View source for British African-Caribbean people

{{Short description|British ethnic group}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = British African-Caribbean people
| image            = Counties of the UK Caribbean.svg
| population       = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} '''United Kingdom: 628,296 – 0.9% ([[2021 United Kingdom census|2021/22 Census]])'''<br/>
{{Flag|England}}: 619,419 – 1.1% (2021)<ref name=2021census>{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/bulletins/ethnicgroupenglandandwales/census2021|title=Ethnic group, England and Wales: Census 2021|publisher=Office for National Statistics|access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref><br>{{Flag|Scotland}}: 2,214 – 0.04% (2022){{efn|Only includes those who identified as 'Caribbean or Black: Caribbean, Caribbean Scottish or Caribbean British', does not include those who identified as 'Caribbean or Black: Other Caribbean or Black' which numbered 4,018. If combined together, this adds up to 6,232 (0.1%).}}<ref name="2022census_Scot">{{cite web |url=https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/media/trbdxzme/scotland-s-census-2022-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion-chart-data.xlsx |title=Scotland's Census 2022 - Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion - Chart data |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=21 May 2024 |website=Scotland's Census |publisher=[[National Records of Scotland]] |access-date=21 May 2024 }} [https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/search-the-census#/search-by Alternative URL] 'Search data by location' > 'All of Scotland' > 'Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion' > 'Ethnic Group'</ref><br>{{Flag|Wales}}: 3,700 – 0.1% (2021)<ref name=2021census/><br/>[[Northern Ireland]]: 2,963 – 0.2% (2021){{efn|Includes all those who identified as 'Black Other' i.e. not 'Black African' which numbered 8,069}}<ref name=NICensus2021>{{cite web|url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b01.xlsx|title=MS-B01: Ethnic group|publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|date= 22 September 2022|accessdate=7 January 2023}}</ref>| caption          = Distribution by local authority in the 2011 census
| regions          = <!-- The eight most populous local authorities based on the 2021 census, with the exception of local authorities (boroughs) in London which is treated as an overall area --> {{hlist|[[London]]|[[Birmingham]]|[[Manchester]]|[[Wolverhampton]]|[[Nottingham]]|[[Luton]]|[[Leeds]]|[[Bristol]]|}}
| languages        = [[British English]]{{·}}[[Caribbean English]]
| rels             = Predominantly [[History of Christianity in Britain|Christianity]] (69.1%);<br/> minority follows [[Religion in the United Kingdom|other faiths]] (2.7%){{efn|Including [[Islam in the United Kingdom|Islam]] (1.2%), [[Buddhism in the United Kingdom|Buddhism]] (0.2%), [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|Hinduism]] (0.1%), [[History of the Jews in the United Kingdom|Judaism]] (0.1%), [[Sikhism in the United Kingdom|Sikhism]] (0.02%), [[Rastafarianism]] and others}} or are [[Irreligion in the United Kingdom|irreligious]] (18.6%)<br /><small>2021 census, England and Wales only</small><ref name="Religion_E&W21">{{cite web |title=RM031 Ethnic group by religion |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/RM031/editions/2021/versions/1/filter-outputs/217f1401-dab4-43d3-aa77-6c9382220c0c#summary |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 March 2023}}</ref>| related          = [[African diaspora]]{{·}}[[Afro-Caribbean people|African-Caribbean]]{{·}}Bahamian British{{·}}[[British Jamaicans]]{{·}}[[Guyanese British]]{{·}}[[Barbadian British]]{{·}}[[Grenadian British]]{{·}}[[Montserratian British]]{{·}}[[Trinidadian and Tobagonian British]]{{·}}[[Antiguan British]]
}}

'''British African-Caribbean people''' or '''British Afro-Caribbean people''' are an [[ethnic group]] in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/style-guide/ethnic-groups|title=List of ethnic groups|website=Ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk|access-date=28 July 2022}}</ref> They are British citizens whose recent ancestors originate from the [[Caribbean]], and further trace much of their ancestry to West and Central Africa or they are nationals of the [[Caribbean]] who reside in the UK. There are some self-identified Afro-Caribbean people who are multi-racial. The most common and traditional use of the term African-Caribbean community is in reference to groups of residents continuing aspects of [[Caribbean]] culture, customs and traditions in the UK.

The earliest generations of [[Afro-Caribbean people]] to migrate to Britain trace their ancestry to a wide range of [[Afro-Caribbean people|Afro Caribbean]] ethnic groups.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=The National |title=The National Archives - Homepage |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/bound-for-britain/ |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=The National Archives |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-24 |title=Windrush generation: Who are they and why are they facing problems? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-43782241 |access-date=2022-07-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Forty-and-one years on: An overview of Afro-Caribbean migration to the United Kingdom |url=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/hi2e8/syllabus/afterwindrush/thompson_afro-caribbean_migration.pdf |access-date=25 July 2022 |publisher=Warwick Univsrsity}}</ref> [[Afro-Caribbean people]] descend from disparate groups of [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|African peoples]] who were brought, sold and taken from<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/when-the-slave-traders-were-african-11568991595|title=When the Slave Traders Were African|first=Adaobi Tricia|last=Nwaubani|date=20 September 2019|access-date=28 July 2022|website=Wsj.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/an-african-country-reckons-with-its-history-of-selling-slaves/2018/01/29/5234f5aa-ff9a-11e7-86b9-8908743c79dd_story.html |title=An African country reckons with its history of selling slaves |date=2018-01-30 |orig-date=2018-01-29 |author1=Kevin Sieff |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |place=Washington, D.C. |issn=0190-8286 |oclc=1330888409}}{{WaPoCheckDates}}</ref> [[West Africa]] as [[trans-Atlantic slave trade|slaves]] to the [[History of the Caribbean|colonial Caribbean]].<ref name="bbcjuly2020" /> In addition, British African Caribbeans may have ancestry from various [[Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean|indigenous Caribbean]] tribes, and from settlers of [[European ethnic groups|European]] and [[Asian ethnic groups]].<ref name="Derbyshire2003" /> According to the National Library of Medicine, the average African Caribbean person has on average 20% European Admixture.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1002/gepi.20512 |pmc=3837693 |pmid=20717976|title=African and non-African admixture components in African Americans and an African Caribbean population |year=2010 |last1=Murray |first1=Tanda |last2=Beaty |first2=Terri H. |last3=Mathias |first3=Rasika A. |last4=Rafaels |first4=Nicholas |last5=Grant |first5=Audrey Virginia |last6=Faruque |first6=Mezbah U. |last7=Watson |first7=Harold R. |last8=Ruczinski |first8=Ingo |last9=Dunston |first9=Georgia M. |last10=Barnes |first10=Kathleen C. |journal=Genetic Epidemiology |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=561–568 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Parra |first1=E. J. |last2=Kittles |first2=R. A. |last3=Shriver |first3=M. D. |date=November 2004 |title=Implications of correlations between skin color and genetic ancestry for biomedical research |journal=Nature Genetics |language=en |volume=36 |issue=11 |pages=S54–S60 |doi=10.1038/ng1440 |pmid=15508005 |s2cid=13712615 |issn=1546-1718|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Arriving in small numbers to reside in port cities in England and Wales since the mid-18th century, the most significant wave of migration came after [[World War II]], coinciding with the [[decolonisation]] era and the dissolution of the British Empire. Known as the '''Windrush generation''', they had arrived as [[British subject|citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies]] (CUKCs) in the 1950s and 1960s owing to birth in the former [[British colonies]] of the [[Caribbean]]. Although those who settled in the UK prior to 1973 were granted either [[Right of abode (United Kingdom)|right of abode]] or [[indefinite leave to remain]] by the [[Immigration Act 1971]], a series of governmental policies had caused some to be erroneously labelled as unlawfully residing in the UK in the 2000s and 2010s, which subsequently became known as the [[Windrush scandal]].<ref name="windrushreport2020" /> The population has a diverse background, with origins in [[Jamaica]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[The Bahamas]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Barbados]], [[Grenada]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Dominica]], [[Montserrat]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], [[Cayman Islands]], 
[[Anguilla]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Guyana]], and [[Belize]].

In the 21st century, Afro-Caribbean communities are present throughout the United Kingdom's major cities, and the surviving members of this generation, sometimes called the Windrush Britons, and their descendants, constitute the multi-ethnic cultural group residing in the country. As there is no specific [[UK census]] category which comprehensively covers the community, population numbers remain somewhat ambiguous. 'Black Caribbean' (under a '[[Black British]]' heading), and 'Mixed: White and Black Caribbean' (under a '[[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Mixed]]' heading) denote full or partial descent, and recorded 594,825 and 426,715 persons, respectively, at the [[2011 United Kingdom census]]. '[[White Other|White]]: White Caribbean', 'Mixed: Caribbean Asian' and 'Mixed: White Caribbean' are census categories which were also utilised.<ref name="ONSdetailed" /><ref name="ONSwrite-in" /> In this regard, and illustrating complexities within African Caribbean peoplehood, there are notable examples of those with a parent or grandparent of African-Caribbean ancestry identifying with, or being perceived as, [[white people in the United Kingdom]].<ref name="davison2017-2016" /><ref name="goody2009-2019" /><ref name="graham2015-2019" /><ref name="Sawyer2020" /><ref name="McRae2008" />
{{TOC limit}}

==Terminology==
A glossary published in the ''[[Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health]]'' with the intention of stimulating debate about the development of better and more internationally applicable terms to describe ethnicity and race, suggests a definition of Afro-Caribbean/African Caribbean as, "A person of African ancestral origins whose family settled in the Caribbean before emigrating and who self identifies, or is identified, as Afro-Caribbean (in terms of racial classifications, this population approximates to the group known as Negroid or similar terms)".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Glossary of terms relating to ethnicity and race: for reflection and debate|first=Raj|last=Bhopal|journal=Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health|volume=58|issue=6|pages=441–445|year=2004|doi=10.1136/jech.2003.013466|pmc=1732794|pmid=15143107}}</ref> A survey of the use of terms to describe people of African descent in medical research notes that: "The term African Caribbean/Afro-Caribbean when used in Europe and North America usually refers to people with African ancestral origins who migrated via the Caribbean islands". It suggests that use of the term in the UK is inconsistent, with some researchers using it to describe people of Black and of Caribbean descent, whereas others use it to refer to those of either West African or Caribbean background.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Negro, Black, Black African, African Caribbean, African American or what? Labelling African origin populations in the health arena in the 21st century|first1=Charles|last1=Agyemang|first2=Raj|last2=Bhopal|first3=Marc|last3=Bruijnzeels|journal=Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health|volume=59|issue=12|year=2005|pages=1014–1018|doi=10.1136/jech.2005.035964|pmid=16286485|pmc=1732973}}</ref> Furthermore, as [[Modern immigration to the United Kingdom|immigration to the United Kingdom]] from Africa increased in the late 20th century, the term has sometimes been used to include British residents solely of African origin or as a term to define all [[Black British people|Black British]] residents, though the phrase African and Caribbean has more often been used to cover such a broader grouping.

The [[British Sociological Association]]'s guidelines on ethnicity and race state that "African-Caribbean has replaced the term Afro-Caribbean to refer to Caribbean peoples and those of Caribbean origin who are of African descent.  There is now a view that the term should not be hyphenated and that indeed, the differences between such groups mean the people of African and Caribbean origins should be referred to separately".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/25564/EqualityandDiversity_LanguageandtheBSA_RaceMar05.doc?1429559280759 |title=Language and the BSA: Ethnicity & Race |publisher=British Sociological Association |date=March 2005 |access-date=20 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427143029/http://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/25564/EqualityandDiversity_LanguageandtheBSA_RaceMar05.doc?1429559280759 |archive-date=27 April 2015}}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'' and ''[[The Observer|Observer]]'' style guide prescribes the use of "African-Caribbean" for use in the two newspapers, specifically noting "not Afro-Caribbean".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/guardian-observer-style-guide-a|title=Guardian and Observer style guide: A|publisher=Guardian News and Media|date=3 April 2015|access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref>

Sociologist [[Peter J. Aspinall]] argues that the term "Black" has been reclaimed by people of African and Caribbean origin in the UK, noting that in a 1992 health survey, 17 per cent of 722 African–Caribbeans surveyed, including 36 percent of those aged 16 to 29, described themselves as "[[Black British]]". This, he suggests, "appears to be a pragmatic and spontaneous (rather than politically led) response to the wish to describe an allegiance to a 'British' identity and the diminishing importance of ties with a homeland in the Caribbean".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage|first=Peter|last=Aspinall|journal=Sociology|volume=26|issue=4|pages=803–816|year=2002|doi=10.1177/003803850203600401|s2cid=143472578}}</ref>

===Census===
There isn't one particular 'ethnic group' census category used by the [[Office for National Statistics]], within the [[UK census]], which comprehensively describes or encompasses persons who are a part of, or identified with, the African-Caribbean community in the United Kingdom.

