsemen|Indian maritime history|Naval history of China|Chinese exploration|Seafaring in the Pre-Columbian Caribbean|Ships of ancient Rome}}

==Age of navigation==
{{main|History of navigation}}
[[File:Balatik, a paraw from the Tao Expedition, Philippines.jpg|thumb|''Balatik'', a large outrigger sailboat built as a replica of the [[Visayan people|Visayan]] ''[[paraw]]''. It is a typical Austronesian double [[outrigger canoe|outrigger vessel]] from [[Island Southeast Asia]] used in the most ancient maritime trade routes.]]
By 1000 BCE, Austronesians in Island Southeast Asia were already engaging in regular maritime trade with China, [[South Asia]], and the Middle East, introducing sailing technologies to these regions. They also facilitated an exchange of cultivated crop plants, introducing Pacific coconuts, bananas, and sugarcane to the [[Indian subcontinent]], some of which eventually reached Europe via overland Persian and Arab traders.<ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =0415100542}}</ref><ref name="Doran1981">{{cite book |last1=Doran |first1=Edwin B. |title=Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins |date=1981 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=9780890961070}}</ref> A Chinese record in 200 AD describes one of the Austronesian ships, called [[K'un-lun po|''kunlun bo'' or ''k'unlun po'']] (崑崙舶, lit. "ship of the [[Kunlun (mythology)|Kunlun]] people"). It may also have been the "kolandiaphonta" known by the Greeks.<ref name=":112">{{Cite journal |last=Christie |first=Anthony |date=1957 |title=An Obscure Passage from the "Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟϕΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ" |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=19 |pages=345–353 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00133105 |s2cid=162840685 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|347}} It has 4–7 masts and is able to sail against the wind due to the usage of [[tanja sail]]s. These ships reached as far as Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD and [[Ghana]] in the eighth century AD.<ref name="Dewar1993">{{cite journal|last1=Dewar|first1=Robert E.|last2=Wright|first2=Henry T.|date=1993|title=The culture history of Madagascar|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|volume=7|issue=4|pages=417–466|doi=10.1007/BF00997802|hdl-access=free|s2cid=21753825|name-list-style=vanc|hdl=2027.42/45256}}</ref><ref name="Burney2004">{{cite journal|vauthors=Burney DA, Burney LP, Godfrey LR, Jungers WL, Goodman SM, Wright HT, Jull AJ|date=August 2004|title=A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=47|issue=1–2|pages=25–63|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.05.005|pmid=15288523}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dick-Read |first=Robert |title=The Phantom Voyagers: Evidence of Indonesian Settlement in Africa in Ancient Times |publisher=Thurlton |year=2005 |pages=41}}</ref>

[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|left|thumb|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and [[Maritime Silk Road|historic]] maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<ref name="Manguin2016">{{cite book|first1=Pierre-Yves |last1=Manguin|editor1-first=Gwyn |editor1-last=Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World |chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages=51–76|isbn =9783319338224|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50}}</ref>]]

Northern European [[Vikings]] also developed oceangoing vessels and depended heavily upon them for travel and population movements prior to 1000 AD, with the oldest known examples being [[longship]]s dated to around 190 AD from the [[Nydam Boat]] site. In early modern India and [[Arabia]] the [[lateen]]-sail ship known as the [[dhow]] was used on the waters of the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Persian Gulf.

[[File:Nydamboat.2.jpg|thumb|The [[Nydam boat]] (310–320 AD), one of the precursors of the [[Viking]] longships]]
China started building sea-going ships in the 10th century during the [[Song Dynasty]]. Chinese seagoing ship is based on [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] ship designs which have been trading with the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] since the second century AD.<ref>Crossley, Pamela Kyle, Daniel R. Headrick, Steven W. Hirsch, Lyman L. Johnson, and David Northrup. "Song Dynasty." ''The Earth and Its Peoples''. By Richard W. Bulliet. fourth ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008. 279–80. Print.</ref><ref name="Mudie">{{Citation|last1=Mudie|first1=Rosemary|title=The history of the sailing ship|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyFUAAAAMAAJ&q=History+Chinese+Junk+sail|page=152|year=1975|publisher=Arco Publishing Co.|last2=Mudie|first2=Colin|isbn=9780668037808 }}</ref> They purportedly reached massive sizes by the [[Yuan dynasty]] in the 14th century, and by the [[Ming dynasty]], they were used by [[Zheng He]] to send [[Treasure voyages|expeditions to the Indian Ocean]].<ref>Sally K. Church: The Colossal Ships of Zheng He: Image or Reality ? (p.155-176) Zheng He; Images & Perceptions In: South China and Maritime Asia, Volume 15, Hrsg: Ptak, Roderich /Höllmann Thomas, O. Harrasowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, (2005)</ref>

Water was the cheapest and usually the only way to transport goods in bulk over long distances. In addition, it was the safest way to transport commodities.<ref name="Off-campus Access Proxy Login">{{Cite journal|title=Off-campus Access Proxy Login|journal = Journal of World History|volume = 21|issue = 2|pages = 219–247|jstor = 20752948|last1 = Lockard|first1 = Craig A.|year = 2010|doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0127|s2cid = 162282960}}</ref> The long trade routes created popular trading ports called [[Entrepôt]]s.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=lockard|first=Craig|date=Summer 2018|title="The Sea Common to All": Maritime Frontiers, Port Cities, and Chinese Traders in the Southeast Asian Age of Commerce, ca.|journal=Journal of World History|volume= 21| issue =  2|pages=29|via=jstor}}</ref> There were three popular Entrepôts: the [[Malacca City|Malaka]] in southwestern Malaya, [[Hoi An]] in Vietnam, and [[Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city)|Ayuthaya]] in [[Thailand]].<ref name=":5" /> These super centers for trade were ethnically diverse, because ports served as a midpoint of voyages and trade rather than a destination.<ref name=":5" /> The Entrepôts helped link the coastal cities to the "hempispheric trade nexus".<ref name="Off-campus Access Proxy Login"/> The increase in sea trade initiated a cultural exchange among traders.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Environment, trade and society in Southeast Asia : a longue durée perspective|others=Henley, David, 1963-, Schulte Nordholt, Henk, 1953-, Boomgaard, P., 1946-|isbn=9789004288058|location=Leiden|oclc=907808637|year = 2015}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2019}} From 1400 to 1600 the Chinese population doubled from 75 million to 150 million as a result of imported goods, this was known as the  "age of commerce".<ref name=":5" />

The [[mariner's astrolabe]] was the chief tool of [[Celestial navigation]] in early modern maritime history. This scaled down version of the [[Astrolabe|instrument]] used by astronomers served as a navigational aid to measure latitude at sea, and was employed by [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] sailors no later than 1481.<ref name=":02">{{cite book|title=The sea and civilization : a maritime history of the world|last1=Paine|first1=Lincoln|date=2013|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=9781400044092|edition= First |location=New York|page=383}}</ref>

The precise date of the discovery of the magnetic needle compass is undetermined, but the earliest attestation of the device for [[navigation]] was in the ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'' by [[Shen Kuo]] (1088).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Navigation Through the Ages|last=Launer|first=Donald|publisher=Sheridan House|year=2009|isbn=9781574092783|location=Dobbs Ferry, NY|pages=22}}</ref> Kuo was also the first to document the concept of [[true north]] to discern a compass' [[magnetic declination]] from the physical [[North Magnetic Pole]]. The earliest iterations of the compass consisted of a floating, magnetized lodestone needle that spun around in a water-filled bowl until it reached alignment with Earth's magnetic poles.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Navigation Through the Ages|last=Launer|first=Donald|publisher=Sheridan House|year=2009|isbn=9781574092783|pages=22}}</ref> Chinese sailors were using the "wet" compass to determine the southern cardinal direction no later than 1117. The first use of a magnetized needle for seafaring navigation in Europe was written of by [[Alexander Neckham]], circa 1190 AD. Around 1300 AD, the pivot-needle dry-box compass was invented in Europe; it pointed north, similar to the modern-day mariner's compass. In Europe the device also included a compass-card, which was later adopted by the Chinese through contact with [[Wokou|Japanese pirates]] in the 16th century.

The oldest known map is dated back to 12,000 BC; it was discovered in a Spanish cave by Pilar Utrilla.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The lost art of finding our way|last=Edward|first=Huth, John|date=November 2015 |isbn=978-0674088078|edition= First Harvard University Press paperback |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|oclc=906121505}}</ref> The early maps were oriented with east at the top. This is believed to have begun in the [[Middle East]].<ref name=":0" /> Religion played a role in the drawing of maps. Countries that were predominantly Christian during the Middle Ages placed east at the top of the maps, in part due to Genesis, "the Lord God planted a garden toward the east in Eden".<ref name=":0" /> This led to maps containing the image of Jesus Christ, and the garden of Eden at the top of maps.<ref name=":0" /> The latitude and longitude coordinate tables were made with the sole purpose{{dubious|date=October 2023}} of praying towards [[Mecca]].<ref name=":0" /> The next progression of maps came with the [[portolan chart]]. This was the first type of map that labeled North at the top and was drawn proportionate to size. Landmarks were drawn in great detail.<ref name=":0" />

===Ships and vessels===
{{Main|Medieval ships}}
[[File:Situs civitatis Bantam et Navium Insulae Iauae delineatio.jpg|thumb|Jong of Banten, early 1600s.]]
Various ships were in use during the [[Middle Ages]]. [[Djong (ship)|Jong]], a type of large sailing ship from [[Nusantara (archipelago)|Nusantara]], was built using wooden dowels without iron nails and multiple planks to endure heavy seas.<ref name=":122">{{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |title=Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia |publisher=Silkworm Books |year=2000 |isbn=9747551063 |pages=57–61}}</ref> The ''chuan'' (Chinese [[Junk (ship)|Junk]] ship) design was both innovative and adaptable. Junk vessels employed [[Junk rig|mat and batten style sails]] that could be raised and lowered in segments, as well varying angles.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=The Conquest of the Ocean: An Illustrated History of Seafaring|last=Lavery|first=Brian|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited|year=2013|isbn=9781465408419|location=New York, NY|pages=48}}</ref> The [[longship]] was a type of ship developed over a period of centuries and perfected by its most famous users, the [[Vikings]], around the 9th century. The ships were [[clinker-built]], using overlapping wooden strakes. The [[knaar]], a relative of the longship, was a type of cargo vessel. It differed from the longship in that it was larger and relied solely on its [[square rigged]] sail for propulsion. The [[Cog (ship)|cog]] was a design which is believed to have evolved from (or at least been influenced by) the longship, and was in wide use by the 12th century. It too used the clinker method of construction. The [[caravel]] was a ship invented in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Iberia]] and used in the Mediterranean from the 13th century.<ref name=Hobson>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 141, [[Cambridge University Press]], {{ISBN|0-521-54724-5}}.</ref> Unlike the longship and [[Cog (ship)|cog]], it used a [[Carvel (boat building)|carvel]] method of construction. It could be either [[square rigged]] (''Caravela Redonda'') or [[lateen rigged]] (''Caravela Latina''). The [[carrack]] was another type of ship invented in the Mediterranean in the 15th century. It was a larger vessel than the caravel. Columbus's ship, the {{ship||Santa María|ship|2}}, was a famous example of a carrack.

===Arab age of discovery===
{{main|Islamic geography}}

The [[Caliphate|Arab Empire]] maintained and expanded a wide trade network across parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. This helped establish the Arab Empire (including the [[Rashidun Empire|Rashidun]], [[Umayyad]], [[Abbasid]] and [[Fatimid caliphate]]s) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 8th–13th centuries according to the political scientist [[John M. Hobson]].<ref name=Hobson-29-30>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p.&nbsp;29–30, [[Cambridge University Press]], {{ISBN|0-521-54724-5}}.</ref> The Belitung is the oldest discovered Arabic ship to reach the Asian sea, dating back over 1000 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weather.com/travel/12-amazing-sunken-treasure-discoveries-20130816?pageno=7|archive-url=https://archive.today/20131213045541/http://www.weather.com/travel/12-amazing-sunken-treasure-discoveries-20130816?pageno=7|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 13, 2013|title=Sunken Treasures: The World's Most Valuable Shipwreck Discoveries|author=Liz Burlingame|date=Aug 23, 2013|publisher=The Weather Channel}}</ref>

Apart from the [[Nile]], [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], navigable rivers in the Islamic regions were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. [[Islamic geography]] and navigational sciences were highly developed,  making use of a magnetic [[compass]] and a rudimentary instrument known as a [[Kamal (navigation)|kamal]], used for [[celestial navigation]] and for measuring the [[altitude]]s and [[latitude]]s of the [[star]]s. When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. According to the political scientist John M. Hobson,  the origins of the caravel ship, used for long-distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, date back to the ''qarib'' used by [[al-Andalus|Andalusian]] explorers by the 13th century.<ref name="Hobson"/>

Control of sea routes dictated the political and military power of the Islamic nation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sanleandro.k12.ca.us/cms/lib07/.../991/Trade%20and%20Exchange.pdf|title=muslim sea trade in the middle ages|date=2018-07-27}}{{dead link|date=August 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The Islamic border spread from Spain to China. Maritime trade was used to link the vast territories that spanned the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the Indian Ocean. The Arabs were among the first to sail the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 44171055|title = Naval History and Naval Technology in Medieval Times the Need for Interdisciplinary Studies|journal = Byzantion|volume = 58|issue = 2|pages = 309–332|last1 = Christides|first1 = Vasilios|year = 1988}}</ref> Long-distance trade allowed the movement of "armies, craftsmen, scholars, and pilgrims".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shahnaj Husne|first=Jahan Leena|date=Summer 2018|title=Sailing across Seven Seas: A study of maritime trade in Bengal (prior to the arrival of the Portuguese)|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute|volume= 64/65|pages= 397–401|via=jstor}}</ref> Sea trade was an important factor not just for the coastal ports and cities like [[Istanbul]], but also for [[Baghdad]] and [[Iraq]], which are further inland. Sea trade enabled the distribution of food and supplies to feed entire populations in the middle east. Long distance sea trade imported raw materials for building, luxury goods for the wealthy, and new inventions.