'Black Caribbean' is the category which recorded the highest population figures (associated with African Caribbean heritage) at the [[2011 United Kingdom census|2011]] and [[2021 United Kingdom census|2021]] United Kingdom censuses. 'Black Caribbean' is under a '[[Black British people|Black or Black British]]' heading in the census. 'Mixed: White and Black Caribbean' also had a significant recorded population within the country, denoting unquantified partial African Caribbean descent, as well as 'White' ancestry. This ethnic group category was listed under a '[[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Mixed]]' heading in the census.<ref name=2011CensusEngWales /><ref name=":2" />

Other 'Mixed' subcategories which identify some form of Caribbean descent are 'Mixed: Caribbean Asian' and 'Mixed: White Caribbean'.<ref name="ONSdetailed">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/qs211ew|title=Ethnic group (detailed)|publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]]|quote=White: White Caribbean; Mixed/multiple ethnic group: Caribbean Asian; Mixed/multiple ethnic group: White Caribbean}}</ref> 'White Other: White Caribbean', a write-in ethnic group under the [[White Other]] census subcategory, may also denote partial or distant African Caribbean heritage.<ref name="ONSwrite-in">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/adhocs/010146ct10222011census/ct10222011census.xls|title=Selected ethnic group (write-in responses)|publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]]|quote=White: White Caribbean; 569}}</ref> Outside of censuses, there are notable examples of people with African Caribbean ancestry (often via a grandparent or great-grandparent) who are perceived as, or identified with, being [[white people in the United Kingdom]].<ref name="davison2017-2016" /><ref name="goody2009-2019" /><ref name="graham2015-2019" /><ref name="Sawyer2020" /><ref name="McRae2008" />

==Demographics==
[[File:British Caribbean People, 2021 UK Census.png|thumb|Distribution of Black Caribbeans by local authority, 2021 census]]
[[File:Black Caribbean population pyramid 2021.svg|thumb|Black or Black British Afro-Caribbeans as a population pyramid in 2021 (in England and Wales)]]
{{Further|Classification of ethnicity in the United Kingdom}}

In the [[2021 United Kingdom census|2021 Census of England and Wales]], 623,115 people classified themselves as 'Black Caribbean", amounting to 1 per cent of the total population.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=22 December 2022 |title=Population of England and Wales |url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/uk-population-by-ethnicity/national-and-regional-populations/population-of-england-and-wales/latest#by-ethnicity |access-date=20 March 2023 |website=www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref>

In the [[United Kingdom Census 2011#2011 Census for England and Wales|2011 Census of England and Wales]], 594,825 individuals specified their ethnicity as "Caribbean" under the "Black/African/Caribbean/Black British" heading, and 426,715 as "White and Black Caribbean" under the "Mixed/multiple ethnic group" heading.<ref name="2011CensusEngWales">{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/rft-table-ks201ew.xls|title=2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in England and Wales|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=11 December 2012|access-date=24 April 2015}}</ref> In Scotland, 3,430 people classified themselves as "Caribbean, Caribbean Scottish or Caribbean British" and 730 as "Other Caribbean or Black" under the broader "Caribbean or Black" heading.<ref name="2011CensusScot">{{cite web|url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS201SC.pdf|title=Table KS201SC – Ethnic group: All people|publisher=National Records of Scotland|year=2013|access-date=24 April 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095926/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS201SC.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Northern Ireland, 372 people specified their ethnicity as "Caribbean".<ref name="2011CensusNI">{{cite web|url=http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/Download/Census%202011_Winzip/2011/DC2101NI%20(a).ZIP|title=Table DC2101NI: Ethnic group by age by sex|publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|access-date=24 April 2015}}</ref> The published results for the "Mixed" category are not broken down into sub-categories for Scotland and Northern Ireland as they are for England and Wales.<ref name="2011CensusScot" /><ref name="2011CensusNI" />

In the [[United Kingdom Census 2001|UK Census of 2001]], 565,876 people classified themselves in the category 'Black Caribbean', amounting to around 1 per cent of the total population.<ref name="Census2001">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273 |title=Population size: 7.9% from a minority ethnic group |date=13 February 2003 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=21 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313004514/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273 |archive-date=13 March 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Of the "minority ethnic" population, which amounted to 7.9 per cent of the total UK population, Black Caribbean people accounted for 12.2 per cent.<ref name="Census2001"/> In addition, 14.6 per cent of the minority ethnic population (equivalent to 1.2 per cent of the total population) identified as mixed race, of whom around one third stated that they were of mixed Black Caribbean and White descent.<ref name="Census2001"/>

===Birthplace===
[[File:British Black Caribbean by Country of Birth.png|thumb|Country of birth (2021 census, England and Wales)<ref>{{cite web |title=Country of birth (extended) and ethnic group |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/create/filter-outputs/c46d0f9f-619b-4e0c-8caf-291d76ccb995#get-data |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 March 2023}}</ref>]]
{{Pie chart|thumb=right|caption=Year of arrival (2021 census, England and Wales)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnic group and year of arrival in the uk - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/create/filter-outputs/3b1e01ff-adfa-4048-ad0a-9a305cde51d6 |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref>|label1=Born in the UK|value1=64.4|color1=DodgerBlue|label2=Before 1950|value2=0.1|color2=Gray|label3=1951 to 1960|value3=4.4|color3=Green|label4=1961 to 1970|value4=10.2|color4=DarkOrange|label5=1971 to 1980|value5=2.0|color5=DarkKhaki|label6=1981 to 1990|value6=1.7|colour=Khakip|label7=1991 to 2000|value7=5.6|color7=Gold|label8=2001 to 2010|value8=6.4|color8=Chartreuse|label9=2011 to 2021|value9=5.1|color9=DarkRed}}The Census also records respondents' countries of birth and the 2001 Census recorded 146,401 people born in Jamaica, 21,601 from Barbados, 21,283 from Trinidad and Tobago, 20,872 from Guyana, 9,783 from Grenada, 8,265 from Saint Lucia, 7,983 from Montserrat, 7,091 from Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, 6,739 from Dominica, 6,519 from Saint Kitts and Nevis, 3,891 from Antigua and Barbuda and 498 from Anguilla.<ref name=OECD>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/18/23/34792376.xls |title=Country-of-birth database |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] |access-date=21 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617032129/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/18/23/34792376.xls |archive-date=17 June 2009}}</ref>

Detailed country-of-birth data from the [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 Census]] is published separately for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. In England and Wales, 160,095 residents reported their country of birth as Jamaica, 22,872 Trinidad and Tobago, 18,672 Barbados, 9,274 Grenada, 9,096 St Lucia, 7,390 St Vincent and the Grenadines, 7,270 Montserrat, 6,359 Dominica, 5,629 St Kitts and Nevis, 3,697 Antigua and Barbuda, 2,355 Cuba, 1,812 The Bahamas and 1,303 Dominican Republic. 8,301 people reported being born elsewhere in the Caribbean, bringing the total Caribbean-born population of England and Wales to 264,125. Of this number, 262,092 were resident in England and 2,033 in Wales.<ref name=2011CensusEngWal>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/quick-statistics-for-england-and-wales-on-national-identity--passports-held-and-country-of-birth/rft-qs213ew.xls|title=2011 Census: Country of birth (expanded), regions in England and Wales|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=26 March 2013|access-date=28 April 2015}}</ref> In Scotland, 2,054 Caribbean-born residents were recorded,<ref name=2011CensusScot-cob>{{cite web|url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/rel2a_COB_detailed_Scotland.pdf|title=Country of birth (detailed)|publisher=National Records of Scotland|access-date=28 April 2015}}</ref> and in Northern Ireland 314.<ref name=2011CensusNI-cob>{{cite web|url=http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/Download/Census%202011_Excel/2011/QS206NI.xls |title=Country of Birth – Full Detail: QS206NI |publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |access-date=28 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095516/http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/Download/Census%202011_Excel/2011/QS206NI.xls |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> Guyana is categorised as part of South America in the Census results, which show that 21,417 residents of England and Wales, 350 of Scotland and 56 of Northern Ireland were born in Guyana. Belize is categorised as part of Central America. 1,252 people born in Belize were recorded living in England and Wales, 79 in Scotland and 22 in Northern Ireland.<ref name=2011CensusScot-cob/><ref name=2011CensusNI-cob/><ref name=2011CensusEngWal/>

Based on a variety of official sources and extrapolating from figures for England alone, [[Ceri Peach]] estimated that the number of people in Britain born in the West Indies grew from 15,000 in 1951, to 172,000 in 1961 and 304,000 in 1971, and then fell slightly to 295,000 in 1981. He estimates the population of West Indian ethnicity in 1981 to be between 500,000 and 550,000.<ref name=Peach/>

===Education===
Black Caribbeans are more likely than White Britons to have formal qualifications. In 2001, around 29% of White Britons had no qualifications, compared to 27% for Black Caribbeans. In 2011, 24% of White British had no qualifications, higher than the national average of 23%, compared to 20% for Black Caribbeans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paton |first=Graeme |date=10 March 2014 |title=White British adults 'less qualified' than ethnic minorities |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/10688017/White-British-adults-less-qualified-than-ethnic-minorities.html |access-date=3 December 2022 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=How are ethnic inequalities in education changing? |url=http://www.ethnicity.ac.uk/medialibrary/briefingsupdated/how-are-ethnic-inequalities-in-education-changing.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712195151/http://www.ethnicity.ac.uk/medialibrary/briefingsupdated/how-are-ethnic-inequalities-in-education-changing.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 July 2014 |access-date=3 December 2022 }}</ref>

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a disproportionate number of Caribbean migrant children were (often wrongly) classified as "[[educationally subnormal]]" and placed in special schools and units.<ref name="migration">{{Cite web|url=http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/caribbean/growing_up/growing_up.htm |title=Migration histories {{!}} Caribbean {{!}} Growing Up |website=movinghere.org.uk |first=Mike |last=Phillips |access-date=6 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031020011233/http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/caribbean/growing_up/growing_up.htm |archive-date=20 October 2003}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date= 20 May 2021|title=Subnormal: A British Scandal: Black youngsters have been wrongly despatched to particular wants faculties in 1970s |url=https://caribbeanmednews.com/subnormal-a-british-scandal-black-youngsters-have-been-wrongly-despatched-to-particular-wants-faculties-in-1970s/ |access-date=1 July 2022 |website=CARIBBEAN MED NEWS |language=en-US}}</ref> By the end of the 1980s, the chances of white school leavers finding employment were four times better than those of black pupils. In 2000–01, black pupils were three times more likely than white pupils and ten times more likely than [[British Asian|Indian]] pupils to be officially excluded from school for disciplinary reasons.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/2691873.stm |title=Race head criticises schools' record |website=BBC News |date=24 January 2003 |access-date=21 December 2006 |url-status=live |archive-date=23 April 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040423112308/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/2691873.stm}}</ref>