===Hanseatic League===
[[File:Maasilinna ship Lennusadam.JPG|thumb|Maasilinna shipwreck from circa 1550 was discovered in 1985 and is now presented in [[Estonian Maritime Museum]]. This ship was used in the 16th century in the Baltic Sea.]]
{{Main| Hanseatic League}}
The [[Hanseatic League]] was an alliance of trading guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly over the Baltic Sea, to a certain extent the North Sea, and most of Northern Europe for a time in the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period, between the 13th and 17th centuries. Historians generally trace the origins of the League to the foundation of the Northern German town of [[Lübeck]], established in 1158/1159 after the capture of the area from the Count of Schauenburg and Holstein by [[Henry the Lion]], the [[Duchy of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]]. Exploratory trading adventures, [[Raid (military)|raid]]s and [[piracy]] had occurred earlier throughout the Baltic (see [[Viking]]s) — the [[sailor]]s of [[Gotland]] sailed up rivers as far away as [[Novgorod]], for example — but the scale of international [[economic system|economy]] in the Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League. German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed over the next century, and Lübeck became a central node in all the seaborne trade that linked the areas around the [[North Sea]] and the Baltic Sea.

The 15th century saw the climax of Lübeck's hegemony. ([[Visby]], one of the midwives of the Hanseatic league in 1358, declined to become a member. Visby dominated trade in the Baltic before the Hanseatic league, and with its monopolistic ideology, suppressed the [[Gotland]]ic free-trade competition.) By the late 16th century, the League imploded and could no longer deal with its own internal struggles, the social and political changes that accompanied the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], the rise of Dutch and English merchants, and the incursion of the [[Ottoman Turks]] upon its trade routes and upon the Holy Roman Empire itself. Only nine members attended the last formal meeting in 1669 and only three (Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen) remained as members until its final demise in 1862.

===Italian maritime republics===
{{main|Maritime republics}}
[[File:View of the entrance to the Arsenal by Canaletto, 1732.jpg|thumb|right|The Italian maritime republics built the ships they needed in their own arsenals. Pictured is the [[Venetian Arsenal]].]]

The [[maritime republics]], also called merchant republics, were Italian [[Thalassocracy |thalassocratic]] [[Port city|port cities]] which, starting from the [[Middle Ages]], enjoyed political autonomy and economic prosperity brought about by their maritime activities. The term, coined during the 19th century, generally refers to four Italian cities, whose coats of arms have been shown since 1947 on the flags of the [[Italian Navy]] and the Italian Merchant Navy:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marina.difesa.it/storiacultura/storia/tradizioni/Pagine/LaBandiera.aspx |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131227030826/http://www.marina.difesa.it/storiacultura/storia/tradizioni/Pagine/LaBandiera.aspx |title=La Bandiera della Marina Militare |language=Italian |website=Marina Militare |publisher=Ministero della Difesa |archive-date=December 27, 2013 |access-date=July 29, 2023 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Duchy of Amalfi|Amalfi]], [[Republic of Genoa |Genoa]], [[Republic of Pisa|Pisa]], and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]]. In addition to the four best known cities, [[Republic of Ancona|Ancona]],<ref>''The International Geographic Encyclopedia and Atlas'', ''Ancona'' (p. 27), Springer, 1979. ISBN 9781349050024.</ref><ref name=Persi>Peris Persi, in ''Conoscere l'Italia'', vol. Marche, Istituto Geografico De Agostini, Novara 1982 (p. 74); AA.VV. ''Meravigliosa Italia, Enciclopedia delle regioni'', edited by Valerio Lugoni, Aristea, Milano; Guido Piovene, in ''Tuttitalia'', Casa Editrice Sansoni, Firenze & Istituto Geografico De Agostini, Novara (p. 31); Pietro Zampetti, in ''Itinerari dell'Espresso'', vol. Marche, edited by Neri Pozza, Editrice L'Espresso, Rome, 1980</ref> [[Republic of Gaeta|Gaeta]],<ref>Touring Club Italiano, ''Lazio'' Touring Editore, 1981 (p. 743); Giovanna Bergamaschi, ''Arte in Italia: guida ai luoghi ed alle opere dell'Italia artistica'', Electa, 1983 (p. 243); Salvatore Aurigemma, Angelo de Santis, ''Gaeta, Formia, Minturno''.</ref> [[Republic of Noli |Noli]],<ref>Giovanni Murialdo, ''Dinamiche territoriali e commerciali nella Noli signorile e comunale...'', in: Mauro Darchi, Francesca Bandini, ''La repubblica di Noli e l'importanza dei porti minori del Mediterraneo nel Medioevo'', Firenze, All'Insegna del Giglio, 2004 (p. 9)</ref><ref>Bohun Lynch, ''The Italian Riviera: Its Scenery, Customs, and Food, with Notes Upon the Maritime Alps'', Doubleday, Doran, 1927 (p. 159).</ref><ref>AA. VV., ''Medioevo latino, bollettino bibliografico della cultura europea da Boezio a Erasmo (secoli VI – XV), volume 28'', Sismel Edizioni del Galluzzo, 2007, (p. 1338); Giuseppe Gallo, ''La Repubblica di Genova tra nobili e popolari (1257–1528)'', edizioni De Ferrari, 1997, p. 44</ref> and, in [[Dalmatia]], [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]], are also considered maritime republics; in certain historical periods, they had no secondary importance compared to some of the better known cities.

Uniformly scattered across the Italian peninsula, the maritime republics were important not only for the history of navigation and commerce: in addition to precious goods otherwise unobtainable in Europe, new artistic ideas and news concerning distant countries also spread. From the 10th century, they built fleets of ships both for their own protection and to support extensive trade networks across the Mediterranean, giving them an essential role in reestablishing contacts between [[Europe]], [[Asia]], and [[Africa]], which had been interrupted during the early Middle Ages. They also had an essential role in the [[Crusades]] and produced renowned explorers and navigators such as [[Marco Polo]] and [[Christopher Columbus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trade in Medieval Europe|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1301/trade-in-medieval-europe/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref>

Over the centuries, the maritime republics — both the best known and the lesser known but not always less important — experienced fluctuating fortunes. In the 9th and 10th centuries, this phenomenon began with Amalfi and Gaeta, which soon reached their heyday. Meanwhile, Venice began its gradual ascent, while the other cities were still experiencing the long gestation that would lead them to their autonomy and to follow up on their seafaring vocation. After the 11th century, Amalfi and Gaeta declined rapidly, while Genoa and Venice became the most powerful republics. Pisa followed and experienced its most flourishing period in the 13th century, and Ancona and Ragusa allied to resist Venetian power. Following the 14th century, while Pisa declined to the point of losing its autonomy, Venice and Genoa continued to dominate navigation, followed by Ragusa and Ancona, which experienced their golden age in the 15th century. In the 16th century, with Ancona's loss of autonomy, only the republics of Venice, Genoa, and Ragusa remained, which still experienced great moments of splendor until the mid-17th century, followed by over a century of slow decline that ended with the [[Napoleon]]ic invasion.

===Somali maritime enterprise===
{{Main|Somali maritime history}}
[[File:Somali Enterprise.JPG|upright=1.35|thumb|Historical [[Somali maritime history|Somali commercial enterprise]] in the [[Red Sea]], the [[Persian Gulf]], the Indian Ocean, and the [[straits of Malacca]].]]

During the [[Ajuran Sultanate|Age of the Ajuran]], the Somali [[sultanates]] and [[republics]] of [[Merca]], [[Mogadishu]], [[Barawa]], [[Hobyo]] and their respective ports flourished. They had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, [[Venetian Republic|Venetia]],<ref>Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver</ref> [[Persia]], Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. In the 16th century, [[Duarte Barbosa]] noted that many ships from the [[Khambhat|Kingdom of Cambaya]] in what is modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with [[textile|cloths]] and [[spice]]s, for which they in return received gold, [[wax]] and [[ivory]]. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, [[wheat]], [[barley]], horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.<ref>East Africa and its Invaders pg.38</ref>

In the [[early modern]] period, successor states of the [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] and [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran]] [[empire]]s began to flourish in Somalia who continued the seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires. The rise of the 19th century [[Gobroon Dynasty]] in particular saw a rebirth in Somali maritime enterprise. During this period, the Somali agricultural output to [[Arabia]]n markets was so great that the coast of Somalia came to be known as the ''Grain Coast'' of [[Yemen]] and [[Oman]].<ref>East Africa and the Indian Ocean By Edward A. Alpers pg 66</ref>

==Age of Discovery==
{{main|Age of Discovery}}

The ''[[Age of Discovery]]'' was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes after the [[Fall of Constantinople]]. Historians often refer to the 'Age of Discovery'<ref>[[#Mancall 1999|Mancall 1999]], pp. 26&ndash;53.</ref><ref>[[#Parry 1963|Parry 1963]], pp. 1&ndash;5.</ref> as the pioneer Portuguese and later Spanish long-distance maritime travels in search of alternative [[trade route]]s to "[[Indies|the East Indies]]", moved by the trade of gold, [[silver]] and [[spice]]s.<ref>[[#Arnold 2002|Arnold 2002]], p. 11.</ref> In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them. The [[Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India]] changed Europe's view of the world.

[[Christopher Columbus]] was a [[navigator]] and [[List of maritime explorers|maritime explorer]] who is one of several historical figures credited as the [[discoverer of the Americas]]. It is generally believed that he was born in [[Genoa]], although other theories and possibilities exist. Columbus' voyages across the Atlantic Ocean began a European effort at [[exploration]] and [[European colonization of the Americas|colonization]] of the [[Western Hemisphere]]. While history places great significance on his first voyage of 1492, he did not actually reach the [[South America|mainland]] until his third voyage in 1498. Likewise, he was not the earliest European explorer to reach the Americas, as there are accounts of [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact|European transatlantic contact]] prior to 1492. Nevertheless, Columbus's voyage came at a critical time of growing [[Imperialism|national imperialism]] and [[Competition|economic competition]] between [[History of Europe|developing nation states]] seeking wealth from the establishment of [[trade route]]s and [[Colonialism|colonies]]. Therefore, the period before 1492 is known as [[Pre-Columbian]].

[[John Cabot]] was a [[Genoa|Genoese]] navigator and explorer commonly credited as one of the first [[early modern Europe]]ans to land on the North American mainland aboard the {{ship||Matthew|1497 ship|2}} in 1497. [[Sebastian Cabot (explorer)|Sebastian Cabot]] was an Italian [[List of explorers|explorer]] and may have sailed with his father John Cabot in May 1497. John Cabot and perhaps Sebastian, sailing from [[Bristol]], took their small fleet along the coasts of a [[Newfoundland (island)|"New Found Land"]]. There is much controversy over where exactly Cabot landed, but two likely locations that are often suggested are [[Nova Scotia]] and Newfoundland. Cabot and his crew (including perhaps Sebastian) mistook this place for China, without finding the passage to the east they were looking for. Some scholars maintain that the name America comes from [[Richard Amerik]], a Bristol merchant and customs officer, who is claimed on very slender evidence to have helped finance the Cabot voyages.

[[Jacques Cartier]] was a [[French people|French]] [[navigator]] who first explored and described the Gulf of St-Lawrence and the shores of the [[Saint Lawrence River]], which he named Canada, likely comes from the Huron-Iroquois word “kanata”, meaning “village” or “settlement”.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Natural Resources |date=2007-09-18 |title=origin-names-canada-its-provinces-territories |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/origins-canadas-geographical-names/origin-names-canada-and-its-provinces-and-territories/9224 |access-date=2022-03-04 |website=www.nrcan.gc.ca}}</ref> [[Juan Fernández (explorer)|Juan Fernández]] was a Spanish explorer and navigator. Probably between 1563 and 1574 he discovered the [[Juan Fernández Islands]] west of [[Valparaíso]], [[Chile]]. He also discovered the Pacific islands of [[Desventuradas Islands#List of islands and location|San Félix]] and [[San Ambrosio]] (1574). Among the other famous explorers of the period were [[Vasco da Gama]], [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], [[Yermak Timofeyevich|Yermak]], [[Juan Ponce de León]], [[Francisco Coronado]], [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]], [[Bartolomeu Dias]], [[Ferdinand Magellan]], [[Willem Barentsz]], [[Abel Tasman]], [[Jean Alfonse]], [[Samuel de Champlain]], [[Willem Jansz]], Captain [[James Cook]], [[Henry Hudson]], and [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]].
[[File:Trading ship in Dubrovnik.JPG|thumb|Replica of the Dubrovnik Carrack or [[Argosy (word)|Argosy]] (15th and 16th century).]]

[[Peter Martyr d'Anghiera]] was an Italian-born historian of Spain and of the discoveries of her representatives during the [[Age of Exploration]]. He wrote the first accounts of explorations in [[Central America|Central]] and South America in a series of letters and reports, grouped in the original [[Latin]] publications of 1511–1530 into sets of ten chapters called "decades."  His ''Decades'' are thus of great value in the history of geography and discovery. His ''De Orbe Novo'' (published 1530; "On the New World") describes the first contacts of Europeans and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] and contains, for example, the first European reference to [[India rubber]].

[[Richard Hakluyt]] was an English writer, and is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the [[English people|English]] through his works, notably ''Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America'' (1582) and ''The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation'' (1598–1600).

===European expansion===
{{main|Maritime history of Europe}}
Although Europe is the world's second-smallest [[continent]] in terms of area, it has a very long coastline, and has arguably been influenced more by its ''maritime history'' than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable seas and intersected by navigable [[river]]s running into them in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce.

When the [[carrack]] and then the [[caravel]] were developed by the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], European thoughts returned to the fabled East. These explorations have a number of causes. [[Monetarists]] believe the main reason the Age of Exploration began was because of a severe shortage of [[bullion]] in Europe. The European economy was dependent on gold and silver currency, but low domestic supplies had plunged much of Europe into a recession. Another factor was the centuries long conflict between the Iberians and the Muslims to the south. The [[Silk Road|eastern trade routes]] were controlled by the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[Turkish people|Turk]]s took control of [[Constantinople]] in 1453, and they barred Europeans from those trade routes.<ref>{{cite book |title=New York: the World's Capital City, Its Development and Contributions to Progress |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226262 |chapter=Chapter 1 |author1=Rankin, Rebecca B. |author2=Cleveland Rodgers |publisher=Harper |year=1948}}</ref>  The ability to outflank the Muslim states of North Africa was seen as crucial to their survival. At the same time, the Iberians learnt much from their Arab neighbours. The carrack and caravel both incorporated the Mediterranean [[lateen sail]] that made ships far more manoeuvrable. It was also through the Arabs that [[History of geography#Greco-Roman world|Ancient Greek geography]] was rediscovered, for the first time giving European sailors some idea of the shape of Africa and Asia.

===European colonization===
{{main|History of colonialism|Chronology of colonialism}}

In 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the [[Americas]], after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded. The post-1492 era is known as the [[Columbian Exchange]] period. The first conquests were made by the Spanish, who quickly conquered most of [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]] and large parts of North America. The Portuguese took Brazil. The British, French and Dutch conquered islands in the [[Caribbean Sea]], many of which had already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease. Early European colonies in North America included [[Spanish Florida]], the British settlements in [[Colony and Dominion of Virginia|Virginia]] and [[New England]], French settlements in [[New France|Quebec]] and [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], and Dutch settlements in [[New Netherlands]]. [[Denmark-Norway]] revived its former colonies in Greenland from the 18th until the 20th century, and also colonised a few of the Virgin Islands.
[[File:colonisation2.gif|thumb|center|600px|World Colonization 1492–2007]]
From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public-private venture. Columbus' voyages to the Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight rein on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country, and treasure was brought back in special [[Spanish treasure fleet|convoys]]), the English, French and Dutch granted what were effectively trade [[monopolies]] to [[Joint stock company|joint-stock companies]] such as the [[British East India Company]], the [[Dutch East India Company]] and the [[Hudson's Bay Company]].

In the [[exploration of Africa]], there was a proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory. By the 15th century, Europeans explored the African coast in search of a water route to India. These expeditions were mostly conducted by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who had been given papal authority to exploit all non-[[Christians|Christian]] lands of the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]. The Europeans set up coastal colonies to purchase or abduct slaves for the [[Atlantic slave trade]], but the interior of the continent remained unexplored until the 19th century. This was a cumulative period that resulted in European colonial rule in Africa and altered the future of the African continent.<ref>Robert O. Collins, ''Historical Problems of Imperial Africa'', (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1994), 7</ref>

[[Western imperialism in Asia|Imperialism in Asia]] traces its roots back to the late 15th century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices. Before 1500 European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade with Asia and Africa. Within the next century, however, European and Asian economies were slowly becoming integrated through the rise of new global trade routes; and the early thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to a growing trade in lucrative commodities—a key development in the rise of today's modern world capitalist economy. [[European colonies in India]] were set up by several European nations beginning at the beginning of the 16th century. Rivalry between reigning European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, British and French among others.

{{See also|Columbian Exchange|European colonization of the Americas}}

=== Ming Maritime world ===
==== Zheng He voyages ====
{{main|Ming treasure voyages}}
In the 15th century, before the European Age of Discovery began, the Chinese Ming Dynasty carried out a maritime operation that, like the European's late expeditions, was primarily carried out to expand power, increase trade, and in some instances forcibly subdue local populations.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Finlay|first=Robert|date=August 2008|title=The Voyages of Zheng He:Ideology, State Power, and Maritime Trade in Ming China|journal=Journal of the Historical Society|volume=8|issue=3|pages=327–347|doi=10.1111/j.1540-5923.2008.00250.x}}</ref>

In 1405 Zheng He, a Muslim eunuch, was ordered by the Ming dynasty to lead a fleet of over 27,000 sailors and anywhere between 62<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hui|first=Deng|date=2011|title=The Asian Monsoons and Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Ocean|journal=Journal of Navigation|volume=64|issue=2|pages=207–218|doi=10.1017/S0373463310000469|s2cid=128761254 }}</ref> and 300 ships,<ref name=":6" /> beginning a period of expedition which would last 33 years.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /> During his seven voyages, Zheng He visited over 30 countries spread out across the Indian Ocean. Under Emperor Yongle, this naval undertaking served primarily as a deliverer of letters demanding tribute and allegiance to the middle kingdom; gifts were the first approach to gaining a country's favor, but if circumstances required it Zheng He's fleet would resort to violence.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> The result was a successful connection to 48 new tribute states and an influx of over 180 new trade goods; many were gifts.<ref name=":7" /> These expeditions expanded China's diplomatic supremacy of the region and strengthened their economic ties in the area. When these expeditions ended, China's maritime strength diminished and lacked a powerful navy for centuries after.<ref name=":7" />

==== Other Ming Maritime Activity ====
The end of the imperially-sponsored voyages, however, in no way meant that Ming people no longer put to sea.  Merchants, pirates, fishermen, and others depended on boats and ships for their livelihood, and immigration to Southeast Asia, both permanent and temporary, continued throughout Ming times.<ref>Robert J. Anthony, ''Like Froth Floating on the Sea: the World of Pirates and Seafarers in Late Imperial South China'' (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, 2003)</ref> Because Chinese and Chinese immigrants to Southeast Asia were the main players in commerce in the South China Sea, Chinese merchants and ships were critical to the Spanish trade in Manila.  Not only did Chinese merchants supply the goods the Spanish bought with their American silver, but Chinese shipbuilders built the famous galleons that carried those goods and that silver back and forth across the Pacific twice a year.<ref>David Ringrose, ''Europeans Abroad, 1450-1750''(Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2018), pp. 147,167-69, 212</ref>

===Clipper route===
{{main|Clipper route}}
[[File:ClipperRoute.png|thumb|The ''[[Clipper route]]'' followed by ships sailing between England and Australia/New Zealand.]]
During this time, the [[clipper route]] was established by [[clipper|clipper ships]] between Europe and the [[Far East]], Australia and New Zealand. The route ran from west to east through the [[Southern Ocean]], in order to make use of the strong westerly winds of the [[Roaring Forties]]. Many ships and sailors were lost in the heavy conditions along the route,{{citation needed|reason=Need evidence that there was an elevated level of losses on this route|date=August 2022}} particularly at [[Cape Horn]], which the clippers had to round on their return to Europe. In September 1578, Sir [[Francis Drake]], in the course of his circumnavigation of the world, discovered Cape Horn. This discovery went unused for some time, as ships continued to use the known passage through the Strait of Magellan.<ref>[http://www.goldenhind.co.uk/education/worksheets/voyage.html ''Voyage of the Golden Hind''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050104112053/http://www.goldenhind.co.uk/education/worksheets/voyage.html |date=2005-01-04 }}, from The Golden Hind. Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> By the early 17th century, the Dutch merchant [[Jacob le Maire]], together with navigator [[Willem Schouten]], set off to investigate Drake's suggestion of a route to the south of Tierra del Fuego. At the time it was discovered, the Horn was believed to be the southernmost point of Tierra del Fuego; the unpredictable violence of weather and sea conditions in the Drake Passage made exploration difficult, and it was only in 1624 that the Horn was discovered to be an island. It is an interesting testament to the difficulty of conditions there that Antarctica, only 650 kilometres (400&nbsp;mi) away across the Drake Passage, was discovered as recently as 1820, despite the passage having been used as a major shipping route for 200 years. The clipper route fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of [[steamboat|steam ships]], and the opening of the [[Suez Canal|Suez]] and [[Panama Canal]]s.

===End of exploration===
The [[Age of Exploration]] is generally said to have ended in the early 17th century. By this time European vessels were well enough built and their navigators competent enough to travel to virtually anywhere on the planet. Exploration, of course, continued. The Arctic and Antarctic seas were not explored until the 19th century.

==Age of Sail==
{{Main|Age of Sail}}
The ''Age of Sail'' originates from ancient seafaring exploration, during the rise of ancient civilizations.  Including [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Far East]] and the [[Cradle of Civilization]], the [[Arabian Sea]] has been an important [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] [[trade route]] since the era of the ''coastal sailing vessels'' from possibly as early as the third millennium BC, certainly the late second millennium BC up to and including the later days of [[Age of Sail]]. By the time of [[Julius Caesar]], several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon [[water transport]] through the Sea around the rough inland [[terrain feature]]s to its north. These routes usually began in the [[Far East]] with [[transshipment]] via historic [[Bharuch]] (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today's [[Iran]] then split around [[Hadhramaut]] into two streams north into the [[Gulf of Aden]] and thence into the [[Levant]], or south into [[Alexandria]] via Red Sea ports such as [[Axum]]. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravans, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates. Southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern [[Arabian peninsula]] ([[Yemen]] and [[Oman]] today) was significant, and the [[Egypt]]ian [[Pharaoh]]s built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today's [[Suez canal]], and another from the Red Sea to the [[Nile River]], both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge [[sand storm]]s in antiquity.<ref>[[Arabian Sea#Trade routes]]</ref>

In the modern western countries, the European "Age of Sail" is the period in which [[international trade]] and [[naval warfare]] were both dominated by [[sailing ship]]s. The age of [[sail]] mostly coincided with the [[Age of Discovery]], from the 15th to the 18th century. After the 17th century, English naval maps stopped using the term of [[British Sea]] for the [[English Channel]]. From 15th to the 18th centuries, the period saw [[square rig]]ged sailing ships<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=-xwEAAAAMAAJ The History of a ship from her cradle to her grave, with a short account of modern steamships & torpedoes]. (1882). London: G. Routledge & son.</ref> carry [[European ethnic groups|European]] settlers to many parts of the world in one of the most important [[human migration]]s in recorded history. This period was marked by extensive exploration and colonization efforts on the part of European kingdoms. The [[sextant]], developed in the 18th century, made more accurate charting of nautical position possible.

===Notable individuals===
[[File:Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571]]
[[Juan of Austria]] was a military leader whose most famous victory was in the naval [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571. Philip had appointed Juan to command the [[navy|naval forces]] of the [[Holy League (Mediterranean)|Holy League]] which was pitted against the Ottoman Empire. Juan, by dint of leadership ability and charisma, was able to unite this disparate coalition and inflict a historic defeat upon the Ottomans and their [[Privateer|corsair]] allies in the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]]. His role in the battle is commemorated in the poem "[[s:Lepanto|Lepanto]]" by [[G. K. Chesterton]].

[[Maarten Tromp]] was an officer and later [[admiral]] in the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] navy. In 1639, during the [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch struggle for independence from Spain]], Tromp defeated a large Spanish fleet bound for [[Flanders]] at the [[Battle of the Downs]], marking the end of Spanish naval power. In a preliminary battle, the [[action of 18 September 1639]], Tromp was the first fleet commander known to deliberately use [[line of battle]] tactics. His flagship in this period was ''Aemilia''. In the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]] of 1652–1653 Tromp commanded the Dutch fleet in the battles of [[Battle of Dungeness|Dungeness]], [[Battle of Portland|Portland]], [[Battle of the Gabbard|the Gabbard]] and [[Battle of Scheveningen|Scheveningen]]. In the last of these, he was killed by a sharpshooter in the rigging of [[William Penn (admiral)|William Penn]]'s ship. His acting flag captain, [[Egbert Bartholomeusz Kortenaer]], on {{ship|Dutch ship|Brederode||2}} kept up fleet morale by not lowering Tromp's standard, pretending Tromp was still alive.

[[Cornelis Tromp]] was a Commander in Chief of the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] and Danish navy. In 1656 he participated in the relief of [[Gdańsk]] ([[Danzig]]). In 1658 it was discovered he had used his ships to trade in luxury goods; as a result he was fined and not allowed to have an active command until 1662. Just before the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] he was promoted to [[vice-admiral]] on 29 January 1665; at the [[Battle of Lowestoft]] he prevented total catastrophe by taking over fleet command to allow the escape of the larger part of the fleet. In 1676 he became Admiral-General of the Danish navy and Knight in the [[Order of the Elephant]]. He defeated the Swedish navy in the [[Battle of Öland]], his only victory as a fleet commander.