In 2004, 23.2 per cent of Black Caribbean pupils in England achieved five or more [[GCSE]]s or equivalent at grades A* to C including English and mathematics, compared with 41.6 per cent of White British pupils and 40.9 per cent of all pupils regardless of ethnicity. In 2013, the equivalent figures were 53.3 per cent for Black Caribbean pupils, 60.5 per cent for White British pupils and 60.6 per cent overall.  Black Caribbean pupils from low income backgrounds tend to academically perform better than White British pupils from low income families.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 June 2021 |title='Forgotten' White working-class pupils let down by decades of neglect, MPs say |url=https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/203/education-committee/news/156024/forgotten-white-workingclass-pupils-let-down-by-decades-of-neglect-mps-say/ |website=UK Parliament|access-date=13 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Cavendish |first=Camilla |date=25 June 2021 |title=The UK has been failing white working-class pupils for years |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/f266e992-d5c3-4d76-b709-90467259a428 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211231228/https://www.ft.com/content/f266e992-d5c3-4d76-b709-90467259a428 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=13 April 2022 }}</ref> Amongst pupils eligible for free school meals (used as a measure of low family incomes), Black Caribbean pupils outperformed White British pupils by 36.9 to 27.9 per cent for boys and 47.7 to 36.8 per cent for girls in 2013. A report published by the Department for Education in 2015 notes that "Black Caribbean and Mixed White & Black Caribbean students have...shown very strong improvement, from being half as likely [as] White British students to achieve the benchmarks of educational success in the early 2000s to near parity in 2013, although stubborn gaps do remain".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/439867/RR439B-Ethnic_minorities_and_attainment_the_effects_of_poverty_annex.pdf|title=Ethnicity, deprivation and educational achievement at age 16 in England: trends over time|first=Steve|last=Strand|website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk|publisher=Department for Education|date=June 2015|access-date=17 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-date=4 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704011051/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/439867/RR439B-Ethnic_minorities_and_attainment_the_effects_of_poverty_annex.pdf.pdf}}</ref>

Black Caribbean pupils have a higher university entry rate than White British students.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Coughlan |first=Sean |date=10 November 2015 |title=White pupils 'least likely to go to university' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-34778517 |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref>

=== Socio-economics ===
[[Image:Ridley road market dalston 1.jpg|thumb|[[Ridley Road Market]] in [[Dalston]], London, which sells African-Caribbean music, textiles, and food including goat meat, yams, mangos and spices.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/africalives/africandirectory/category_c5_s28.shtml African directory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218111501/http://www.bbc.co.uk/africalives/africandirectory/category_c5_s28.shtml |date=18 February 2007 }} BBC Online. Retrieved 16 November 2006.</ref>]]
Socio-economic status is based on the type of work a person does, or what they used to do if they are retired. According to data based on the 2011 Census, 40.7% of Black Caribbeans placed in the top 3 socio-economic groups (higher/lower managerial, professional and intermediate). This ranked as the fifth highest combined percentage out of the 18 ethnicities featured.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 August 2018 |title=Socioeconomic status |url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/uk-population-by-ethnicity/demographics/socioeconomic-status/latest#ethnic-groups-by-socio-economic-status |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=Ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref>

In terms of occupational class, research by Professor Yaojun Li finds that ''second-generation'' Black Caribbean men (i.e. those born in the UK or arrived before the age of 13) are more or less on par with White British men, while Black Caribbean women had a higher occupational class than White British women from the 1970s to the 1990s. Second-generation Black Caribbean women have now surpassed White British women.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Li |first=Yaojun |date=2021 |title=he social mobility of ethnic minorities in Britain in the last 50 years (1972-2019) |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities-supporting-research/the-social-mobility-of-ethnic-minorities-in-britain-in-the-last-50-years-1972-2019-by-professor-yaojun-li |access-date=21 June 2022}}</ref> Further research by Dr Richard Norrie of ''[[Civitas (think tank)|Civitas]]'' noted a growing Black middle class, with around 35.7% of Black Caribbean men in "middle class" jobs in 2020 (compared to only 7% in the 1970s/1980s). The corresponding 2020 figure for White British men is 35.8%. The report claims that this convergence is "testimony to the accomplishments of black Caribbean men, as well as the openness of British economic life".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Top jobs increasingly occupied by a new ethnic minority middle class |url=https://www.civitas.org.uk/press/top-jobs-increasingly-occupied-by-a-new-ethnic-minority-middle-class/ |access-date=20 June 2022 |website=Civitas: Institute for the Study of Civil Society |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Richard |first=Norrie |date=February 2022 |title=In defence of British openness |url=https://www.civitas.org.uk/content/files/BritishOpenness.pdf |access-date=20 June 2022}}</ref>

In 2007, a study by the [[Joseph Rowntree Foundation]] found that Black Caribbeans had one of the lowest poverty rates among the different main ethnic minority groups in Britain. Of the largest non-white ethnic minority groups, Bangladeshis (65%), Pakistanis (55%) and Black Africans (45%) had the highest poverty rates. Black Caribbeans (30%) and Indians (25%) had the lowest rates. For families where at least one adult was in paid work, Black Caribbeans and Indians again had the lowest poverty rates of 10-15%, compared to around 60% for Bangladeshis, 40% for Pakistanis and 30% for Black Africans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guy Palmer and Peter Kenway |date=30 April 2007 |title=Poverty rates among ethnic groups in Great Britain |url=https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/poverty-rates-among-ethnic-groups-great-britain |access-date=16 June 2022 |website=JRF |language=en}}</ref> In 2011, a further comparison found that Black Caribbeans (with British Chinese and Indians) had lower  child and adult poverty rates than Bangladeshis, Pakistanis and Black Africans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Platt |first=Lucinda |date=2011 |title=Inequality within ethnic group |url=https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/jrf/migrated/files/inequality-ethnicity-poverty-full.pdf |access-date=16 June 2016}}</ref>

White Britons tend to have the highest net wealth. Estimates of Black Caribbean wealth vary, according to source. A 2020 report by the [[Resolution Foundation]] found Black Caribbeans have a median net family wealth per adult of £120,000 (higher than Chinese, Black African, Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Other White), placing them in third place out of the major ethnic groups in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bangham |first=George |date=December 2020 |title=A gap that wont close |url=https://www.resolutionfoundation.org/app/uploads/2020/12/A-gap-that-wont-close.pdf |access-date=24 June 2022}}</ref> Civitas's study found that Black Caribbeans have an individual median wealth of £85,000 - again placing them in third place out of the major ethnic groups in the UK:<ref name=":1" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Ethnic group
!Individual median wealth
|-
|White British
|£166,700
|-
|Indian
|£144,400
|-
|Black Caribbean
|£85,000
|-
|Chinese
|£67,300
|-
|White Other
|£53,200
|-
|Pakistani
|£52,000
|-
|Bangladeshi
|£22,800
|-
|Black African
|£18,100
|}
Between 1972-2020, of the largest ethnic minority groups in Britain, Black Caribbeans (and Indians) had the highest employment rates overall. For much of the 1970s, Black Caribbeans had the highest employment rates - even higher than the White ethnic group.<ref name=":0" />

Between 2004-2008 and 2013-2014, Black Caribbeans earned more than their White British counterparts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramesh |first=Randeep |date=30 August 2012 |title=Black Caribbean workers 'earned more per hour than whites before recession' |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/30/black-caribbean-workers-earned-whites |access-date=19 June 2022 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In 2015, the [[Equality and Human Rights Commission]] conducted research into ethnic minority pay gaps between 1993-2014. The report found that UK born Black Caribbean men had closed much of the pay gap to White British males, while UK born Black Caribbean women consistently out-earned White British women.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Simonetta Longhi |first=Malcolm Bryni |date=August 2017 |title=The ethnicity pay gap |url=https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/research-report-108-the-ethnicity-pay-gap.pdf}}</ref>

In 2019, Black Caribbeans had a higher hourly median wage than Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, Black Africans, White other and the other Asian ethnic group. Black Caribbean women continued to earn more on average than White British women.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=28 April 2021 |title=Employment, fairness at work, and enterprise |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities/employment-fairness-at-work-and-enterprise |access-date=19 June 2022 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>

===Population distribution===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:right; font-size:85%; margin:1em;"
|+  Black Caribbean population by region and country
|- style="background:#dedebb;"
! Region / Country !! Population !! Per cent of region
|-
||'''[[England]]''' || '''619,419''' || '''1.10%'''
|-
|| [[Greater London]] || 345,405 || 3.93%
|-
|| [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] || 90,192 || 1.52%
|-
|| [[South East England|South East]] || 43,523 || 0.47%
|-
|| [[East of England]] || 41,884 || 0.66%
|-
|| [[East Midlands]] || 30,828 || 0.63%
|-
|| [[North West England|North West]] || 25,919 || 0.35%
|-
|| [[Yorkshire and the Humber|Yorkshire and The Humber]] || 22,736 || 0.41%
|-
|| [[South West England|South West]] || 17,226 || 0.30%
|-
|| [[North East England|North East]] || 1,704 || 0.06%
|-
|| '''[[Wales]]''' || '''3,700''' || '''0.12%'''
|-
|| '''[[Northern Ireland]]'''{{efn|Includes all those who identified as 'Black Other' i.e. not 'Black African' which numbered 8,069}} || '''2,963''' || '''0.16%'''
|-
|| '''[[Scotland]]'''{{Efn|name=Census2021/22|Scotland held its census a year later after England and Wales due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, the data shown is from 2022 as opposed to 2021.}}{{efn|Only includes those who identified as 'Caribbean or Black: Caribbean, Caribbean Scottish or Caribbean British', does not include those who identified as 'Caribbean or Black: Other Caribbean or Black' which numbered 4,018. If combined together, this adds up to 6,232 (0.1%).}} || '''2,214''' || '''0.04%'''
|-
| colspan="8" |{{center|<small>Figures based on the 2021 United Kingdom Census<ref name=2021regionethnic>{{cite web |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS021/editions/2021/versions/1/filter-outputs/87c867f1-15bc-4f2a-a1ec-51f5a0c2d410 |title= Ethnic group - England and Wales regions |publisher=Office for National Statistics |date=29 November 2022 |access-date=30 November 2022}}</ref><ref name="2022census_Scot"/><ref name=NICensus2021/></small>}}
|}
According to the [[2021 United Kingdom census]], the ten local authorities with the largest proportion of Black Caribbean people were largely concentrated in Greater London: [[London Borough of Lewisham|Lewisham]] (10.61%), [[London Borough of Croydon|Croydon]] (9.24%), [[London Borough of Lambeth|Lambeth]] (9.13%), [[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]] (6.91%), [[London Borough of Waltham Forest|Waltham Forest]] (6.32%), [[London Borough of Brent|Brent]] (6.26%), [[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]] (6.18%), [[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark]] (5.90%), [[London Borough of Enfield|Enfield]] (5.15%) and [[Birmingham]] (3.91%). In Wales, the highest proportion was in [[Cardiff]] at 0.37%.<ref name="Ethnic group">{{Cite web |title=Ethnic group - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS021/editions/2021/versions/1/filter-outputs/24422250-263c-4b84-8dd4-6159ee18b8e6#get-data |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref>

In the 2011 Census, the greatest concentration of 'Black Caribbean' people is found in London, where 344,597 residents classified themselves as Black Caribbean, accounting for 4.2 per cent of the city's population.<ref name=2011CensusEngWales/> Other significant concentrations were (not in order) [[Birmingham]],<ref name="data">[http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=20005 Assessment for Afro-Caribbean people in the United Kingdom] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122000240/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=20005 |date=22 November 2014 }} Minorities at Risk (MAR) Project. University of Maryland. 2004. Accessed ''6 October 2006''</ref> [[Manchester]], [[Bradford]], [[Nottingham]], [[Coventry]], Wolverhampton,[[Luton]], [[Watford]], [[Slough]], [[Leicester]], [[Bristol]], [[Gloucester]], [[Leeds]], [[Huddersfield]], [[Sheffield]], [[Liverpool]] and [[Cardiff]]. In these cities, the community is traditionally associated with a particular area, such as [[Brixton]], [[Harlesden]], [[Stonebridge, London|Stonebridge]], [[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]], [[Lewisham]], [[Tottenham]], [[London Borough of Croydon|Croydon]] and [[Peckham]] in London, [[West Bowling]] and [[Heaton, West Yorkshire|Heaton]] in Bradford, [[Chapeltown, West Yorkshire|Chapeltown]] in Leeds,<ref>[http://www.lhi.org.uk/projects_directory/projects_by_region/yorkshire_the_humber/leeds/jamaica_society_leeds/awareness_of.html Awareness of African-Caribbean Culture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822171412/http://www.lhi.org.uk/projects_directory/projects_by_region/yorkshire_the_humber/leeds/jamaica_society_leeds/awareness_of.html|date=22 August 2006}} <!-- Please do not change this typo in the spelling of Afr0-Caribbean - that is the way it is spelled on the website. --> '''Leeds'''. Local Heritage Initiative website. "277 Chapeltown Road was, as Melody Walker writes, resurrected from the ruins of urban decay by Jamaicans in the area to become a little piece of Jamaica on British soil." Accessed 14 November 2006.</ref> [[St Pauls, Bristol|St. Pauls]] in Bristol,<ref>[http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-2666762-bristol_introduction-i Yahoo Travel] '''Bristol'''. "St Paul's is home to the magnificent St Paul's Carnival, an annual street party of enormous popularity and nation acclaim, which celebrates the African and Caribbean community here." Retrieved 14 November 2006.</ref> [[Handsworth, West Midlands|Handsworth]],[[Aston]]  and [[Ladywood]] in Birmingham, [[Moss Side]] in Manchester, [[St Ann's, Nottingham|St Ann's]] in Nottingham, [[Pitsmoor]] in Sheffield and [[Toxteth]] in Liverpool. According to the [[2011 UK Census]]
Birmingham was home to the largest Black Caribbean population, followed by [[London Borough of Croydon|Croydon]], [[London Borough of Lewisham|Lewisham]], [[London Borough of Lambeth|Lambeth]], [[London Borough of Brent|Brent]] and [[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]].