[[File:John Cleveley the Younger, Views of the South Seas (No. 3 of 4).jpg|thumb|{{HMS|Resolution|1771|2}} and {{HMS|Discovery|1774|2}} in Tahiti, commanded by [[James Cook]]]]
[[Charles Hardy]] was a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[naval]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] and [[Colonialism|colonial]] [[governor]]. He was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of the [[British Empire|British colony]] of [[Colony of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] in 1744. In 1758, he and [[James Wolfe]] attacked French posts around the mouth of the [[St. Lawrence River]] and destroyed all of the French fishing stations along the northern shores of what is now [[New Brunswick]] and along the [[Gaspé peninsula]].

[[Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel]] was a [[Great Britain|British]] admiral who held sea commands during the [[Seven Years' War]] and the [[War of American Independence]]. During the final years of the latter conflict he served as [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]. During the Seven Years' War he saw constant service. He was in North America in 1755, on the coast of France in 1756, was detached on a cruise to reduce the French settlements on the west coast of Africa in 1758, and his ship ''Torbay'' (74) was the first to get into action in the [[Battle of Quiberon Bay]] in 1759. In 1757 he had formed part of the court martial which had condemned Admiral [[John Byng|Byng]], but was active among those who endeavoured to secure a pardon for him; but neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out. When Spain joined France in 1762 he was sent as second in command with Sir [[George Pocock]] in the expedition which took [[Havana]]. His health suffered from the fever which carried off an immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors, but the £25,000 of prize money which he received freed him from the unpleasant position of younger son of a family ruined by the extravagance of his father.

[[Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke]] was a naval officer of the [[Royal Navy]]. During the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] he was promoted to [[rear admiral]]. In the Seven Years' War, Hawke replaced Admiral [[John Byng]] as commander in the [[Mediterranean]] in 1756.

[[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe]] was a British admiral. During the rebellion in North America, Howe was known to be sympathetic to the colonists – he had in prior years sought the acquaintance of [[Benjamin Franklin]], who was a friend of Howe's sister, a popular lady in London society. During his career, Howe displayed a tactical uncommon originality. His performance was unexcelled even by [[Horatio Nelson|Nelson]], who, like Howe's other successors, was served by more highly trained squadrons and benefitted from Howe's example.

[[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson]] was a British admiral famous for his participation in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], most notably in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], a decisive British victory in the war, where he was killed.<ref name='nelsocchron'>{{cite web |url=http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/chronology.html |title=Chronology |author=The Nelson Society |date=2007-02-15 |access-date=2007-03-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714134416/http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/chronology.html |archive-date=2007-07-14 }}</ref> Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: "The Nelson Touch". His actions during these wars meant that before and after his death he was revered like few military figures have been throughout British history. [[Alexander Davison]] was a contemporary and close friend of Horatio Nelson. Davison is responsible for several acts that glorified Nelson's public image. These included the creation of a medal commemorating the victory at the [[Battle of the Nile]] and the creation of the [[Nelson Memorial, Swarland|Nelson Memorial]] at his estate at [[Swarland]], Northumberland. As a close friend of the Admiral he acted as an intermediary when Nelson's marriage to his wife, [[Frances Nisbet|Frances Nelson]] fell apart due in large part to his affair with [[Emma Hamilton]].
[[File:Trafalgar Crepin mg 0578.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Trafalgar]] in 1805]]

[[Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet|Hyde Parker]] in 1778 was engaged in the [[Savannah expedition]], and in the following year his ship was wrecked on the hostile [[Cuba]]n coast. His men, however, entrenched themselves, and were in the end brought off safely. Parker was with his father at the Dogger Bank, and with [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Richard Howe]] in the two actions in the [[Straits of Gibraltar]]. In 1793, having just become rear admiral, he served under [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood|Samuel Hood]] at [[Toulon]] and in [[Corsica]], and two years later, now a [[vice admiral]], he took part, under [[William Hotham, 1st Baron Hotham|Lord Hotham]], in the indecisive fleet actions on 13 March 1795 and the 13 July 1795. From 1796 to 1800 he was in command at [[Jamaica]] and ably conducted the operations in the [[West Indies]].

[[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth]] was a British naval officer who fought during the [[American War of Independence]], the [[French Revolutionary Wars|French Revolutionary]], and the Napoleonic Wars. Pellew is remembered as an officer and a gentleman of great courage and leadership, earning his land and titles through courage, leadership and skill – serving as a paradigm of the versatility and determination of Naval Officers during the Napoleonic Wars.

[[Antoine de Sartine]], a French statesman, was the [[List of Naval Ministers of France|Secretary of State for the Navy]] under King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]. Sartine inherited a strong [[French Navy]], resurrected by [[Étienne François, duc de Choiseul|Choiseul]] after the disasters of the [[Seven Years' War]] when France lost [[Canada, New France|Canada]], [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], and [[French India|India]], and which would later defeat the British Navy in the [[France in the American Revolutionary War|War of American Independence]].

[[James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez]] was an admiral of the British Royal Navy, notable for his victory at the [[Algeciras Campaign|Battle of Algeciras]]. In 1801 he was raised to the rank of [[Rear-Admiral of the Blue]], was created a baronet, and received the command of a small squadron which was destined to watch the movements of the Spanish fleet at [[Cadiz]]. Between 6 and 12 July he performed a brilliant piece of service, in which after a first repulse at Algeciras he routed a much superior combined force of French and Spanish ships at the Battle of Algeciras. For his services Saumarez received the [[order of the Bath]] and the [[freedom of the City of London]].

[[David Porter (naval officer)|David Porter]] during the [[First Barbary War]] (1801–07) was 1st lieutenant of {{USS|Enterprise|1799|6}}, {{USS|New York|1800|6}} and {{USS|Philadelphia|1799|6}} and was taken prisoner when ''Philadelphia'' ran aground in [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] harbor 31 October 1803. After his release 3 June 1805 he remained in the [[Mediterranean]] as acting captain of {{USS|Constitution}} and later captain of ''Enterprise''. He was in charge of the naval forces at [[New Orleans]] 1808–1810. As commander of {{USS|Essex|1799|6}} in the [[War of 1812]], Captain Porter achieved fame by capturing the first British warship of the conflict, {{HMS|Alert|1804|6}}, 13 August 1812 as well as several merchantmen. In 1813 he sailed ''Essex'' around [[Cape Horn]] and cruised in the Pacific warring on British whalers. On 28 March 1814 Porter was forced to surrender off [[Valparaiso]] after an unequal contest with the frigates {{HMS|Phoebe|1795|6}} and {{HMS|Cherub|1806|6}} and only when his ship was too disabled to offer any resistance.

===Spanish and English Armadas===
{{main|Spanish Armada|English Armada}}
[[File:C.C. van Wieringen The Spanish Armada off the English coast.jpg|thumb|The Spanish Armada off the English coast]]
The [[Spanish Armada]] was the Spanish fleet that sailed against England under the command of the [[Alonso de Guzmán El Bueno, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia|Duke of Medina Sidona]] in 1588. The Spanish Armada was sent by King [[Philip II of Spain]], who had been king consort of England until the death of his wife [[Mary I of England]] thirty years earlier. The purpose of the expedition was to escort the [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma|Duke of Parma's]] army of [[tercio]]s from the [[Spanish Netherlands]] across the [[North Sea]] for a landing in south-east England. Once the army had suppressed English support for the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] &mdash; part of the [[Spanish Netherlands]] &mdash; it was intended to cut off attacks against [[Spanish Empire|Spanish possessions]] in the [[New World]] and the Atlantic [[Spanish treasure fleet|treasure fleet]]s. It was also hoped to reverse the Protestant revolution in England, and to this end the expedition was supported by [[Pope Sixtus V]], with the promise of a subsidy should it make land.<ref>{{cite CE1913|wstitle= Spanish Armada |volume= 1 |last= Pollen |first= John Hungerford |quote= see para IV. CATHOLIC CO-OPERATION...|short=1}}</ref> The command of the fleet was originally entrusted to Alvaro de Bazan, a highly experienced naval commander who died a few months before the fleet sailed from Lisbon in May 1588.

The Spanish Armada consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships. After forcing its way up the [[English Channel]], it was attacked by a fleet of 200 English ships, assisted by the Dutch navy, in the North Sea at [[Naval battle of Gravelines|Gravelines]] off the coastal border between France and the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. A [[fire ship|fire-ship]] attack drove the Armada ships from their safe anchorage, and in the ensuing battle the Spanish abandoned their rendezvous with Parma's army.

The Spanish Armada was blown north up the east coast of England and in a hasty strategic move, attempted a return to Spain by sailing around Scotland and out into the Atlantic, past Ireland. But very severe weather destroyed a portion of the fleet, and more than 24 vessels were wrecked on the north and western coasts of Ireland, with the survivors having to seek refuge in Scotland. Of the Spanish Armada's initial complement of vessels, about 50 did not return to Spain. However, the loss to Philip's Royal Navy was comparatively small: only seven ships failed to return, and of these only three were lost to enemy action.

The [[English Armada]] was a fleet of warships sent to the Iberian coast by Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] in 1589, during the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] (1585&ndash;1604). It was led by Sir [[Francis Drake]] as admiral and Sir [[John Norris (soldier)|John Norreys]] as general, and failed in its attempt to drive home the advantage England had won upon the defeat and dispersal of the [[Spanish Armada]] in the previous year. With the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish lost, the failure of the expedition further depleted the crown treasury that had been so carefully restored during the long reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. The [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish war]] was very costly to both sides, and Spain itself, also fighting France and the United Provinces, had to default on its debt repayments in 1596, following another raid on Cadiz. But the failure of the English Armada was a turning point, and the fortunes of the various parties to this complicated conflict fluctuated until the [[Treaty of London, 1604|Treaty of London]] in 1604, when a peace was agreed.

Spain's rebuilt navy had quickly recovered and exceeded its pre-Armada dominance of the sea, until defeats by the [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch]] fifty years later marked the beginning of its decline. With the peace, the English were able to consolidate their hold on Ireland and make a concerted effort to establish colonies in North America.

{{See also|Spanish Armada in Ireland}}

===North American maritime===
The [[maritime history of the United States]] starts in the modern sense with the first successful English colony established in 1607, on the [[James River (Virginia)|James River]] at [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]]. It languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and set up commercial agriculture based on tobacco. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its cornerstone, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years.

The [[Continental Navy]] was formed during the [[American Revolution]] in 1774–1775. Through the efforts of the Continental Navy's apparent patron, [[John Adams]] and vigorous congressional support in the face of stiff opposition, the fleet cumulatively became relatively substantial when considering the limitations imposed upon the Patriot supply poole. The "[[Six original United States frigates]]" were the first United States [[frigate]]s of the [[United States Navy]], first authorized by the [[United States Congress|Congress]] with the [[Naval Act of 1794]] on March 27, 1794, at a cost of $688,888.82.

[[John Paul Jones]] was America's first well-known [[US Navy|naval]] hero in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. John Paul adopted the alias ''John Jones'' when he fled to his brother's home in [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]] in 1773 in order to avoid the hangman's noose in [[Tobago]] after an incident when he was accused of murdering a sailor under his command. He began using the name ''John Paul Jones'' as his brother suggested during the start of the [[American Revolution]]. Though his naval career never rose above the rank of captain in the [[Continental Navy]] after his victory over {{HMS|Serapis|1779|6}} with the [[frigate]] {{USS|Bonhomme Richard|1765|6}}, John Paul Jones remains the first genuine American naval hero, and a highly regarded battle commander.

[[Jonathan Haraden]] was a [[privateer]] during the [[American Revolution]], being the [[first lieutenant]] of the [[sloop-of-war]] [[Massachusetts ship Tyrannicide (1776)|''Tyrannicide'']], fourteen guns. On board for two years, he captured many prizes, becoming her commander in 1777.

[[File:Bombardment of Tripoli, 3 August 1804.tif|thumb|[[USS Constitution|USS ''Constitution'']] participating in the bombardment of Tripoli, 3 August 1804]]
[[George H. Preble]] was an American [[naval officer]] and [[writer]], notable for his history of the [[flag of the United States]] and for taking the first photograph of the [[Fort McHenry]] flag that inspired "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]". George entered the Navy as a [[midshipman]] on 10 December 1835, serving on {{USS|United States|1797|6}} until 1838.

[[Edward Preble]] was a [[United States of America|U.S.]] naval officer. Following his Revolutionary War service, he was appointed [[1st Lieutenant]] in the U.S. Navy. In January 1799, he assumed command of the 14-gun brig {{USS|Pickering|1798|6}} and took her to the [[West Indies]] to protect American commerce during the [[Quasi-War]] with France. Commissioned [[Captain (United States)|Captain]] 7 June 1799, he took command of {{USS|Essex|1799|6}} in December and sailed in January 1800 for the Pacific to provide similar protective services for Americans engaged in the [[East Indies]] trade. Given command of the 3rd Squadron, with {{USS|Constitution}} as his [[flagship]], in 1803, he sailed for the [[Barbary coast]] and by October had promoted a treaty with [[Morocco]] and established a blockade off [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] in the First Barbary War.