== Religion ==

{| class="sortable wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |Religion
! colspan="4" |England and Wales
|-
! colspan="2" |2011<ref name=religion>{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/about-ons/business-transparency/freedom-of-information/what-can-i-request/previous-foi-requests/population/ethnicity-and-religion-by-age/dc2201ew---ethnic-group-and-religion.xls |title=DC2201EW - Ethnic group and religion |format=Spreadsheet |publisher=ONS |date=15 September 2015 |access-date=14 January 2016}} Size: 21Kb.</ref>
! colspan="2" |2021<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnic group by religion - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/RM031/editions/2021/versions/1/filter-outputs/217f1401-dab4-43d3-aa77-6c9382220c0c#summary |access-date=2023-04-02 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref>
|-
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
|-
| [[File:Gold Christian Cross no Red.svg|20px]] [[Christianity]]
|441,544
|74.23%
|430,770
|69.13%
|-
| No religion
|76,616
|12.88%
|116,143
|18.64%
|-
| [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|20px]] [[Islam]]
|7,345
|1.23%
|7,167
|1.15%
|-
| [[File:Star of David.svg|20px]] [[Judaism]]
|511
|0.09%
|650
|0.10%
|-
| [[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|20px]] [[Buddhism]]
|1,145
|0.19%
|1,251
|0.20%
|-
| [[File:Om.svg|20px]] [[Hinduism]]
|1,344
|0.23%
|798
|0.13%
|-
| [[File:Khanda.svg|20px]] [[Sikhism]]
|349
|0.06%
|108
|0.02%
|-
| Other religions
|4,065
|0.68%
|6,909
|1.11%
|-
| Not Stated
|61,906
|10.41%
|59,323
|9.52%
|}

==History==
===Early pioneers===
[[Image:Seacole photo.jpg|thumb|upright|Photograph of [[Mary Seacole]], taken for a ''[[carte de visite]]'' by Maull & Company in London ({{circa}}1873)]]
{{Further|Afro-Caribbean history}}

Beginning from the 16th century until the early 19th century, Africans were purchased by [[Atlantic slave trade|European slave traders]] and [[Middle Passage|shipped across the Atlantic]] to work as slaves in the various [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonies in the Americas]]. Approximately 13 million Africans came to the Americas this way, to various locations such as [[Saint-Domingue]], [[New Spain]], [[Colonial Brazil]] and the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. Historians estimated approximately two million Africans were shipped to various [[British Empire|British colonies]] in the Caribbean and South America. These slaves would be given [[Slave name|new names]], adopt European dress and [[Christianity]], and be forced to work on [[plantation]]s which produced [[cash crop]]s to be shipped back to [[Europe]], completing the last leg of the [[triangular trade]]. Conditions on these plantations were harsh, and many escaped into the countryside or showed other forms of resistance.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/2757525.stm Black Britons find their African roots] BBC Online. 14 February 2003. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

One impact of the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] was the differing historical development of [[African Americans|African-American]] and African-Caribbeans. Whereas the American colonists had legalised slavery via their [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial assemblies]], slavery was never legal under British [[common law]] and was thus prohibited in Britain.<ref>MacEwen, Martin, ''Housing, Race and Law: The British Experience'' (Routledge, 2002), p. 39.</ref><ref>Mowat, Robert Balmain, ''History of the English-Speaking Peoples'' (Oxford University Press, 1943), p. 162.</ref>

The much lauded [[Black British|black Briton]] [[Ignatius Sancho]] was among the leading [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|British abolitionists]] in the 18th century, and in 1783 an abolitionist movement spread throughout Britain to end slavery throughout the British Empire, with the poet [[William Cowper]] writing in 1785: "We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. They touch our country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein."<ref>Rhodes, Nick (2003). ''William Cowper: Selected Poems'', p.84. Routledge, 2003</ref> There are records of small communities in the ports of [[Cardiff]], [[Liverpool]], [[London]] and [[South Shields]] dating back to the mid-18th century. These communities were formed by freed slaves following the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|abolition of slavery in 1833]].<ref>[http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1371 Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – African and Caribbean Communities] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103140237/http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1371 |date=3 November 2006 }} E. Chambré Hardman Archive. Retrieved 12 November 2006.</ref> Typical occupations of the early migrants were [[footman|footmen]] or [[coachman|coachmen]].

===19th century===
Prominent African-Caribbean people in Britain during the 19th century include:
* [[William Davidson (conspirator)|William Davidson]] (1781–1820), [[Cato Street Conspiracy|Cato Street Conspirator]]
* Rev. [[George Cosens]] (1805–1881), a Jamaican who became minister of [[Cradley Heath Baptist Church#History|Cradley Heath Baptist Church]] in 1837
* [[Mary Seacole]] (1805–1881), a nurse in the [[Crimean War]]. Voted the greatest ever Black Briton.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cockburn |first=Harry |date=14 October 2016 |title=Who is Mary Seacole? The amazing woman voted the greatest ever black Briton |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/mary-seacole-google-doodle-a7360576.html |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Walter Tull]] (1888–1918), footballer and soldier,
* [[Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856)|Andrew Watson]] (1856–1921), footballer.
* [[Robert Wedderburn (radical)|Robert Wedderburn]] (1762–1835/6?), [[Spencean]] revolutionary
* [[Nathaniel Wells]] (1779–1852), landowner and yeomanry officer.

===Early 20th century===
The growing Caribbean presence in the [[British Armed Forces|British military]] led to approximately 15,000 Afro-Caribbean immigrants arriving in the north-west of England around the time of [[World War I]] to work in munitions factories.<ref>[http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/caribbean/working_lives/working_lives.htm#ffw Early immigration]. Migration histories. Retrieved 12 November 2006.</ref>

During the First World War, Sergeant [[William Robinson Clarke]] travelled from his native Jamaica and became Britain's first black pilot.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Robbie Clarke: Britain's First Black Pilot |url=https://collections.rafmuseum.org.uk/story/robbie-clarke-britains-first-black-pilot/ |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=RAF Museum Collections |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Jamaica]]n poet and [[Communism|communist]] [[Activism|activist]], [[Claude McKay]] came to [[England]] following the First World War and became the first [[Black British]] journalist, writing for the ''[[Workers' Dreadnought]]''.<ref>Sheila McGregor, [http://socialistreview.org.uk/360/sylvia-pankhurst "Sylvia Pankhurst"], ''[[Socialist Review]]'', 360 (July/August 2011.</ref>

[[Bahamians|Bahamian]] Dr [[Allan Glaisyer Minns]] became the first black mayor in Britain when he was elected Mayor of [[Thetford, Norfolk|Thetford]], [[Norfolk]], in 1904.<ref>[http://www.thetfordtowncouncil.gov.uk/history/thetford-mayors/ "Thetford Mayors"], Thetford Town Council.</ref>

===World War II===
[[File:West Indians in Britain during the Second World War CH11478.jpg|thumb|upright|Barbadian and Trinidadian pilots in the [[Royal Air Force]] during the [[World War II|Second World War]]]]

In February 1941, 345 West Indian workers were brought to work in and around [[Liverpool]].<ref>'Liverpool's Black Population During World War II', ''[[Black and Asian Studies Association]] Newsletter'' No. 20, January 1998, p. 6.</ref> They were generally better skilled than the local [[Black British]] population. There was some tension between them and [[West African]]s who had settled in the area.<ref>'Liverpool's Black Population During World War II', ''Black and Asian Studies Association Newsletter'' No. 20, January 1998, p. 9.</ref>

===The "Windrush generation"===
After [[World War II]], many Caribbean people migrated to North America and Europe, especially to the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands. As a result of the losses during the war, the British government began to encourage mass immigration from mainland Europe to fill shortages in the labour market. Citizens from the former countries of the [[British Empire]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] also began to seek work in the UK,<ref name="race">{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/enwiki/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/short_history_of_immigration.stm |title=Short History of Immigration |website=BBC News |access-date=6 October 2006 |url-status=live |archive-date=18 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060518114943/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/enwiki/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/short_history_of_immigration.stm}}</ref> though the government's preference was for European workers to fill shortages.<ref>{{cite journal|title=''Empire Windrush'': The cultural memory of an imaginary arrival|first=Matthew|last=Mead|journal=Journal of Postcolonial Writing|volume=45|issue=2|year=2009|pages=137–149|doi=10.1080/17449850902819920|s2cid=162286896 }}</ref> Kenneth Lunn writes that, "By promoting employment schemes for white European workers to fill existing labour shortages and by choosing to discourage, albeit in an informal manner, black workers from the Commonwealth, a clear set of preferences were displayed".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lunn|first=Kenneth|title=The British state and immigration, 1945–51: New light on the Empire Windrush|journal=Immigrants & Minorities|volume=8|issue=1–2|year=1989|doi=10.1080/02619288.1989.9974713|pages=161–174}}</ref> The Ministry of Labour was particularly opposed to recruiting labour from the Caribbean, arguing that "previously advertised shortages no longer existed. In labor sectors where shortages could not be denied, the ministry concentrated on demonstrating that colonial citizens would make unsuitable workers".<ref>{{cite book|title=Whitewashing Britain: Race and Citizenship in the Postwar Era|first=Kathleen|last=Paul|year=1997|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=9780801484407|page=122}}</ref> Nonetheless, the [[British Nationality Act 1948]] gave [[British nationality law|Citizenship of the UK and Colonies]] to all people living in the United Kingdom and its colonies, and the right of entry and settlement in the UK.<ref name="Archives">[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/brave_new_world/citizenship4.htm National Archives]. Citizenship 1906–2003. Retrieved 6 November 2006.</ref> Many West Indians were attracted by better prospects in what was often referred to as the mother country.

[[Image:Windrush square.jpg|left|thumb|In 1998, an area of public open space in Brixton was renamed [[Windrush Square]] to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the arrival of the ship bringing one of the first large groups of West Indian migrants to the United Kingdom.<ref>[http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/icons-atlas/london/windrush-square Windrush Square] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605012120/http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/icons-atlas/london/windrush-square |date=5 June 2010 }} Icons: A portrait of England. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>]]
The first ships to carry large groups of West Indian people from Jamaica to the United Kingdom were the SS ''Ormonde'', which docked at Liverpool on 31&nbsp;March 1947 with 241 passengers, and the SS ''Almanzora'', which arrived at Southampton on 21&nbsp;December that same year, with 200 passengers.<ref name="NationalArchives">{{Cite web |title=Ormonde, Almanzora and Windrush |url=https://beta.nationalarchives.gov.uk/stories/ormonde-almanzora-windrush/ |access-date=2023-01-27 |website=The National Archives |language=en}}</ref> However, it was the voyage of {{HMT|Empire Windrush}} in June the following year which was to become well-known.