=== Triangular trade ===
In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries a network of maritime trade formed in the Atlantic, connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas through a triangular trade of African slaves, sugar/molasses, and rum.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=White|first=Andrew|date=Fall 2007|title=A "Consuming" Oppression: Sugar, Cannibalism and John Woolman's 1770 Slave Dream|journal=Quaker History|volume=96|issue=2|pages=1–27|jstor=41947604|doi=10.1353/qkh.2007.0003|s2cid=161268825}}</ref> This maritime trade route would enrich Europe and the Americas while also pulling both deeper into the slave trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ostrander|first=Gilman|title=The Colonial Molasses Trade|journal=Agricultural History|volume= 30|issue=2|pages=77–84|jstor=3739927|year=1956}}</ref>

European merchants would buy slaves from African slavers, transporting these slaves to their sugar plantations in the Caribbeans, where the sugar/molasses they produced would be shipped to [[British North America]] and distilled into rum where it would be consumed in the colonies and sent to Europe.<ref name=":8" /> In some models of triangular trade, the Colonies take Europe's place, and the model of trade shifts to Slaves from Africa to the Caribbean, sugar and molasses go to New England, and the rum/other finished goods would be sold in Africa to get more slaves.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ryden|first=David|date=June 2001|title=Producing a Peculiar Commodity: Jamaican Sugar Production, Slave Life, and Planter Profits on the Eve of Abolition, 1750-1807|journal=Journal of Economic History|volume=61|issue=2|pages=504–507|jstor=2698035|doi=10.1017/S0022050701268107|s2cid=154648329 }}</ref> Both of these models are not restricted to sugar trade; tobacco, cotton, and other plantation based raw materials take the place of sugar, and its derivatives.

=== Piracy in the Atlantic Ocean ===
During the Age of Discovery, key trade routes to the new world formed in the Caribbean and the Atlantic Ocean. With this concentrated area of trade, piracy was a significant maritime hazard in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Some nations would use pirates to sabotage their rivals, going as far as supplying and recognizing them as legitimate.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Norton|first=Matthew|date=May 2014|title=Classification and Coercion: The Destruction of Piracy in the English Maritime System|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=119|issue=6|pages=1537–1575|doi=10.1086/676041|s2cid=143934643}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Pirates, Merchants, Settlers, and Slaves: Colonial America and the Indo-Atlantic World|last=Mcdonald|first=Kevin|publisher=University of California Press|year=2015|pages=12–36}}</ref> Eventually, powers like the English and Dutch implemented strong anti-piracy tactics to strengthen their trade empires in the 18th century.<ref name=":1" />

In the 16th and 17th century Caribbean, the trading of slaves, precious metals, and raw materials all fell prey to piracy.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=evans|first=Amanda|date=December 2007|title=Defining Jamaica Sloops: A Preliminary Model for Identifying an Abstract Concept|journal=Journal of Maritime Archaeology|volume= 2|issue=2|pages=83–92|doi=10.1007/s11457-007-9019-1|s2cid=155054311}}</ref> Pirates would raid forts, and attack ships at sea to get possession of merchants material wealth. In some cases, pirates would tie themselves to a maritime power like the British and aid them by raiding rival nations like the Spanish and leaving British trade unmolested.<ref name=":2" /> In areas like Jamaica, some pirates were friendly with the British and would remain on the fringes of the colony. Some of these pirates were accepted by British colonial governors.<ref name=":2" />

The English and Dutch had created extensive trade empires during the 17th and 18th century and saw pirates as a barrier to their continued growth. English began building a codification for piracy, which started a war against pirates that lasted from the 1670s ending in the 1720s. During this time the English would develop a ship called the Jamaica Sloops which were better at fending off piracy.<ref name=":3" /> In the late 1600s, the British began building up their navy and were able to put an end to most piracy by the 1720s violently, only isolated individual instances persisted.

===Life at sea===
Shipping, whether of cargo or passengers, is a business and the duties of a ship's captain reflect that. A captain's first duty was to the ship's owner and often the captain was encouraged to buy into the business with at least a one eighth share of the ship. A captain's second duty was to the cargo itself followed thirdly by the crew.

Crew were broken into two shifts that served four hour alternating watches often with all hands jointly serving the noon to 4:00 watch. American ships would commonly alternate watches with the addition of a two-hour dog watch. Work for sailors during their shift consisted primarily of general ship maintenance, washing, sanding, painting and repairs from general wear and tear or damage from storms. General ship operations like raising and lowering the anchor or furling and unfurling sails were done as needed. During the off shift hours, sailors could take care of their personal chores, washing and repairing clothes, sleeping and eating. Leisure time could was often spent reading, writing in journals, playing an instrument, wood carving or fancy rope work. The American Seaman's Friend Society in New York City would loan boxes of books to ships for sailor's use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penobscotmarinemuseum.org/pbho-1/life-at-sea/life-sea-introduction|title=Life at Sea: Introduction - Penobscot Bay History Online}}</ref>

Life aboard ship for immigrant travelers was much harsher and sometimes deadly. Ship owners would pack as many people as they could on board to maximize profits and little government oversight existed to ensure they received proper care during the voyage. British immigrant ships would often show less care to the passengers than criminals on prison ships to Australia. In 1803 the Passenger Vessel Act in Britain limited occupancy to one person per two tons of the ship's register. America issue stricter laws in 1819 limiting ships to a 1 to 5 ratio with fine levied should an overcrowded ship arrive at port. The Act of Feb. 1847 further increased the amount of space granted to passengers with the confiscation of a ship as the penalty for overcrowding.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cmich.edu/library/clarke/ResearchResources/Michigan_Material_Local/Beaver_Island_Helen_Collar_Papers/Subject_Cards/EmigrationandImmigrantLife/Pages/Transatlantic-Crossing.aspx|title=Transatlantic Crossing - Central Michigan University}}</ref>

===War of 1812===
{{Main|War of 1812}}
[[File:USS Constitution v HMS Guerriere.jpg|thumb|{{USS|Constitution}} defeats {{HMS|Guerriere|1806|6}}]]
[[Stephen Decatur]] was an American naval officer notable for his heroism in the First Barbary War and the [[Second Barbary War]] and in the [[War of 1812]]. He was the youngest man to reach the rank of captain in the history of the [[U.S. Navy]], and the first American celebrated as a national military hero who had not played a role in the [[American Revolution]].

[[James Lawrence]] was an American naval hero. During the War of 1812, he commanded {{USS|Chesapeake|1799|6}} in a [[single-ship action]] against {{HMS|Shannon|1806|6}} (commanded by [[Philip Broke]]). He is probably best known today for his [[q:Last words|dying command]] "Don't give up the ship!", which is still a popular naval [[battle cry]].

[[John H. Aulick]] was an officer in the United States Navy whose service extended from the [[War of 1812]] to the end of the [[antebellum era]]. During the War of 1812, he served in {{USS|Enterprise|1799|6}} and took part in her battle with {{HMS|Boxer|1812|6}} on 4 September 1813. After that engagement ended in an American victory, Aulick served as [[prize master]] of the prize.

[[Thomas Macdonough]] was an early 19th-century American naval officer, most notably as commander of American naval forces on [[Lake Champlain]] during the War of 1812. One of the leading members of "Preble's Boys", a small group of naval officers who served during the [[First Barbary War]], Macdonough's actions during the decisive [[Battle of Lake Champlain]] are often cited as a model of tactical preparation and execution.

=== ''Challenger'' Expedition ===
{{HMS|Challenger|1858|6}}, built in 1858, undertook the first global marine research expedition called the [[Challenger expedition|''Challenger'' expedition]] in 1872. To enable her to probe the depths, all but two of ''Challenger''{{'}}s guns had been removed and her spars reduced to make more space available. Laboratories, extra cabins and a special dredging platform were installed. She was loaded with specimen jars, alcohol for preservation of samples, microscopes and chemical apparatus, trawls and dredges, thermometers and water sampling bottles, sounding leads and devices to collect sediment from the sea bed and great lengths of rope with which to suspend the equipment into the ocean depths. In all she was supplied with {{convert|181|mi|km|0}} of Italian hemp for sounding, trawling and dredging. As the first true oceanographic cruise, the Challenger expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline.

===End of the sail===
Like most [[history by period|periodic eras]] the definition is inexact and close enough to serve as a general description. The age of sail runs roughly from the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571, the last significant engagement in which [[oar]]-propelled [[galley]]s played a major role, to the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] in 1862, in which the steam-powered {{ship|CSS|Virginia}} destroyed the sailing ships {{USS|Cumberland|1842|6}} and {{USS|Congress|1841|6}}, finally culminating with the advance of [[steam power]], rendering sail power obsolete.

==Submarines==
The [[history of submarines]] covers the [[historical]] [[chronology]] and facts related to [[submarines]], the ships and boats which operate underwater. The modern underwater boat proposal was made by the Englishman [[William Bourne (mathematician)|William Bourne]] who designed a prototype submarine in 1578. Unfortunately for him these ideas never got beyond the planning stage. The first submersible proper to be actually built in modern times was built in 1620 by [[Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel]], a Dutchman in the service of [[James I of England|James I]]: it was based on Bourne's design. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the submarine type is a matter of some controversy; some claim that it was merely a bell towed by a boat. Two improved types were tested in the [[Thames]] between 1620 and 1624. In 1900, the U.S. navy was sold their first submarine by an Irish man named John Holland. From 1945 to 1955, tremendous changes were made for a great time when the first submarine was sent out to sail for the first time. The United States heavily depended on the submarines as a weapon of war when they were going to war with the Japanese.<ref>[Weir, Gary E. "Fast Attacks and Boomers: Submarines in the Cold War": The National Museum of American History." ''Technology and Culture'' 44, no. 2 (2003): 359-63. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148112.]</ref>

==Age of steam==
Steam was first applied to boats in the 1770s. With the advent of economical [[steam engine]]s, efficient [[External combustion engine|external combustion]] [[heat engine]]s that makes use of the heat [[energy]] that exists in [[steam]] and converting it to [[mechanical work]], the [[Wiktionary:prime mover|prime mover]] was steam for ships. The technology only became relevant to sea travel after 1815, the year Pierre Andriel crossed the [[English Channel]] aboard the steamship ''Élise''.

===Rise of steam vessels===
[[Steamship]]s gradually replaced sailing ships for commercial shipping in the 19th century – mostly through the latter part of the century. Paradoxically, steam supported sail, by providing tugs that could speed the arrival of ships that would otherwise often be windbound in anchorages close to their point of departure or destination. Larger sailing vessels could be built for bulk cargoes, as the availability of tugs meant that they could be docked efficiently. Steam "donkey engines" enabled these larger ships to work with smaller crews, being used for hoisting large sails and generally doing the heavy work on the ship.<ref name="Gardiner and Greenhill 1993">{{cite book |last1=Gardiner |first1=Robert J |last2=Greenhill |first2=Basil |title=Sail's Last Century : the Merchant Sailing Ship 1830-1930 |date=1993 |publisher=Conway Maritime Press |location=London |isbn=0-85177-565-9}}</ref>{{rp|7–19, ''passim''}}

Steam technology required a number of developmental steps to be able to compete with sail propulsion. Better materials and designs were needed for the boilers that ran at the higher pressures that allowed the increases in fuel efficiency from, first, compound engines (successfully used in [[SS Agamemnon (1865)|SS ''Agamemnon'' (1865)]]) and then the triple expansion engine (starting with [[SS Aberdeen (1881)|SS ''Aberdeen'' (1881)]]). The early practice of using sea water in boilers caused build up of salt in the boilers, so requiring regular cleaning on route. An interim solution was to regularly replace the water, to keep the salt content low – needing development of heat exchangers to recover the heat from old water. Ultimately condensers were designed to recover the fresh water used in later boilers. The inherent problems of paddlewheel propulsion were solved by the screw propeller, but that needed a functional [[stern gland]] and [[thrust bearing]]. Iron hulls overcame the structural issues of wooden-hulled steamers, but needed [[Anti-fouling paint|anti-fouling materials]], or, failing that, [[dry dock]]s in which hulls could be regularly cleaned. For steamships to operate around the world, coaling stations had to be provided for shipping routes and coal of the correct quality had to be transported there.<ref name="Jarvis">{{cite book |last=Jarvis|first=Adrian|editor1-first=Robert|editor1-last= Gardiner|editor2-first=Dr. Basil|editor2-last= Greenhill
|title=The Advent of Steam - The Merchant Steamship before 1900 |publisher=Conway Maritime Press Ltd |date=1993 |pages=158–159|isbn=0-85177-563-2}}</ref>{{rp|''passim''}}

Whilst the technology steadily improved, sail remained the most economical choice for ship-owners who wished to make a good return on the capital they had invested. Steam was an option only for a limited number of trades until the 1860s, focusing on routes requiring scheduled services and/or reliable average speeds on a voyage – and only where the customer was prepared to pay the higher costs involved. Most of this was passenger transport and mail contracts. Only when the much more fuel efficient triple expansion engine had become common (by the 1890s) were all shipping routes fully commercially viable for steamers.{{r|Gardiner and Greenhill 1993|p=7-19}}

[[Ironclad]]s are [[steam engine|steam-propelled]] [[warship]]s of the later 19th century, protected by [[iron]] or [[steel]] armor plates.<ref>Hill, Richard. ''War at Sea in the Ironclad Age'' {{ISBN|0-304-35273-X}}; p.17</ref> The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships to explosive or incendiary [[shell (projectile)|shells]]. The first ironclad battleship, {{ship|French ironclad|Gloire||2}}, was launched by the [[French Navy]] in 1859;<ref>Sondhaus, Lawrence. ''Naval Warfare 1815&ndash;1914'' {{ISBN|0-415-21478-5}}. pp73–4</ref> she prompted the British Royal Navy to start building ironclads. After the [[Battle of Hampton Roads|first clashes of ironclads]] took place during the [[American Civil War]], it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the [[Ship of the line|unarmored line-of-battle ship]] as the most powerful warship afloat.<ref>Sondhaus, p. 86</ref>

[[File:SS Columbia Undated Photograph.png|thumb|left|The American steamship [[SS Columbia (1880)|''Columbia'']] was the first vessel to feature a [[dynamo]] and the first structure to utilize the [[incandescent light bulb]].]]
In 1880, the American passenger steamer [[SS Columbia (1880)|''Columbia'']] became the first ship to utilize the [[dynamo]] and [[incandescent light bulb]]. Furthermore, ''Columbia'' was the first structure besides [[Thomas Edison]]'s laboratory in [[Menlo Park, New Jersey]] to use the incandescent light bulb.<ref>Belyk, Robert C. Great Shipwrecks of the Pacific Coast. New York: Wiley, 2001. Print.{{ISBN|0-471-38420-8}}</ref><ref>Jehl, Francis 
[https://books.google.com/books?id=OkL1Smk4uiAC&pg=PA563&dq=SS+Columbia+(1880) Menlo Park reminiscences : written in Edison's restored Menlo Park laboratory], Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Whitefish, Mass,  Kessinger Publishing, 1 July 2002, page 564</ref><ref name = "Dalton">Dalton, Anthony 
[https://books.google.com/books?id=LOQ67VeU3WwC&pg=PA63&dq=SS+Columbia+(1880) ''A long, dangerous coastline: Shipwreck Tales from Alaska to California'']
Heritage House Publishing Company, 1 Feb 2011 - 128 pages</ref>

===Greek War of Independence===
{{main|Greek revolution}}
[[File:Navarino.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Navarino]], in October 1827, marked the effective end of [[Ottoman Greece|Ottoman rule in Greece]].]]
The Greek War of Independence was a successful war waged by the Greeks to win independence for Greece from the Ottoman Empire. Success at sea was vital for the Greeks. If they failed to counter the Ottoman Navy, it would be able to resupply the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s Asian provinces at will, crushing the rebellion. The Greeks decided to use [[fireships]] and found an effective weapon against the Ottoman vessels. Conventional naval actions were also fought, at which naval commanders like [[Andreas Vokos Miaoulis|Andreas Miaoulis]], [[Nikolis Apostolis]], [[Iakovos Tombazis]] and [[Antonios Kriezis]] distinguished themselves. The early successes of the Greek fleet in direct confrontations with the Ottomans at [[Naval Battle of Patras|Patras]] and [[Naval Battle of Spetsai|Spetsai]] gave the crews confidence, and contributed greatly to the survival and success of the uprising in the Peloponnese. Despite victories at [[Naval Battle of Samos|Samos]] and [[Naval Battle of Gerontas|Gerontas]], the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the [[Battle of Navarino]] in 1827. The Ottoman fleet was decisively defeated by the combined fleets of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[July Monarchy|France]] and the [[Russian Empire]], effectively securing the independence of Greece.

===1850 to the end of the century===
Most warships used steam propulsion until the advent of the gas turbine. Steamships were superseded by diesel-driven ships in the second half of the 20th century.

The ''[[Confederate States Navy]]'' (''CSN'') was the [[Navy|naval branch]] of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate States]] [[armed forces]] established by an act of the [[Congress of the Confederate States|Confederate Congress]] on February 21, 1861. It was responsible for Confederate naval operations during the [[American Civil War]]. The two major tasks of the Confederate Navy during the whole of its existence were the protection of [[Southern United States|Southern]] harbors and coastlines from outside invasion, and making the war costly for the [[Union (American Civil War)|North]] by attacking merchant ships and breaking the [[Union blockade|Union Blockade]].

[[David Farragut]] was the first senior officer of the United States Navy during the [[American Civil War]]. He was the first [[rear admiral]], [[vice admiral]], and full [[Admiral (United States)|admiral]] of the Navy. He is remembered in popular culture for his possibly apocryphal order at the [[Battle of Mobile Bay]], usually paraphrased: "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!".<ref>Davis, p. 682. The [http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/qyd/media.asp Reuters] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028080301/http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/qyd/media.asp |date=2012-10-28 }}</ref>

[[Franklin Buchanan]] was an officer in the United States Navy who became an admiral in the Confederate Navy during the American Civil War. He was the captain of the [[ironclad]] {{ship|CSS|Virginia}} (formerly {{USS|Merrimack|1855|6}}) during the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] in Virginia. He climbed to the top deck of ''Virginia'' and began furiously firing toward shore with a [[carbine]] as {{USS|Congress|1841|6}} was shelled. He soon was brought down by a [[sharpshooter]]'s [[minie ball]] to the thigh. He would eventually recover from his leg wound. He never did get to command ''Virginia'' against {{USS|Monitor}}. That honor went to [[Catesby ap Roger Jones]]. But Buchanan had handed the US Navy the worst defeat it would take until [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]].
[[File:Bataille de la baie de Mobile par Louis Prang (1824-1909).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Battle of Mobile Bay]] in 1864]] 
[[Raphael Semmes]] was an officer in the United States Navy from 1826 to 1860 and the Confederate States Navy from 1860 to 1865. During the American Civil War he was captain of the famous commerce raider {{ship|CSS|Alabama}}, taking a record fifty-five [[prize]]s. Late in the war he was promoted to admiral and also served briefly as a [[brigadier general]] in the [[Confederate States Army]].

In Italy, [[Carlo Pellion di Persano]] was an Italian admiral and commander of the [[Regia Marina]] fleet at the [[Battle of Lissa (1866)|Battle of Lissa]]. He commanded the fleet from 1860 to 1861, and saw action in the struggle for [[Risorgimento|Italian unification]]. After unification he was elected to the legislature; he became Minister of Marine in 1862 and in 1865 he was nominated a Senator. However, his career was marred during the [[Seven Weeks War|war with Austria]] when he commanded the Italian fleet at Lissa. After the defeat, he was condemned for incapacity, and discharged.

Again in America, [[Charles Edgar Clark]] was an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War and the [[Spanish–American War]]. He commanded the [[battleship]] {{USS|Oregon|BB-3|6}} at the [[Mare Island Naval Shipyard]], [[San Francisco]], and when war with Spain was deemed inevitable, he received orders to proceed to [[Key West, Florida]], with all haste. After a most remarkable voyage of over {{convert|14000|mi|km}}, around Cape Horn, he joined the American fleet in Cuban waters on May 26, and on July 3 commanded his ship at the destruction of [[Pascual Cervera y Topete|Cervera]]'s squadron.

[[George Dewey]] was an admiral of the United States Navy, best known for his victory (without the loss of a single life of his own forces due to combat; one man died of a heart attack) at the [[Battle of Manila Bay (1898)|Battle of Manila Bay]] during the Spanish–American War. He was also the only person in the history of the United States to have attained the rank of [[Admiral of the Navy (United States)|Admiral of the Navy]], the most senior rank in the United States Navy.

[[Garrett J. Pendergrast]] was an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War. He commanded {{USS|Boston|1825|6}} during the [[Mexican–American War]] in 1846. In 1856, he commissioned {{USS|Merrimack|1855|6}}, the ship that would later become CSS ''Virginia''.

[[Lewis Nixon (naval architect)|Lewis Nixon]] was a shipbuilding executive, [[naval architecture|naval architect]], and political activist. Nixon graduated first in his class from the Naval Academy in 1882 and was sent to study naval architecture at the Royal Naval College where, again, he graduated first in the class in 1885. In 1890, with help from assistant naval constructor [[David W. Taylor]], he designed the ''Indiana''-class battleships which included {{USS|Indiana|BB-1|6}}, {{USS|Massachusetts|BB-2|6}} and USS ''Oregon''.

[[Patricio Montojo]] was the Spanish naval commander at the Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898), a decisive battle of the [[Spanish–American War]]. At the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Montojo was in command of the Spanish Squadron that was destroyed by the U.S. Asiatic Squadron in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. Montojo was wounded during this battle, as was also one of his two sons who were participating in this battle. United States naval forces under [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] George Dewey decisively defeated Spain's Pacific fleet, at anchor in Manila Bay, the Philippines. Most of the seven Spanish vessels sank or surrendered.

==20th century==
In the 20th century, the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[gas turbine]] came to replace the steam engine in most ship applications. Trans-oceanic travel, [[transatlantic crossing|transatlantic]] and [[transpacific]], was a particularly important application, with steam powered [[Ocean liner]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chriscunard.com/history-fleet/translantic-liner/|title=The Transatlantic Liner|publisher=Chriscunard.com}}</ref> replacing sailing ships, then culminating in the massive [[Superliner (passenger ship)|Superliners]] which included the {{RMS|Titanic}}. The event with the Titanic lead to the [[Maritime Distress Safety System]].

===Maritime events of World War I===
[[File:HMS Irresistible abandoned 18 March 1915.jpg|thumb|{{HMS|Irresistible|1898|6}} abandoned and sinking ([[Battle of Gallipoli]]).]]
[[File:Submarine U-14 (LOC) (6358166395).jpg|thumb|[[SM U-14 (Germany)|German U-boat ''U-14'']].]]
{{Main|World War I|Naval Warfare of World War I|U-boat Campaign (World War I)}}
At the start of the war, the German Empire had [[cruiser]]s scattered across the globe. Some of them were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect allied shipping. For example, the detached light cruiser {{SMS|Emden|1908|6}}, part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Tsingtao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, the bulk of the German East-Asia squadron – consisting of the armoured cruisers {{SMS|Scharnhorst}} and {{SMS|Gneisenau}}, light cruisers {{SMS|Nürnberg|1906|6}} and {{SMS|Leipzig|1905|6}} and two transport ships – did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it was lost at the [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] in December 1914.<ref>John M. Taylor, "Audacious Cruise of the Emden", The Quarterly Journal of Military History, Volume 19, Number 4, Summer 2007, pp.&nbsp;39–47</ref>

Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a naval [[blockade]] of Germany, preventing supplies from reaching its ports. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated generally accepted international law codified by international agreements.<ref name="LondonDeclaration">[[London Declaration concerning the Laws of Naval War]]</ref><ref>Lance Edwin Davis, Stanley L. Engerman, Naval blockades in peace and war: an economic history since 1750. Page 229</ref> A blockade of stationed ships within a three-mile (5&nbsp;km) radius was considered legitimate,<ref name="LondonDeclaration" /> however Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean,<ref>Carlisle, R. P. (2007). World War I. New York: Facts On File, Inc. Page 168.</ref> causing danger to even neutral ships.<ref>Schmidt, D. E. (2005). The folly of war: American foreign policy, 1898–2005. New York: Algora Pub. Page 77</ref> Though there was limited response to this tactic, some<ref>Such as [[Alfred von Tirpitz]]</ref> expected a better response for German's aim with its unrestricted submarine warfare.<ref>Scheck, R. (1998). Alfred von Tirpitz and German right-wing politics: 1914–1930. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press. Page 31</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=V2r_TBjR2TYC Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921] By Robert Gardiner, Randal Gray, Przemyslaw Budzbon. Page 137.</ref>

German [[U-boat]]s attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.<ref>Canada., & Giesler, P. (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=C4QOOAAACAAJ Valour at sea: Canada's merchant navy].</ref> The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning,<ref>Anti-submarine warfare in World War I By John J. Abbatiello. Page 111.</ref> giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.<ref name="Sheffield">{{Cite journal| last=Sheffield| first=Garry| title=The First Battle of the Atlantic| journal=World Wars in Depth| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/battle_atlantic_ww1_01.shtml| publisher=BBC |access-date=2009-11-11}}</ref><ref name="isbn0-8050-7617-4">Gilbert, Martin (2004), The First World War: A Complete History, Clearwater, Florida: Owl Books, p. 306, {{ISBN|0-8050-7617-4}}, OCLC 34792651 p. 306</ref>  After the infamous sinking of the passenger ship {{RMS|Lusitania}} in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners. In 1916 the United States launched a protest over a cross-channel passenger ferry sinking, [[Sussex pledge|Germany modified its rules of engagement]]. Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of [[unrestricted submarine warfare]], realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the U.S. could transport a large army overseas.

The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships<ref>Britain armed its merchant ships.</ref> entered [[convoy]]s escorted by destroyers.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7IrOezel0GYC|title=The Crisis of the Naval War|first=Viscount Jellicoe Of|last=Scapa|publisher=Plain Label Books|via=Google Books|isbn=9781603032568}}</ref> This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets. The accompanying destroyers might sink a submerged submarine with [[depth charges]]. The losses to submarine attacks were reduced significantly. But the convoy system slowed the flow of supplies. The solution to the delays was a massive program to build new freighters. Various troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not have to travel the North Atlantic in convoys.<ref>George W. Baer, One Hundred Years of Sea Power: The U. S. Navy, 1890–1990. Page 81.</ref>

The First World War also saw the first use of [[aircraft carriers]] in combat, with {{HMS|Furious|47|6}} launching [[Sopwith Camels]] in a successful raid against the [[Zeppelin]] hangars at [[Tondern]] in July 1918.