''Empire Windrush'' arrived with a group of 802 migrants at the [[port of Tilbury]], near London, on 22&nbsp;June 1948.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-43808007 |title=Windrush: Who exactly was on board? |last1=Rodgers |first1=Lucy|last2=Ahmed |first2=Maryam |date=21 June 2019 |website=BBC News |access-date=12 April 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=20 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820044810/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-43808007}}</ref><ref name="ecbc">{{cite encyclopedia | year = 2002 | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture | publisher = Routledge | location = London | editor1-first = Peter | editor1-last = Childs | editor2-first = Mike | editor2-last = Storry | title = Afro-Caribbean communities | pages = 11–14}}</ref> ''Empire Windrush'' was a [[troopship]] en route from Australia to England via the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], docking in [[Kingston, Jamaica]], in order to pick up servicemen who were on leave.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/windrush_01.shtml |title=History {{!}} British History {{!}} Windrush - The passengers |website=BBC Online |first=Mike |last=Phillips |date=10 March 2011 |access-date=4 October 2006 |url-status=live |archive-date=9 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120409224724/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/windrush_01.shtml}}</ref> An advertisement had appeared in a Jamaican newspaper offering cheap transport on the ship for anybody who wanted to travel to the United Kingdom. Many former servicemen took this opportunity to return to Britain with the hopes of rejoining the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]], while others decided to make the journey just to see what England was like.<ref name="BBC"/> Unlike the previous two ships, the arrival of the ''Windrush'' received a great deal of media attention and was reported by newspaper reporters and  [[Newsreel]] cameras.<ref name="Pathe1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/pathe-reporter-meets |title=Pathe Reporter Meets |date=24 June 1948 |website=www.britishpathe.com |language=en-GB |access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Richards |first=Denise |date=1948-06-21 |title=Welcome Home! Evening Standard 'plane greets the 400 sons of Empire |edition=36608 |page=1 |newspaper=Evening Standard |location=London}}</ref>

The arrivals were temporarily housed in the [[Clapham South]] [[London deep-level shelters|deep shelter]] in southwest London, about {{convert|2|mi|km|0|abbr=off|spell=on}} away from [[Coldharbour Lane]] in [[Brixton]]. Many intended to stay in Britain for less than a few years, and some did return to the Caribbean, but the majority remained to settle permanently in Britain.<ref name="BBC"/> The arrival of the passengers became an important landmark in the history of modern Britain, and the image of West Indians filing off the ship's gangplank has come to symbolise the beginning of modern British [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] society.<ref name="BBC"/>

The arrival of West Indian immigrants on the ''Empire Windrush'' was not expected or approved of by the British government. [[George Isaacs]], the [[Minister of Labour and National Service]] stated in Parliament that there would be no encouragement for others to follow their example. In June 1948, 11 Labour Members wrote to [[British Prime Minister]] [[Clement Attlee]] complaining about excessive immigration. In the same month, [[Arthur Creech Jones]], the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] noted in a [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] memorandum that the Jamaican Government could not legally prevent people from departing, and the British government could not legally prevent them from landing. However, he also stated that the government was opposed to this immigration, the [[Colonial Office]] and the Jamaican Government would take all possible steps to discourage it.<ref name="Hansen2000">{{cite book|last=Hansen|first=Randall|title=Citizenship and Immigration in Postwar Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qj8GEjW91oEC|date=1 June 2000|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-158301-8|page=57}}</ref>

In June 1950, a Cabinet committee was established to find "ways which might be adopted to check the immigration into this country of coloured people from British colonial territories." In February 1951, the committee reported that no restrictions were required.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/westminster-hall/2003/mar/19/immigration|title=Immigration (Hansard, 19 March 2003)|website=api.parliament.uk|language=en-GB|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref>

There was plenty of work in post-war Britain, and industries such as [[British Rail]], the [[National Health Service]] and public transport recruited almost exclusively from Jamaica and Barbados.<ref>[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/GenerateContent?CONTENT_ITEM_ID=2392&CONTENT_ITEM_TYPE=0&MENU_ID=0 Birmingham's Post War Black Immigrants] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006210211/http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/GenerateContent?CONTENT_ITEM_ID=2392&CONTENT_ITEM_TYPE=0&MENU_ID=0 |date=6 October 2006 }} Birmingham.gov.uk. Birmingham Council website. Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref> Though African-Caribbean people were encouraged to journey to Britain through immigration campaigns created by successive British governments, many new arrivals endured prejudice, intolerance and [[racism]] from sectors of [[White British|white society]].<ref name="ecbc" /> This experience marked African-Caribbean people's relations with the wider community over a long period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4510062.stm |title=Four decades of UK race law |website=BBC News |last=John |first=Cindi |date=13 December 2005 |access-date=6 October 2006 |url-status=live |archive-date=13 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060213102741/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4510062.stm}}</ref> Early African-Caribbean immigrants found private employment and housing denied to them on the basis of race. Trade unions would often not help African-Caribbean workers and some pubs, clubs, dance halls and churches would bar black people from entering.<ref name="ecbc" /> Housing was in short supply following the wartime bombing, and the shortage led to some of the first clashes with the established [[white people|white community]]. Clashes continued and worsened into the 1950s, and riots erupted in cities including London, [[Birmingham]] and [[Nottingham]].<ref name="race" /> In 1958, attacks in the London area of [[Notting Hill]] by white youths marred relations with West Indian residents, and the following year as a positive response by the Caribbean community an indoor carnival event organised by ''[[West Indian Gazette]]'' editor [[Claudia Jones]] took place in St Pancras Town Hall, and would be a precursor to what became the annual [[Notting Hill Carnival]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2005/07/25/carnival_history_feature.shtml |title=Carnival's roots |work=BBC London |date=28 October 2014 |access-date=11 November 2006 |url-status=live |archive-date=2 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902195926/https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2005/07/25/carnival_history_feature.shtml}}</ref> Some of the racism and intolerance was stoked by explicitly [[Fascism|fascist]] or [[anti-immigration]] movements including [[Oswald Mosley]]'s [[Union Movement]], the [[League of Empire Loyalists]], the [[White Defence League]], the [[National Labour Party (UK, 1957)|National Labour Party]] and others. Influenced by this kind of propaganda, gangs of [[Teddy Boy]]s would sometimes attack black people in London.<ref name="ecbc" /> Historian Winston James argues that the experience of suffering racism was a major factor in the development of a shared Caribbean identity among immigrants from a range of different island and class backgrounds. The shared experience of employment by organisations such as [[London Transport Executive|London Transport]] and the National Health Service also played a role in the building of a British African-Caribbean identity.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Migration, Racism and Identity: The Caribbean Experience in Britain|first=Winston|last=James|journal=New Left Review|issue=193|date=May–June 1992|pages=15–55|url=https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B7n7SgRV3AY8UEJWT001UFpfdms/view?resourcekey=0-vKCKbqSYUtbjWFt-16GiIw|access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref>

Social Geographer [[Ceri Peach]] estimates that the number of people in Britain born in the West Indies grew from 15,000 in 1951 to 172,000 in 1961.<ref name="Peach">{{cite book|title=The Caribbean in Europe: Aspects of the West Indian Experience in Britain, France and the Netherlands|first=Ceri|last=Peach|editor-first=Colin|editor-last=Brock|chapter=Patterns of Afro-Caribbean Migration and Settlement in Great Britain: 1945–1981|publisher=Frank Cass & Co.|location=London|pages=62–84|isbn=978-0714632636|year=1986}}</ref> In 1962, the UK enacted the [[Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962|Commonwealth Immigrants Act]], restricting the entry of immigrants,<ref name="race" /> and by 1972 only holders of work permits, or people with parents or [[Grandfather clause|grandparents born in the United Kingdom]], could gain entry – effectively stemming most Caribbean immigration.<ref name="Archives" /> Despite the restrictive measures, an entire generation of Britons with African-Caribbean heritage now existed, contributing to British society in virtually every field, a generation celebrated in the 'Windrush 75 1948-2023 Souvenir Edition' of ''[[The Voice (British newspaper)|The Voice]]'' published in June 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=June 2023 |title=Windrush 75 1948-2023 Souvenir Edition |pages=1–88 |work=[[The Voice (British newspaper)|The Voice]]}}</ref>

===Recession and turbulence, 1970s and 1980s===
{{discrimination sidebar}}
[[Image:Notting Hill Carnival 2002 large.jpg|thumb|Dancers at the [[Notting Hill Carnival]]]]
The 1970s and 1980s were decades of comparative turbulence in wider British society; industrial disputes preceded a period of deep [[recession]] and widespread [[unemployment]] which seriously affected the economically less prosperous African-Caribbean community. During the decades of the 1970s and 1980s, unemployment among the children of Caribbean migrants ran at three to four times that of white school leavers.<ref>[http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/caribbean/working_lives/working_lives.htm Working lives] Migration histories. Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref> By 1982 the number of all people out of work in Britain had risen above three million for the first time since the 1930s.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/26/newsid_2506000/2506335.stm UK unemployment tops three million] On this day. BBC online 1982. Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref> [[Societal racism]], discrimination, [[poverty]], powerlessness and oppressive policing sparked a series of riots in areas with substantial African-Caribbean populations.<ref name="scarman">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/bbc_parliament/3631579.stm Q&A: The Scarman Report 27] BBC Online. April 2004. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> These "uprisings" (as they were described by some in the community) took place in [[St Pauls, Bristol|St Pauls]] in 1980, [[1981 Brixton riot|Brixton]], [[Toxteth riots|Toxteth]] and [[Moss Side]] in 1981, St Pauls again in 1982, [[Notting Hill Gate]] in 1982, Toxteth in 1982, and [[1985 Handsworth riots|Handsworth]], [[Brixton riot (1985)|Brixton]] and [[Broadwater Farm riot|Tottenham]] in 1985.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.warwick.ac.uk/CRER/differentreality/timeline.html |title=A Different Reality: minority struggle in British cities, Timeline |website=warwick.ac.uk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926055138/http://www.warwick.ac.uk/CRER/differentreality/timeline.html |archive-date=26 September 2011 |publisher=[[University of Warwick]] Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations |access-date=6 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eco.utexas.edu/~hmcleave/357Limpossibleintro.pdf#search=%22riots%20uprisings%20brixton%22 |title=We Want to RIOT, not to WORK: The 1981 Brixton Uprisings, London, 1982 |website=eco.utexas.edu |date=March 1982 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308171040/http://www.eco.utexas.edu/~hmcleave/357Limpossibleintro.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2005 |access-date=6 October 2006}}</ref>

The riots had a profoundly unsettling effect on local residents, and led the then [[Home Secretary]] [[William Whitelaw, 1st Viscount Whitelaw|William Whitelaw]] to commission the [[Scarman report]] to address the root causes of the disturbances. The report identified both "racial discrimination" and a "racial disadvantage" in Britain, concluding that urgent action was needed to prevent these issues becoming an "endemic, ineradicable disease threatening the very survival of our society".<ref name="scarman"/> The era saw an increase in attacks on black people by white people. The ''Joint Campaign Against Racism'' committee reported that there had been more than 20,000 attacks on non-white Britons including [[British Asian|Britons of Asian origin]] during 1985.<ref>Law and Order, moral order: The changing rhetoric of the Thatcher government. [http://socialistregister.com/socialistregister.com/files/SR_1987_Taylor.pdf online]. Ian Taylor. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

===1990s and 21st century===
The police response to the 1993 murder of black teenager [[Stephen Lawrence]] led to outcry and calls to investigate police conduct. The ensuing government inquiry, the Macpherson Report, concluded that there was [[institutional racism]] in London's [[Metropolitan Police Service]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/stephen_lawrence/285357.stm The Lawrence inquiry]. BBC online. Retrieved 11 November 2006.</ref>

In 2009, 1.2% of British children under 16 were Black Caribbean and 1.1% were mixed white and black Caribbean. Among those children who were living with at least one Caribbean parent, only one in five was living with two Caribbean parents.<ref>{{cite web|last=Platt |first=Lucinda |title=Ethnicity and family. Relationships within and between ethnic groups: An analysis using the Labour Force Survey |url=http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/raceinbritain/ethnicity_and_family_report.pdf |publisher=Equality and Human Rights Commission |access-date=15 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923092553/http://equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/raceinbritain/ethnicity_and_family_report.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2010}}</ref>

In 2015 Catherine Ross, who came to the UK from [[Saint Kitts]] as a child, founded the SKN (Skills, Knowledge and Networks) Heritage Museum, which became [[Museumand|Museumand: The National Caribbean Heritage Museum]], a "museum without walls" based in Nottingham.<ref name="hubbard">{{cite web |last1=Hubbard |first1=Emma |title=Nottingham's first Caribbean heritage museum is here |url=https://nottstv.com/nottinghams-first-caribbean-heritage-museum-comes-to-the-city/ |website=Notts TV News |access-date=12 November 2020 |date=16 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="museumand-about">{{cite web |title=About |url=https://www.museumand.org/about/ |publisher=Museumand |access-date=12 November 2020}}</ref>