===Maritime events of World War II===

====Battle of the Atlantic====
[[File:Pennsylvania Sun.jpg|thumb|The tanker [[SS Pennsylvania Sun|MS ''Pennsylvania Sun'']], torpedoed by {{GS|U-571||2}} on 15 July 1942 (was saved and returned to service in 1943).]]
[[File:Submarine attack (AWM 304949).jpg|thumb|A U-boat under attack by Allied aircraft in November 1943.]]
{{main|Battle of the Atlantic}}
In the North Atlantic, German [[U-boat]]s attempted to cut supply lines to the United Kingdom by sinking merchant ships. In the first four months of the war they sank more than 110 vessels. In addition to supply ships, the U-boats occasionally attacked British and Canadian warships. One U-boat sank the British [[aircraft carrier|carrier]] {{HMS|Courageous|50|6}}, while another managed to sink the [[battleship]] {{HMS|Royal Oak|08|6}} in her home anchorage of [[Scapa Flow]].

In the summer of 1941, the Soviet Union entered the war on the side of the Allies. Although the Soviets had tremendous reserves in manpower, they had lost much of their equipment and manufacturing base in the first few weeks following the German invasion. The Western Allies attempted to remedy this by sending [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic convoys]], which travelled from the United Kingdom and the United States to the northern ports of the Soviet Union: [[Arkhangelsk|Archangel]] and [[Murmansk]]. The treacherous route around the [[North Cape, Norway|North Cape]] of Norway was the site of many battles as the Germans continually tried to disrupt the convoys using U-boats, bombers, and surface ships.

Following the entry of the United States into the war in December 1941, U-boats sank shipping along the [[East Coast of the United States]] and Canada, the waters around [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], the [[Battle of the Caribbean|Caribbean Sea]], and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. They were initially so successful that this became known among U-boat crews as the [[second happy time]]. Eventually, the institution of shore [[Blackout (wartime)|blackouts]] and an interlocking convoy system resulted in a drop in attacks and U-boats shifted their operations back to the mid-Atlantic.

The turning point of the [[Battle of the Atlantic]] took place in early 1943 as the Allies refined their [[naval tactics]], effectively making use of new technology to counter the U-boats. The Allies produced ships faster than they were sunk, and lost fewer ships by adopting the [[convoy]] system. Improved [[anti-submarine warfare]] meant that the [[life expectancy]] of a typical U-boat crew would be measured in months. The vastly improved [[German Type XXI submarine|Type 21 U-boat]] appeared as the war was ending, but too late to affect the outcome. In December 1943, the last major sea battle between the Royal Navy and Nazi Germany's ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' took place. At the [[Battle of North Cape]], the German battleship {{ship|German battleship|Scharnhorst||2}}, was sunk by {{HMS|Duke of York|17|6}}, {{HMS|Belfast|C35|6}}, and several destroyers.

====Pacific War====
[[File:The USS Arizona (BB-39) burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor - NARA 195617 - Edit.jpg|thumb|{{USS|Arizona|BB-39|6}} burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]]
{{main|Pacific War}}
The [[Pacific War]] was the part of [[World War II]], especially following the successful Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor|attack on United States forces at Pearl Harbor]] to 1945. The main American naval theaters were as [[Pacific Ocean Areas (command)|Pacific Ocean Areas]] and [[South West Pacific Area (command)|Southwest Pacific Area]]. The British fought chiefly in the Indian Ocean. It was a war of logistics, with American home bases in California and Hawaii sending supplies to Australia. The U.S. used its submarines to sink Japanese transports and oil tankers, thereby cutting off Japan's supplies to its outposts and causing a severe shortage of gasoline.

[[File:Japanese battleships Yamashiro, Fuso and Haruna.jpg|thumb|Japanese battleships {{ship|Japanese battleship|Yamashiro||2}}, {{ship|Japanese battleship|Fusō||2}} and {{ship|Japanese battleship|Haruna||2}} (more distant)]]
[[Leapfrogging (strategy)|Island hopping]] was the key strategy to bypass heavily fortified [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese]] positions and instead concentrate the limited Allied resources on strategically important islands that were not well defended but capable of supporting the drive to the main islands of Japan. This strategy was possible in part because the Allies used submarine and air attacks to blockade and isolate Japanese bases, weakening their garrisons and reducing the Japanese ability to resupply and reinforce. Most Japanese soldiers killed in the Pacific died of starvation, and Japan used its submarine fleet to try to resupply them.

Hard-fought battles on the [[Japanese Archipelago|Japanese home islands]] of [[Battle of Iwo Jima|Iwo Jima]], [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa]], and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides, but finally produced a Japanese retreat. Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots, the Japanese increased their use of [[kamikaze]] tactics in an attempt to create unacceptably high casualties for the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]. After ''the turning point of the Pacific'' where a third of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] fleet was hit in the [[Battle of Midway]], the [[United States Department of the Navy]] recommended various positions for and against an [[invasion of Japan]] in 1945.<ref>The use of force: military power and international politics By Robert J. Art, Kenneth Neal Waltz. Page 181.</ref><ref name="FromOperationDownfall">Japan 1945: From Operation Downfall to Hiroshima and Nagasaki By Clayton K. S. Chun, John White. Page 13.</ref> Some staff<ref>Fleet Admiral [[Ernest Joseph King]] and Fleet Admiral Ernest [[William D. Leahy]]</ref> proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade or air raids.<ref name="FromOperationDownfall" /><ref>History of Strategic and Ballistic Missile Defense: Volume I: 1944–1955. Page 208.</ref>

{{See also|Second Sino-Japanese War||Pacific Ocean Theater of World War II|South-East Asian Theater of World War II|South West Pacific Theatre of World War II}}

===Latter half of the 20th century===
In the latter half of the 20th century, various vessels, notably [[aircraft carrier]]s, [[nuclear submarine]]s, and [[nuclear-powered icebreaker]]s, made use of [[nuclear marine propulsion]]. [[Sonar]] and [[radio]] augmented existing navigational technology.

Various [[blockade]]s were set up in international action. Egypt [[Israeli passage through the Suez Canal and Straits of Tiran|blockaded of the Straits of Tiran]] from 1948 to 1956 and 1967. The United States set up a blockade of Cuba during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] in 1962. The Israelis set up a sea blockade of the [[Gaza Strip]] since the outbreak of the [[Second Intifada]] (2000) and up to the present. The Israeli blockades of some or all the shores of [[Lebanon]] at various times during the [[Lebanese Civil War]] (1975–1990), the [[1982 Lebanon War]], and the [[South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)]]—resumed during the [[2006 Lebanon War]].

====Cuban Missile Crisis====
{{Main|Cuban Missile Crisis}}
[[File:Location of Navy and Soviet ships during the Cuban Missile Crisis.jpg|thumb|The image is a recently declassified map used by the U.S. Navy's Atlantic Fleet shows the position of American and Soviet ships at the height of the crisis.]]
The Cuban Missile Crisis was seen as an event that brought the U.S. closest to nuclear war and nearly the end of human existence. The event was on October the 22, 1962 during the presidency of John F. Kennedy. It also happened over a 13-day period.<ref>{{Cite book | doi=10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog615|chapter = Cuban missile crisis|title = The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization| pages=1–4|year = 2014|last1 = Scott|first1 = Len| isbn=9780470670590}}</ref> The nuclear power of the United States had a hand in why this event occurred. From this situation, the country learned that nuclear power does not have a lot of influence in politics.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/446154/summary | title=The Influence of Nuclear Weapons in the Cuban Missile Crisis| journal=International Security| volume=10| issue=1| pages=137–163| year=1985| last1=Trachtenberg| first1=Marc| doi=10.2307/2538793| jstor=2538793| s2cid=153854950}}</ref> The soviet leader, Klrushchv, was the first to have his missiles fall back. At the time, it did not look like the United States was going to do the same. The U.S. did not back down because an American plane had been shot down in Cuba during the event.<ref>http://www.spokesmanbooks.com/Spokesman/PDF/117Russell.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> The blockade ended when the two powers resolved the issue peacefully.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Craig L. Symonds|author2=William J. Clipson|title=The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_HIcc8n3K4C&pg=PA204|year=2001|publisher=Naval Institute Press|pages=204–5|isbn=9781557509840}}</ref>

====Gulf of Tonkin Incident====
{{Main|Gulf of Tonkin Incident}}
The [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]] was an alleged pair of attacks by the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] against two American warships in 1964. One night a U.S. ship was sailing in North Vietnam when they thought they were being attacked. The president at this time decided that he needed to make a statement and asked congress for permission to act on this.<ref>[Martel, Erich. "Gulf of Tonkin." OAH Magazine of History 7, no. 2 (1992): 36-39. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25162875]</ref> Congress gave him permission by approving the Gulf of Tonkin resolution on August 7, 1964. With this resolution, president Johnson was able to release missiles on North Vietnamese torpedo boats and oil storage facilities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/gulf-of-tonkin|title=Milestones: 1961–1968 - Office of the Historian|website=history.state.gov}}</ref> The Resolution was repealed in January 1971.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Craig L. Symonds|author2=William J. Clipson|title=The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_HIcc8n3K4C&pg=PA206|year=2001|publisher=Naval Institute Press|pages=206–7|isbn=9781557509840}}</ref>

====Falklands War====
{{Main|Falklands War}}
In 1982, the Falklands War was a war over the Falkland Islands with Argentina. This was said to be a very desperate war between Britain and Argentina.<ref name="Anderson2014">{{cite book|first=Duncan |last=Anderson |title=The Falklands War 1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZiHCwAAQBAJ&q=Falklands+war&pg=PT4 |date=2014 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4728-0996-4 |page=4}}</ref> Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands where they were going in and out of the island. Britain was initially taken by surprise when the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands happened, but launched a naval [[task force]] to engage the [[Argentine Navy]] and [[Argentine Air Force|Air Force]], and retake the islands by [[amphibious assault]]. Argentina ended up losing the war.<ref>[http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a524486.pdf Article title] {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

====Panama canal handover====
{{Main|Panama canal}}
Though controversial within the United States, a process of handing the [[Panama canal]] lead to [[Panama]]nian control of the [[Panama Canal Zone]] by the [[Panama Canal Authority|Panama Canal Authority (ACP)]]. It was effective at noon on December 31, 1999. Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the Canal's [[container terminal|container shipping ports]] (chiefly two facilities at the Atlantic and Pacific outlets), which was won by the [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] firm [[Hutchison Whampoa]], a [[Hong Kong]]-based shipping concern whose owner [[Li Ka Shing]] is the wealthiest man in Asia. One of the conditions on the handover to the Panama Canal Authority by the United States was the permanent neutrality of the Canal and the explicit statements that allowed the United States to come back at any time.

==21st century==
Since the turn of the millennium, the construction of [[stealth ship]]s have occurred. These are ships which employs [[stealth technology]] construction techniques in an effort to ensure that it is harder to detect by one or more of [[radar]], visual, [[sonar]], and infrared methods. These techniques borrow from [[stealth aircraft]] technology, although some aspects such as wake reduction are unique to stealth ships' design.

Some of the major social changes of this period include women becoming admirals in defensive navies, being allowed to work on submarines, and being appointed captains of cruise ships.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/.../us-travel-ship-captain-idUSTRE73E1OL201104|title=Page Not Found - Reuters.com|first=Reuters|last=Editorial|website=U.S.|access-date=10 April 2018}}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

===Arctic Resources Race===
{{main|Arctic resources race}}
[[File:Map of the Arctic region showing the Northeast Passage, the Northern Sea Route and Northwest Passage, and bathymetry.png|thumb|240px|Map of the Arctic region showing the [[Northeast Passage]], the [[Northern Sea Route]] within it, and the [[Northwest Passage]].]]

As of March 2020, global superpowers are currently in competition of laying claim to both regions of the [[Arctic Circle]] and shipping routes that lead directly into the Pacific and Atlantic oceans from the [[North Pole]]. Extensive access to the sea routes of the North Pole would allow, for example, save thousands of kilometers in distance from Europe to China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/breakthrough/will-cold-dark-northwest-passage-see-more-ships/article16231502/|title=A reality check on the Northwest Passage 'boom'|last=Waldie|first=Paul|date=2014-01-07|website=The Globe and Mail|language=en-us|access-date=2020-03-17}}</ref> Most prominently, claims to territory in the Arctic Circle would guarantee a plethora of resources; some including: oil, gas, minerals, and fish.<ref>[http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2009_hr/arctic.pdf] US Congressional Hearing.  "Strategic Importance of the Arctic in US Policy." Page 15.</ref>

===Piracy===
{{main|Piracy}}
[[File:Somalian Piracy Threat Map 2010.png|thumb|left|Map showing the extent of Somali pirate attacks on shipping vessels between 2005 and 2010.]]

Seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$13 to $16&nbsp;billion per year),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20041101faessay83606/gal-luft-anne-korin/terrorism-goes-to-sea.html |title=Foreign Affairs – Terrorism Goes to Sea |access-date=December 8, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214040613/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20041101faessay83606/gal-luft-anne-korin/terrorism-goes-to-sea.html |archive-date=December 14, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/BG1379.cfm?renderforprint=1 |title=Piracy in Asia: A Growing Barrier to Maritime Trade |access-date=December 8, 2007 }}</ref> particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the [[Strait of Malacca]] and Singapore, which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year.

Modern pirates favor small boats and taking advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels. They also use large vessels to supply the smaller attack/boarding vessels. Modern pirates can be successful because a large amount of international commerce occurs via shipping. Major shipping routes take cargo ships through narrow bodies of water (such as the [[Gulf of Aden]] and the [[Strait of Malacca]]) making them vulnerable to be overtaken and boarded by small [[motorboat]]s.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/documentaries/2008/03/080303_pirates_prog2.shtml BBC Piracy documentary].</ref><ref>[http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/~ar120/somalia.html Piracy at Somalian coasts].</ref> Other active areas include the [[South China Sea]] and the [[Niger Delta]]. As usage increases, many of these ships have to lower cruising speeds to allow for navigation and traffic control, making them prime targets for piracy.

The [[International Maritime Bureau]] (IMB) maintains statistics regarding pirate attacks dating back to 1995. Their records indicate hostage-taking overwhelmingly dominates the types of violence against seafarers. For example, in 2006, there were 239 attacks, 77 crew members were kidnapped and 188 taken hostage but only 15 of the pirate attacks resulted in murder.<ref>[http://www.securitymanagement.com/article/eastern-inscrutability-piracy-high-seas Security Management:Piracy on the high seas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103062657/http://www.securitymanagement.com/article/eastern-inscrutability-piracy-high-seas |date=2008-01-03 }}. Retrieved October 23, 2007.</ref> In 2007 the attacks rose by 10% to 263 attacks. There was a 35% increase on reported attacks involving guns. Crew members that were injured numbered 64 compared to just 17 in 2006.<ref name=ICC_piracy_report>[http://www.icc-ccs.org/main/news.php?newsid=102 ICC Commercial Crime Services: IBM Piracy Report 2007]. Retrieved January 22, 2008.  {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325194942/http://www.icc-ccs.org/main/news.php?newsid=102 |date=March 25, 2008 }}</ref> That number does not include hostages/kidnapping where they were not injured.

{{multiple image
| header = Modern Piracy
| image1 = STS61C-42-72.jpg|width1=155
| caption1 = Aerial photograph of the [[Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea|Niger Delta]], a center of piracy.
| image2 =|width2=248
| caption2 = [[United States Coast Guard|USCG]] sailors patrolling for [[piracy]] on [[Falcon International Reservoir|Falcon Lake]] ([[Mexican Drug War]]).
}}
{{clear left}}
Modern definitions of piracy include the following acts:
* [[Boarding (attack)|Boarding]]
* [[Extortion]]
* [[Hostage taking]]
* [[Kidnapping]] of people for [[ransom]]
* [[Murder]]
* [[Robbery]]
* [[Sabotage]] resulting in the ship subsequently sinking
* [[Seizure (law)|Seizure]] of items or the ship
* [[Shipwreck]]ing done intentionally to a ship

==See also==

===General===
<!-- new links in alphabetical order please-->
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Atlantic history]]
* [[Atlantic World]]
* [[Bibliography of early U.S. naval history]]
* [[Bibliography of 18th–19th century Royal Naval history]]
* [[Congo River]]
* [[History of the Royal Navy]]
* [[History of whaling]]
* [[Indian maritime history]]
* [[List of museum ships]]
* [[List of former museum ships]]
* [[List of naval battles]]
* [[Maritime history of Colonial America]]
* [[Maritime history of Europe]]
* [[Maritime museum]]
* [[Maritime timeline]]
* [[Maritime transport]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Ming treasure voyages]]
* [[Naval history]]
* [[Niger River]]
* [[Sailortowns]]
* [[Ships of ancient Rome]]
* [[Timeline of maritime migration and exploration]]
{{div col end}}

===Historiography articles===
* ''[[American Neptune]]'', a scholarly journal
* [[Atlantic history]], historiography of the Atlantic region
* [[Frank C. Munson Institute of American Maritime History]]
* [[International Commission for Maritime History]]
* [[North American Society for Oceanic History]]

==References==

===Citations and notes===
{{reflist}}

===General resources===
'''Listed by date'''
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Pearson, Michael, ed. ''Trade, Circulation, and Flow in the Indian Ocean World'' (2016), Nine essays by experts; [https://www.amazon.com/Trade-Circulation-Indian-Palgrave-Studies-ebook/dp/B017KUOJKO/ excerpt]
* Pearson, Michael N. "Notes on world history and maritime history." ''Asian Review of World History'' 3#1 (2015): 137–151. [http://www.thearwh.org/journal/arwh_3-1_pearson.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728071338/http://www.thearwh.org/journal/arwh_3-1_pearson.pdf |date=2017-07-28 }}
* Catsambis, Alexis, and Ben Ford, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology'' (2013) [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Maritime-Archaeology-Handbooks/dp/0199336008/ excerpt]
* Smith, Joshua M. “Toward a Taxonomy of Maritime Historians,” ''International Journal of Maritime History'' XXV:2 (December, 2013), 1–16
* Paine, Lincoln. ''The sea and civilization: a maritime history of the world'' (Knopf, 2013). Pp. xxxv+ 744. 72 illustrations, 17 maps. [https://www.amazon.com/Sea-Civilization-Maritime-History-World/dp/1101970359/ excerpt]
* Tucker, Spencer C. ''World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia'' (2 vol. 2011) [https://www.amazon.com/World-War-Sea-volumes-Encyclopedia/dp/1598844571/ excerpt and text search]
* Blume, Kenneth. ''Historical Dictionary of the U.S. Maritime Industry'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Dictionaries-Professions-Industries/dp/081085634/ excerpt and text search]
* Sohn, Louis B. et al. ''The Law of the Sea in a Nutshell'' (2nd ed. 2010) [https://www.amazon.com/The-Law-Nutshell-West-Publishing/dp/0314169415/ excerpt and text search]
* Haycock, David Boyd and Sally Archer, eds. ''Health and Medicine at Sea, 1700–1900'' (Woodbridge Boydell Press, 2009) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=37836 online review]
* Black, Jeremy. ''Naval Power: A History of Warfare and the Sea from 1500 Onwards'' (2009)
* O'Hara, Glen. (2009) "'The Sea is Swinging Into View'": Modern British Maritime History in a Globalised World," ''English Historical Review,'' Vol. 124 Issue 510, pp 1109–1134
* Sobecki, S. (2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=qFhlAAAAMAAJ&dq The Sea and Medieval English Literature] {{ISBN|978-1-84615-591-8}}
* [[John Hattendorf|Hattendorf, John B.]] (4 vol. 2007) [https://web.archive.org/web/20151107023851/http://www.oxford-maritimehistory.com/ Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History]
* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. (2007) ''The Royal Navy 1793–1815'' (Battle Orders) [https://www.amazon.com/Royal-Navy-1793-1815-Battle-Orders/dp/1846031389/ excerpt and text search]
* Kennedy, Paul M. ''The Rise And Fall of British Naval Mastery'' (2nd ed. 2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Rise-Fall-British-Naval-Mastery/dp/1591023742/ excerpt and text search]
* Shiflett, T. D. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LcxwDRWs_zgC America's Line of Battle: Its Construction & History]. Tiger Lily Publications LLC. {{ISBN|0-9776072-1-6}}
* Callo, J. F. (2004). ''Who's Who in Naval History'' {{ISBN|0-415-30828-3}}
* Rasor, Eugene L. (2004) ''English/British Naval History to 1815: A Guide to the Literature''; (1990) ''British Naval History after 1815: A Guide to the Literature''
* Herman, Arthur. (2004) ''To Rule the Waves: How the British Navy Shaped the Modern World''
* Friel, Ian. (2003) ''The British Museum Maritime History of Britain and Ireland: c. 400–2001''
* Chen, Yan (2002). ''Maritime Silk Route and Chinese-Foreign Cultural Exchanges''. Beijing: Peking University Press. {{ISBN|7-301-03029-0}}.
* Burnett, John. (2002). ''Dangerous Waters: Modern Piracy and Terror on the High Seas''
* {{cite book |author1=Symonds, Craig L. |author2=William J. Clipson |name-list-style=amp |title=The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_HIcc8n3K4C |year=2001 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=9781557509840 }}
* Samson, Jane. "Maritime history" in {{cite book|editor=Kelly Boyd|title=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA764|year=1999|publisher=Taylor & Francis|pages=73–65|isbn=9781884964336}}, Historiography
* Deng, Gang. ''Maritime Sector, Institutions, and Sea Power of Premodern China'' (1999) [https://www.questia.com/read/117366565/maritime-sector-institutions-and-sea-power-of-premodern online]
* Labaree, Benjamin W. et al. (1998) ''America and the Sea: A Maritime History''; 686 pp [https://www.amazon.com/America-Sea-Maritime-History-American/dp/0913372811/ excerpt and text search]; covers the men and women involved in exploring, fishing, merchant marine, the navy, coastal trade, river boats, and canals.
* Bjork, Katharine. (1998). "The Link That Kept the Philippines Spanish: Mexican Merchant Interests and the Manila Trade, 1571–1815" ''Journal of World History'' 1#1 pp.&nbsp;25–50.
* Rodger, Nicholas. (1997) ''The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain Vol 1: 660-1649'' and (2004) ''The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815''
* Stopford, Martin. ''Maritime Economics'' (2nd ed. 1997) [https://www.questia.com/read/106924075/maritime-economics online]
* Hill, J.R. (1995) ''The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy''
* De La Pedraja, René. '' Historical Dictionary of the U.S. Merchant Marine and Shipping Industry: Since the Introduction of Steam'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/read/28651540/a-historical-dictionary-of-the-u-s-merchant-marine online]
* Sager, Eric W. ''Ships and Memories: Merchant Seafarers in Canada's Age of Steam'' (1993) [https://www.questia.com/read/37809106/ships-and-memories-merchant-seafarers-in-canadas online]
* Love Jr., Robert W., (1992) ''History of the U.S. Navy'' (2 vol) [https://www.amazon.com/History-U-S-Navy-Robert-Love/dp/081171862X/ excerpt and text search vol 1]; [https://www.amazon.com/History-U-S-Navy-Robert-Love/dp/0811718638/ excerpt and text search vol 2]
* Chang, Pin-tsun. (1989). "The Evolution of Chinese Thought on Maritime Foreign Trade from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century," ''International Journal of Maritime History'' 1: 51–64.
* Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
* Potter, E. B. (1981) ''Sea Power: A Naval History''; worldwide combat history
* Boxer, Charles R. (1969) ''The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825''
* Parry, J. H. (1973) ''The Spanish seaborne empire''
* Boxer, Charles R. (1965) ''The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800''
* Morison, S. E. (1961). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XnQ53JwFa6wC The maritime history of Massachusetts, 1783–1860]. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
* Burwash, Dorothy, ''English Merchant Shipping, 1460–1540'' (1947) [https://www.questia.com/library/2953927/english-merchant-shipping-1460-1540 online]
* Paine, Ralph D. ''The Old Merchant Marine: A Chronicle of American Ships and Sailers'' (1919) [https://www.questia.com/read/8985513/the-old-merchant-marine-a-chronicle-of-american-ships online]
* Allen, G. W. (1913). [https://books.google.com/books?id=fuPb5uhDxUwC A naval history of the American Revolution].
* Mahan, A. T. (1905). [https://archive.org/details/seapowerinitsre02mahagoog Sea power in its relations to the War of 1812]. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company.
* Maclay, E. S. (1899). [https://archive.org/details/ahistoryamerica00maclgoog A history of American privateers]. New York: D. Appleton and Co.
* Mahan, A. T. (1898). [https://books.google.com/books?id=t7WGNf6uURYC The influence of seapower upon the French revolution and empire, 1793–1812]. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
* Corbett, S. J. S. (1898). [https://archive.org/details/drakeandtudorna01corbgoog Drake and the Tudor navy, with a history of the rise of England as a maritime power]. New York: B. Franklin.
* Mahan, A.T. (1890) ''[[The Influence of Sea Power Upon History: 1660-1783]]'' thesingle most influential book [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13529 online]
* Scharf, J. T. (1887). ''History of the Confederate States navy from its organization to the surrender of its last vessel: Its stupendous struggle with the great navy of the United States; the engagements fought in the rivers and harbors of the South, and upon the high seas; blockade-running, first use of iron-clads and torpedoes, and privateer history.''[https://archive.org/details/historyconfeder00schagoog online]
{{refend}}

===Primary sources===
{{refbegin}}
* Hattendorf, John B. et al. eds. (1991) ''British Naval documents, 1204–1960'' (1993)
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Maritime history}}
{{wikisource|The Influence of Sea Power upon History}}
*[http://ijms.nmdl.org/ ''Coriolis: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Maritime Studies'']
*[http://www.icmh.org.uk/ International Commission for Maritime History]
*[http://www.maritimehistory.org '' The Institute of Maritime History''] – a non-profit institute focused on research, preservation and education in maritime history
*[http://www.snr.org.uk/ Society for Nautical Research]
*[http://maritimehistorypodcast.com The Maritime History Podcast]
*[http://www.mer.paris-sorbonne.fr/ Federation of Maritime History and Archeology Research (Sorbonne University)]
*[http://www.t2m/The International Association for the History of Transport, Traffic and Mobility]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[http://www.aamh.asn.au/ The Australian Association for Maritime History]
*[[North American Society for Oceanic History|The North American Society for Oceanic History]]
*[https://greekshippingmiracle.org/en/ Greek Maritime History ]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maritime History}}
[[Category:Maritime history| ]]
[[Category:History of technology]]