===Windrush scandal===
{{Main|Windrush scandal}}
From November 2017<ref name="Guardian2017">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/nov/28/i-cant-eat-or-sleep-the-grandmother-threatened-with-deportation-after-50-years-in-britain|title='I can't eat or sleep': the woman threatened with deportation after 50 years in Britain|last=Gentleman|first=Amelia|date=28 November 2017|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> British newspapers reported that the [[Home Office]] had threatened Commonwealth immigrants who arrived before 1973 with deportation if they could not prove their right to remain in the UK. In April 2018, Prime Minister [[Theresa May]] apologised to leaders of Caribbean countries about the way immigrants had been treated,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-43792411|title=Windrush generation: Theresa May apologises to Caribbean leaders|work=BBC News|date=17 April 2018|access-date=18 April 2018}}</ref> promising compensation to those affected.<ref>{{Cite news|first1=Heather |last1=Stewart |first2=Peter |last2=Walker |first3=Amelia |last3=Gentleman |first4=Kevin |last4=Rawlinson |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/apr/20/theresa-may-says-windrush-victims-will-be-paid-compensation |title=Theresa May says Windrush victims will be paid compensation |website=The Guardian |date=20 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first1=Rob |last1=Merrick |first2=Lizzy |last2=Buchan |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/windrush-generation-scandal-compensation-theresa-may-affected-immigration-crackdown-a8314896.html |title=Windrush scandal: Theresa May says people affected by immigration crackdown will receive 'compensation' |website=The Independent |date=20 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-43846047 |title=Theresa May: Compensation for Windrush generation |website=BBC News |date=21 April 2018}}</ref> In what has become known as the "[[Windrush scandal]]", Home Secretary [[Amber Rudd]] initially denied the existence of, and later denied being aware of aggressive departmental deportation targets, but eventually resigned on 29&nbsp;April 2018 after news outlets published documents indicating that she knew of the targets.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Stewart |first1=Heather |last2=Gentleman |first2=Amelia |last3=Hopkins |first3=Nick |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/apr/29/amber-rudd-resigns-as-home-secretary-after-windrush-scandal |title=Amber Rudd resigns hours after Guardian publishes deportation targets letter |website=The Guardian |date=30 April 2018 |access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref> Prior to Rudd's resignation, [[Sajid Javid]], her successor as Home Secretary, had expressed sympathy for the victims of the scandal, telling the ''Sunday Telegraph'' that "I thought, 'That could be my mum ... my dad ... my uncle ... it could be me.'"<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/windrush-latest-sajid-javid-personal-amber-rudd-deportation-local-elections-2018-a8327921.html|title=Sajid Javid says Windrush scandal felt 'very personal' because 'it could have been me'|last=Kentish|first=Benjamin|date=29 April 2018|work=The Independent|access-date=30 April 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2018/04/28/sajid-javids-windrush-fury-could-have-mum-dad/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2018/04/28/sajid-javids-windrush-fury-could-have-mum-dad/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Sajid Javid's Windrush fury: 'It could have been me, my mum or my dad'|last=Malnick|first=Edward|date=29 April 2018|work=The Telegraph|access-date=30 April 2018|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Landing cards relating to earlier passenger arrivals in the United Kingdom had been destroyed in October 2010.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-43806710|title=Windrush: Theresa May hits back at Labour over landing cards|work=BBC News |date=18 April 2018|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> A public inquiry ordered by the [[House of Commons]], titled the ''Windrush Lessons Learned Review'', was published in March 2020.<ref name="windrushreport2020">{{Cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/876336/6.5577_HO_Windrush_Lessons_Learned_Review_LoResFinal.pdf|title=Windrush Lessons Learned Review|author=Wendy Williams, [[Her Majesty's Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate|HMCPSI]]|date=March 2020|publisher=[[UK Home Office]]|quote=They were from a group of British people who held what became CUKC (citizens of the UK and Colonies) citizenship, and their children, who came to the UK between 1948 and 1973, mostly from Caribbean countries ... [[Chartered Institute of Housing]]: "the Windrush Britons often had compelling anecdotal and other evidence demonstrating their lengthy residence in the UK".}}</ref>

==Genetics==
===Genome-wide studies===
Genome-wide research of [[Afro-Caribbean people]] have shown that the grouping, on average, have 77.4% African, 15.9% European, and 6.7% Asian DNA. This 2010 study represented African Caribbeans living within the [[Caribbean]].<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=[[Genetic Epidemiology (journal)|Genetic Epidemiology]] |title=African and Non-African Admixture Components in African Americans and An African Caribbean Population |volume=34 |issue=6 |date=September 2010 |pmc=3837693 |vauthors=Murray T, Beaty TH, Mathias RA, Rafaels N, Grant AV, Faruque MU, Watson HR, Ruczinski I, [[Georgia M. Dunston|Dunston GM]], Barnes KC |pages=561–8 |doi=10.1002/gepi.20512 |pmid=20717976 |quote=We selected 416 ancestry informative markers (AIMs) to estimate and compare admixture proportions using STRUCTURE in 906 unrelated [[African Americans]] (AAs) and 294 [[Afro-Barbadians|Barbadians]] ([[Afro-Caribbeans|ACs]]) from a study of asthma. This analysis showed AAs on average were 72.5% African, 19.6% European and 8% Asian, while ACs were 77.4% African, 15.9% European, and 6.7% Asian which were significantly different.}}</ref> Within the United Kingdom, men and women of African Caribbean origin or ancestry were also found to have around 13 percent of their DNA from sources other than [[Africa]]. In the research, only volunteers who had all four grandparents of Afro-Caribbean origin were sampled.<ref name="Derbyshire2003">{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3305145/One-British-black-man-in-four-has-white-ancestor.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3305145/One-British-black-man-in-four-has-white-ancestor.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=One British black man in four 'has white ancestor'|author=David Derbyshire|date=5 February 2003|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|quote=Around a quarter of Afro-Caribbean British men are directly descended from white Europeans, according to a new study ... The study also found that around 13 per cent of the DNA inherited by Afro-Caribbean men and women did not originate from Africa ... Most of Britain's black community are descended from the millions of Africans who worked as slaves on the Caribbean sugar plantations. The DNA tests were carried out on 229 British volunteers with four Afro-Caribbean grandparents}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Researchers have been able to attribute this partly to historic European males' sexual exploitation of enslaved African women.<ref name="bbcjuly2020">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53527405|title=Genetic impact of African slave trade revealed in DNA study|date=24 July 2020|publisher=[[BBC]]|quote=They believe enslaved [[Nigerians]] were transported from the [[British Caribbean]] to other areas, "presumably to maintain the slave economy as transatlantic slave-trading was increasingly prohibited" ... Researchers said a strong bias towards African female contributions in the gene pool – even though the majority of slaves were male – could be attributed to "the rape of enslaved African women by slave owners and other sexual exploitation".}}</ref>

==Notable contributions==
===Academia===
There are a number of African-Caribbean academics who are especially prominent in the arts and humanities. Professor [[Paul Gilroy]], of [[Afro-Guyanese]] and [[English people|English]] heritage, is one of Britain's leading academics, having taught [[sociology]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] as well as [[Goldsmiths College]] and the [[London School of Economics]].<ref>[http://learning.berkeley.edu/cipolat/PDF/ISF100A/Lectures/Gilroy.pdf Paul Gilroy profile] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622142835/http://learning.berkeley.edu/cipolat/PDF/ISF100A/Lectures/Gilroy.pdf |date=22 June 2007 }}. Berkeley education website. Retrieved 13 October 2006.</ref> The Jamaican-born cultural theorist Professor [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]] has also been a highly influential British [[intellectual]] since the 1960s.<ref>[http://www.umich.edu/~iinet/journal/vol7no1/Hall.htm "A Conversation With Stuart Hall"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211103804/http://www.umich.edu/~iinet/journal/vol7no1/Hall.htm |date=11 February 2007 }}. ''The Journal of the International Institute''. Retrieved 13 October 2006.</ref> Dr. [[Robert Beckford]] has presented several national television and radio documentaries exploring African-Caribbean history, culture and religion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/04/race.uk |title=For Empire, read exploitation|first=Robert |last=Beckford|newspaper=The Guardian|date=4 August 2002|access-date= 13 October 2006}}</ref>

Other prominent academics include Guyanese born Professor [[Gus John]], who has been active in education, schooling and political radicalism in Britain's inner cities such as Manchester, Birmingham and London since the 1960s. He was involved in the organising the "Black people's day of action", a response to the 1981 [[New Cross Fire]]. In 1989 he was appointed Director of Education in Hackney and was the first black person to hold such a position. He has also worked as an education consultant in Europe, the Caribbean and Africa. John was the co-ordinator of the [[Black Parents Movement]] in Manchester, founded the Education for Liberation book service and helped to organise the International Book Fair of Radical Black and Third World Books in Manchester, London and Bradford. He has worked in a number of University settings, including a visiting Faculty Professor of Education at the [[University of Strathclyde]] in Glasgow and is currently an associate professor of the Institute of Education at the [[University of London]]. Dr [["William" Lez Henry]] works with young people, particularly black boys. He is the founder of Black Liberation Afrikan Knowledge (BLK Friday) a platform for people to give presentations to the community. In 2005, he received an Excellence in Education Award at the Challenging The Genius: Excellent Education for Children: "Our Future is Not a dream", Conference in Chicago, USA. He is one of the founding members of the National Independent Education Coalition (NIEC). Henry previously hosted a fortnightly talk show on popular London pirate radio station Galaxy 102.5FM (formerly 99.5 FM) and who is also a former lecturer of [[Goldsmiths College]]. Prof. [[Harry Goldbourne]] is a former member of the radical group the [[Black Unity and Freedom Party]] who went on to teach at the [[London South Bank University|University of the South Bank]].

===Acting and entertainment===
{{Further|British television |British cinema}}
The 1970s saw the emergence of independent filmmakers such as Trinidadian-born [[Horace Ové]], the director of ''[[Pressure (1975 film)|Pressure]]'', among others.<ref>[http://www.bfi.org.uk/booksvideo/video/catalogue/index.php/page/item_view/code/439 BFI website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127134458/http://www.bfi.org.uk/booksvideo/video/catalogue/index.php/page/item_view/code/439 |date=27 January 2007 }} "Pressure" description. Retrieved 1 June 2007.</ref> London's [[Talawa Theatre Company]] was founded in the 1985 by Jamaican-born [[Yvonne Brewster]], their first production being based on [[C. L. R. James]]'s historical account of the [[Haitian Revolution]], ''[[The Black Jacobins]]''.<ref>[http://www.100greatblackbritons.com/bios/yvonne_brewster.html Yvonne Brewster profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010115501/http://www.100greatblackbritons.com/bios/yvonne_brewster.html |date=10 October 2006 }}. 100 Great Black Britons. Retrieved 8 October 2006.<br />° [http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/caribbean/culture/theatre4.htm New Black theatre companies] Migration histories. Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref> Since the 1980s, the [[Blue Mountain Theatre]]'s productions have offered a more earthy style of populist comedy, often bringing over Jamaican artists such as [[Oliver Samuels]].<ref>[http://www.bluemountaintheatre.com/NewFiles/whatson.html Blue Mountain Theatre website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427201922/http://www.bluemountaintheatre.com/NewFiles/whatson.html |date=27 April 2006 }} Accessed 8 October 2006.</ref>

While [[Guyana|Guyanese]] actor [[Robert Adams (actor)|Robert Adams]] became the first African-Caribbean dramatic actor to appear on British television on 11&nbsp;May 1938 (in a production of [[Eugene O'Neill]]'s play ''[[The Emperor Jones]]''), African-Caribbean entertainers were first widely popularised on British television broadcasts with the postwar resumption of [[BBC]] television in 1946 (pre-war Black entertainers on the BBC – the first in the world – had primarily been [[African-American]] stars).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.untoldlondon.org.uk/news/ART42059.html |title=A Sort Of Magic: The Black Presence On Pre-War British Television |last=Bourne |first=Stephen |date=12 December 2006 |website=untoldlondon.org.uk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216205525/http://www.untoldlondon.org.uk/news/ART42059.html |archive-date=16 February 2007 |publisher=Museum of London |access-date=26 February 2007}}</ref> The profile of African-Caribbean actors on [[British television|television]], such as [[Lennie James]], [[Judith Jacob]] and [[Diane Parish]], has widened substantially since 1970s programmes such as: ''[[Love Thy Neighbour (1972 TV series)|Love Thy Neighbour]]'' ([[Rudolph Walker]]) and ''[[Rising Damp]]'' ([[Don Warrington]]) when their role was often to act simply as either the butt of, or foil to, racist jokes made by White characters. The most influential programme in moving away from this formula was the 1989–94 [[Channel Four]] barbershop sitcom ''[[Desmond's]]'', starring [[Norman Beaton]] and [[Carmen Munroe]]. In 1982, [[Peter Davison]], who is of [[Afro-Guyanese]] and English descent, was the then-youngest-ever actor to play the Doctor in ''[[Doctor Who]]''.<ref name="davison2017-2016">*{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/aug/11/peter-davison-actor-father-sister|title=Peter Davison: 'Britain wasn't as welcoming as it should have been for my father'|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=11 August 2017|author=Camilla Palmer|quote=My father, Claude, who was from [[British Guiana]] ... Britain wasn't as welcoming as it should have been for him with his [[dark skin]] and hair, West Indian accent and gold tooth. }}
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2016/jun/02/steven-moffat-there-was-going-to-be-a-black-doctor-who|title=We nearly appointed a black Doctor, says Doctor Who showrunner|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=2 Jun 2016|author=Josh Plunkett|quote=[[Steven Moffat|Moffat]] said the show had tried to go one further by casting the first non-white [[The Doctor (Doctor Who)|Doctor]], but the choice later fell through.}}</ref>

One of the biggest African-Caribbean names in [[comedy]] is [[Lenny Henry]], who began his career as a stand-up comedian but whose television sketch shows, where he often caricatured Caribbean [[émigré]]s, made him popular enough to headline numerous primetime comedy shows from, for instance, ''Lenny Henry'' in 1984 to ''The Lenny Henry Show'' in 2004.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/talent/h/henry_lenny.shtml Lenny Henry BBC shows history]. BBC online. Retrieved 22 December 2006.</ref> Becoming a prominent television personality between 2002 and 2009 after appearing on series ''[[Big Brother (British TV series)|Big Brother]]'', [[Jade Goody]] was of [[Afro-Jamaican]] and English descent.<ref name="goody2009-2019">*{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/who-killed-jade-goody-dn6xsjgnwzf|title=Who killed Jade Goody?|author=David James Smith|date=12 July 2009|work=[[The Times]]|quote=[[Jade Goody|Jade]] was [[mixed-race]] herself (her late father had been half-[[Jamaicans|Jamaican]])}}
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/0/jade-goody-10-years-big-brother-star-shaped-celebrity-culture/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/0/jade-goody-10-years-big-brother-star-shaped-celebrity-culture/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=From hate figure to nation's sweetheart: who was the real Jade Goody? |author=Adam White|date=22 August 2019|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|quote=It's also an easier story to focus on than our own complicity in her prolonged abuse and belittlement, our somewhat baffling “people's princess” reaction to her demise (the [[BBC]] defended itself in 2009 against accusations that its coverage of [[Jade Goody|Goody]]'s final weeks was “excessive”), or our eagerness to forgive a wealthy white woman for hurling racist abuse against a [[women of color|woman of colour]].}}{{cbignore}}</ref>  Another ''Big Brother'' contestant'','' [[Alison Hammond]], has appeared on many television programmes and in 2020, [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] announced a shake-up of ''[[This Morning (TV programme)|This Morning]]'' presenters, with Hammond replacing [[Eamonn Holmes]] and [[Ruth Langsford]] on a Friday, presenting alongside [[Dermot O'Leary]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2020 |title=Alison Hammond and Dermot O'Leary to join This Morning presenting family |url=https://www.itv.com/thismorning/articles/alison-hammond-and-dermot-oleary-to-join-this-morning-presenting-family |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=ITV |language=en}}</ref> Hammond is of Afro-Jamaican descent.

Another big African-Caribbean name is [[Ainsley Harriott]], who has appeared in several shows including ''[[Ready Steady Cook]], [[Can't Cook, Won't Cook]], [[City Hospital (British TV series)|City Hospital]], [[Red Dwarf]]'' and ''[[Strictly Come Dancing]].'' In September 2008, Harriott explored his Caribbean heritage, taking part in the genealogy documentary series, [[Who Do You Think You Are? (UK TV series)|Who Do You Think You Are?]].

Other television personalities and presenters include [[Angellica Bell]], [[Andi Oliver]], [[Alesha Dixon]], [[Josie d'Arby]], [[Diane-Louise Jordan]], [[Floella Benjamin]], [[Margherita Taylor]], [[Trisha Goddard]], [[Shaun Wallace]], [[Derrick Evans (fitness instructor)|Mr Motivator]], [[Alex Scott (footballer, born 1984)|Alex Scott]], [[Marvin Humes|Marvin]] and [[Rochelle Humes]].

The highest professional achievement by a British African-Caribbean actor was [[Marianne Jean-Baptiste]]'s 1996 nominations for an [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] (Oscar), [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] and [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|British Academy Award]] (bafta) for her feature-film debut role in ''[[Secrets & Lies (film)|Secrets & Lies]]''.<ref>[http://film.guardian.co.uk/Player/Player_Page/0,,68701,00.html Marianne Jean-Baptiste profile] Guardian Online. Retrieved 7 October 2006.</ref> [[Naomie Harris]] replicated this in 2017, with nominations for a Golden Globe, BAFTA and Oscar for her performance in ''[[Moonlight (2016 film)|Moonlight]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Naomie Harris |url=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0365140/awards |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=IMDb}}</ref> Numerous British African-Caribbean actors have become successful in [[United States|US]] film and television. In 2009 portraying [[Lord Voldemort#Portrayals within films|Lord Voldemort]] – one of the most famous characters in cinematic history – [[Frank Dillane]] has [[Afro-Jamaican]] and English heritage.<ref>{{cite book|title=Post-Apocalyptic Patriarchy: American Television and Gendered Visions of Survival|author=Carlen Lavigne|page=173|date=2018|isbn=978-0786499069|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|quote=According to IMDB, [[Frank Dillane]] is biracial ([[Stephen Dillane|his father]] is white and his mother is of Afro-Jamaican heritage). The character Nick is apparently white ... the Nick role was originally cast with white actor [[Robert Sheehan]] before Dillane took over ... For an example, see "Why We Should Talk About Nick Being White,"}}</ref> Oxfordshire-born [[Wentworth Miller]] of ''[[Prison Break]]'' fame is also of partial Jamaican descent. Miller earned a [[Golden Globe Awards|Golden Globe Award nomination]] for his ''Prison Break'' role<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wentworth Miller |url=https://www.goldenglobes.com/person/wentworth-miller |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=Goldenglobes.com}}</ref> and won a [[Saturn Awards|Saturn Award]] for his guest appearance in the critically acclaimed ''[[The Flash (2014 TV series)|The Flash]].''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Byrne |first=Craig |date=25 June 2015 |title=The Flash Is Honored With 3 Saturn Awards {{!}} FlashTVNews |url=https://flashtvnews.com/the-flash-is-honored-with-3-saturn-awards/20884 |access-date=16 April 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> Actor [[Stephen Graham]], who has featured in three [[Martin Scorsese]] directed productions, has [[Afro-Jamaican]], [[Swedish people|Swedish]] and English ancestry.<ref name="graham2015-2019">*{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-50431391|title=Stephen Graham: Actor tells Desert Island Discs 'I didn't know how to cope'|date=17 November 2019|publisher=[[BBC]]|quote=He can now be seen playing mobster Anthony Provenzano in [[Martin Scorsese]]'s film The Irishman. The director had previously cast him in Gangs of New York and as Al Capone in HBO's Boardwalk Empire. ... One of [[Stephen Graham|Graham]]'s grandfathers was [[Jamaicans|Jamaican]], and he told [[Lauren Laverne|Laverne]] that at times in his youth he didn't know where he "belonged". "There were times there growing up when I was slightly unsure where I fitted in," he said, referencing his white and black cousins.}}
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/tv-and-radio-reviews/11907028/This-Is-England-90-episode-four-review.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/tv-and-radio-reviews/11907028/This-Is-England-90-episode-four-review.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=This Is England '90, review: 'end of an era'|author=Serena Davies|date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|quote=Last night the narrative came full circle. A young black man, Milky ([[Andrew Shim]]), got revenge on Combo ([[Stephen Graham]]), the white racist who had beaten him to a pulp in the [[This Is England|original film]].}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Delroy Lindo]] earned a [[Satellite Awards|Satellite Award]] for his role in American [[docudrama]] [[television film]] ''[[Glory & Honor]] and'' won numerous accolades for his role as Paul, in [[Spike Lee|Spike Lee's]] highly praised ''[[Da 5 Bloods]].''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cruz |first=Clarissa |date=29 March 2021 |title=Delroy Lindo on his titanic performance in 'Da 5 Bloods' |url=https://ew.com/the-awardist-podcast/delroy-lindo-da-5-bloods/ |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=EW.com |language=en}}</ref> Lindo is of Jamaican heritage''.'' [[Colin Salmon]], who is also of Jamaican descent, is known for playing [[Charles Robinson (James Bond)|Charles Robinson]] in three [[James Bond in film|James Bond films]] and James "One" Shade in the [[Resident Evil (film series)|''Resident Evil'' film series.]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Colin Salmon |url=http://www.yaketyyak.co.uk/artists/colin-salmon |access-date=6 March 2022 |website=Yakety Yak |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=3rd Satellite Awards8 |url=https://www.filmaffinity.com/en/award-edition-movie.php?edition-id=satellite_1998&movie-id=673892 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=FilmAffinity |language=en}}</ref> [[Marsha Thomason]], who is of mixed Jamaican and English heritage, has appeared in Disney's ''[[The Haunted Mansion (2003 film)|The Haunted Mansion]],'' opposite [[Eddie Murphy]], and US television series ''[[Las Vegas (TV series)|Las Vegas]],'' [[Lost (2004 TV series)|''Lost'']] and ''[[White Collar (TV series)|White Collar]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2022 |title=Who is Marsha Thomason? The Bay actress' age, career and husband revealed |url=https://www.heart.co.uk/showbiz/tv-movies/who-marsha-thomason-the-bay-age-career-husband/ |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=Heart |language=en}}</ref> [[Ashley Walters (actor)|Ashley Walters]], of Jamaican ancestry, played the role as Antoine in ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin' (film)|Get Rich or Die Tryin'<nowiki/>]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ashley Walters |url=http://www.yaketyyak.co.uk/artists/ashley-walters |access-date=6 March 2022 |website=Yakety Yak |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[David Harewood]], who is Barbadian descent, played David Estes, Director of the CIA's Counter-terrorism Centre in the highly successful television series ''[[Homeland (TV series)|Homeland]].'' He also played a lead role in the popular American superhero TV series ''[[Supergirl (TV series)|Supergirl]].''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Jessica |date=23 November 2021 |title=David Harewood: Homeland star speaks out on career 'falling off a cliff' |url=https://www.express.co.uk/celebrity-news/1524928/david-harewood-homeland-death-dead-career-rock-bottom-family-news-net-worth-latest-news |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=Express.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> Harewood was honoured with the ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' Outstanding Achievement Award in recognition of his work and success in both the U.K. and U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2020 |title=David Harewood to Receive Variety Outstanding Achievement Award With Edinburgh TV Festival |url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/david-harewood-receive-variety-outstanding-091201920.html |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=Yahoo News UK |agency=Variety  |language=en-GB |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815065825/https://uk.news.yahoo.com/david-harewood-receive-variety-outstanding-091201920.html |archive-date= Aug 15, 2022 }}</ref> [[Lashana Lynch]] featured opposite [[Brie Larson]] in 2019's ''[[Captain Marvel (film)|Captain Marvel]]'' and played the role of Nomi, the secret agent who replaces [[Daniel Craig|Craig's]] retired [[James Bond (literary character)|Bond]] ''in [[No Time to Die]].''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nugent |first=Annabel |date=9 October 2021 |title=Lashana Lynch on ear for eye, Bond and why there's still a long way to go for change |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/lashana-lynch-james-bond-no-time-to-die-b1934965.html |access-date=7 March 2022 |website=The Independent |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307143852/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/lashana-lynch-james-bond-no-time-to-die-b1934965.html |archive-date= 7 March 2022 }}</ref> Lynch won a BAFTA for her role in ''No Time to Die,'' thanking her Jamaican parents while accepting the award.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Jhaneal |date=14 March 2022 |title=British Jamaican Actress Lashana Lynch Scores Win at 2022 BAFTA Awards |url=https://www.caribbeannationalweekly.com/caribbean-breaking-news-featured/british-jamaican-actress-lashana-lynch-scores-win-at-2022-bafta-awards/ |access-date=15 March 2022 |website=Caribbean National Weekly |language=en}}</ref> [[Adrian Lester]], who is of Jamaican descent, featured in the political blockbuster ''[[Primary Colors (film)|Primary Colors]],'' directed by [[Mike Nichols|Mike Nicholls]] and co-starring [[John Travolta]], [[Kathy Bates]], [[Billy Bob Thornton]] and [[Emma Thompson]]. This part earned Lester a [[Chicago Film Critics Association]] award nomination for "Most Promising Actor".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adrian Lester |website= ARG Talent |date= 3 March 2015 |url=https://argtalent.com/adrian-lester/ |access-date=5 March 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Art and design===
{{Further|British art}}
[[File:Tate Britain (5822081512) (2).jpg|thumb|[[Tate Britain]], which houses works by [[Donald Rodney]] and [[Sonia Boyce]]]]
One of the most influential African-Caribbean people in the British art world has been Prof. [[Eddie Chambers (writer and artist)|Eddie Chambers]].<ref>[http://www.calling.org.uk/pages/commentary/chambers/Chambers_bio.php Eddie Chambers Biography] by Richard Hylton. "As a facilitator and mentor to many in the visual arts, the importance of his contribution cannot be overstated". Retrieved 22 December 2006.</ref> Chambers, along with [[Donald Rodney]], [[Marlene Smith (artist)|Marlene Smith]] and curator, artist, critic and academic [[Keith Piper (artist)|Keith Piper]], founded the [[BLK Art Group]]<ref>Marlene Smith recounts founding of BLK Art Group on Tate Britain website. [http://www.tate.org.uk/britain/exhibitions/rodney/q1.htm Online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929230047/http://www.tate.org.uk/britain/exhibitions/rodney/q1.htm |date=29 September 2007 }}. Retrieved 23 February 2007.</ref> in 1982, when they were initially based in the [[West Midlands conurbation|West Midlands]]. According to Chambers, significant artists such as the Guyanese-born painters [[Aubrey Williams]] and [[Frank Bowling]] and the Jamaican sculptor [[Ronald Moody]] initially found that, despite achieving worldwide renown, it was difficult to find acceptance in the highest echelons of the art establishment.<ref>[http://www.eddiechambers.com/articles/moffat.html Eddie Chambers articles] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715113404/http://www.eddiechambers.com/articles/moffat.html |date=15 July 2006 }}. Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref> Chambers worked with [[Donald Rodney]] and [[Sonia Boyce]], both of whose work is represented in the permanent collections of the London's [[Tate Britain]] museum. In 1986 the [[Hayward Gallery]] presented the exhibition ''[[The Other Story (exhibition)|The Other Story]]'', which provided a survey of African-Caribbean, African and Asian artists working in the UK.

Other African-Caribbean artists of note include [[Faisal Abdu'allah]] of Jamaican heritage,<ref>[http://universes-in-universe.de/car/sharjah/2003/art/abdu-allah/english.htm Faisal Abdu'Allah gallery] Universes in Universe – Worlds of Art. Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref> Guyanese-born [[Ingrid Pollard]],<ref>[http://www.foto8.com/reviews/V3N1/pics_postcards.html Ingrid Pollard: Postcards Home] foto 8 website. Retrieved 21 December 2006.</ref> British-based Jamaican painter [[Eugene Palmer (artist)|Eugene Palmer]], the sculptor [[George "Fowokan" Kelly]], and [[Tam Joseph]], whose 1983 work ''Spirit of Carnival'' was a vivid depiction of the [[Notting Hill Carnival]].<ref>[http://www.meppublishers.com/online/caribbean-beat/archive/index.php?id=cb77-2-36 "Art Buzz"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015142206/http://www.meppublishers.com/online/caribbean-beat/archive/index.php?id=cb77-2-36 |date=15 October 2006 }}, ''Caribbean Beat''. Retrieved 8 October 2006.<br />° [http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/caribbean/culture/culture.htm Migration Histories website]. Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref> The movement was also part of the impetus that led to the founding of the [[Association of Black Photographers]] by [[Mark Sealy]] and others. In 1999 the filmmaker [[Steve McQueen (director)|Steve McQueen]] (not to be confused with the Hollywood filmstar) won Britain's most prestigious art prize, the [[Turner Prize]], for his video ''Deadpan''.<ref>Gibbons, Fiachra, [https://www.theguardian.com/turner1999/Story/0,,196434,00.html "Deadpan McQueen takes the Turner"], ''The Guardian'', 1 December 1999. Retrieved 8 November 2006.</ref> The artist and producer [[Pogus Caesar]] was commissioned by Artangel to direct a film based on McQueen's work. ''Forward Ever – Backward Never'' was premiered at the Lumiere in London in 2002. Caesar has also established the [[OOM Gallery]] Archives, based in Birmingham, which has in excess of 14,000 images including photographs of contemporary [[Black British]] culture.

===Music===
In 1983, [[Cleo Laine]] won the [[Grammy Awards|Grammy Award]] for [[Grammy Award for Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Female|Best Female Jazz Vocal Performance]] for ''[[Cleo at Carnegie: The 10th Anniversary Concert]]''. Laine has Jamaican heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Dame Cleo Laine |url=https://www.blackhistorymonth.org.uk/article/section/music-entertainers/dame-cleo-laine/ |access-date=9 March 2022 |website=Black History Month 2022 |language=en}}</ref> [[Caribbean Queen (No More Love on the Run)|''Caribbean Quee''n]] scored [[Billy Ocean]] two Grammy Award nominations and won him the [[Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance|Best Male R&B Vocal Performance]] at the [[27th Annual Grammy Awards|1985 Grammy Awards]]. Ocean was born in Trinidad but has lived in [[Sunningdale]], [[Berkshire]] since 1978. In 1987, [[Steel Pulse]] won the [[Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album]], ''[[Babylon the Bandit|Babylon The Bandit]].'' Original band members ([[David Hinds]], [[Basil Gabbidon]] and [[Ronald McQueen]]) are all of Jamaican descent. Formed in 1988, [[Soul II Soul]] gained significant popularity in the [[United States|U.S.]] and achieved two Grammy Awards. Founding member [[Jazzie B]] is of Antiguan descent, while lead singer, [[Caron Wheeler]], has Jamaican ancestry. With worldwide record sales of more than 70 million, Grammy Award-nominated [[UB40]] has various members of Caribbean heritage. With multiple UK number-one achievements between 1999 and 2001, [[S Club 7]] had two members of African-Caribbean heritage. [[Bradley McIntosh]] was born to [[Afro-Jamaican|African-Jamaican]] parents, who had been members of funk group [[The Cool Notes]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sclubmedia.net/sclub-facts.php |title=S Club Media |publisher=S Club Media |date=2002-01-13 |access-date=2011-12-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722135318/http://www.sclubmedia.net/sclub-facts.php |archive-date=22 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and [[Tina Barrett]], who has [[Afro-Guyanese|African-Guyanese]] and English ancestry.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://musiceyz.co.uk/2012/09/26/interview-with-tina-barrett/|title=Interview with Tina Barrett|date=26 September 2012|work=Music Eyz|quote=[[Tina Barrett]]: "I am half South American, my mum's South American"}}</ref> [[Mel B|Melanie Brown]] was an integral part of the 90s girl group [[Spice Girls|The Spice Girls]], reportedly the [[List of best-selling girl groups|best-selling female group of all time]]. Brown was born to a father from Saint Kitts and Nevis. [[Leigh-Anne Pinnock]] is a member of [[Little Mix]], one of the [[List of best-selling girl groups|best-selling girl groups of all time]]. Pinnock has [[Barbadians|Barbadian]] and [[Jamaicans|Jamaican]] ancestry.

[[Estelle (musician)|Estelle]], who has a Grenadian father, picked up a [[Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration]] in 2009. [[Corinne Bailey Rae]], achieved Grammy Awards in 2008 and 2012. Her father is from Saint Kitts and Nevis. Part-Jamaican, [[Ella Mai]], won [[Grammy Award for Best R&B Song|the Grammy Award for Best R&B Song]] in 2019. A [[Mercury Prize]] and [[63rd Annual Grammy Awards|Grammy Awards]]-nominated artist, rapper [[Slowthai]] has [[Afro-Barbadian]], English and [[Irish people|Irish]] ancestry.<ref name="Sawyer2020">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2020/nov/22/slowthai-new-album-tyron-interview-nhs|title=Slowthai: 'I know who I am, I know what I stand for'|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=22 Nov 2020|author=Miranda Sawyer|quote=He knows that part of what people react to is what they think they see: a shaven-headed young white guy, “[[English Defence League|EDL]], [[Brexit]]”. In fact, [[Slowthai]]'s mum is half-[[Bajan people|Bajan]], and he grew up knowing his background was mixed. “It's not that being called white bothers me,” he says. “It's like: 'You don't know me. You don't know my family's struggles, when my great nan came here in the [[Windrush generation]], or my family being from the [[Caribbean]].'}}</ref> [[Nilüfer Yanya]] has the same background, and also [[Turkish people|Turkish]] heritage.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/nilufer-yanya-interview-miss-universe-album-imposter-syndrome-a8833701.html|title=Nilüfer Yanya interview: 'I get imposter syndrome a lot'|last=Bray|first=Elisa|date=March 24, 2019|work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref> Other Grammy nominated British-Caribbean artists include [[Joan Armatrading]], [[Aswad]], [[Craig David]], [[Eddy Grant]], [[Lianne La Havas]], [[Leona Lewis]], [[Mahalia (singer)|Mahalia]], [[Julian Marley]], [[Musical Youth]], [[Nao (singer)|Nao]], [[Maxi Priest]] and [[Jorja Smith]].

===Politics===
{{Further|Politics of the United Kingdom|Education in the United Kingdom}}[[File:Official portrait of Ms Diane Abbott.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Diane Abbott]], born to Jamaican parents, became the first black woman elected to the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] in 1987.]] African-Caribbeans have made significant contributions to British politics and [[trade unionism]]. Labour MP [[Diane Abbott]] became the first black female to be elected to the [[House of Commons]] in [[1987 United Kingdom general election|1987]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00bbdly|title=Desert Island Discs – Diane Abbott |publisher=BBC Radio 4|access-date=19 November 2020}}</ref> Elected alongside her was one other African-Caribbean Labour MP, [[Bernie Grant]], who had [[Afro-Guyanese|Guyanese]] heritage. Linda C. Douglas was the first black member of the party's [[National Executive Committee of the Labour Party|National Executive Committee]], representing the later expelled [[Militant tendency]]. Jamaican-born [[Bill Morris, Baron Morris of Handsworth|Bill Morris]] was [[General Secretary]] of the [[Transport and General Workers' Union]] from 1992 to 2003, and became the first black leader of a major British trade union. Jamaican-born [[Lurline Champagnie]] became the first black woman to stand as a parliamentary candidate for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in 1992.<ref>{{Cite web |date= 25 September 2012|title='Prime Minister, This Lady's For The Lords' |url=https://www.voice-online.co.uk/news/uk-news/2012/09/25/prime-minister-this-ladys-for-the-lords/ |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=Voice Online |language=en}}</ref> Guyana-born [[Valerie Amos, Baroness Amos|Valerie Amos]] became the first black woman to serve as a [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet minister]] in 2003<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=Valerie Amos {{!}} OBV |url=https://www.obv.org.uk/our-communities/black-politicians/valerie-amos |access-date=10 March 2022 |website=Obv.org.uk}}</ref> Dawn Butler, who has Jamaican ancestry, became the first black female to speak from the [[despatch box]] in the House of Commons in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Labour |first=West Suffolk |date=23 October 2020 |title=Dawn Butler – Spotlight, Black History Month – West Suffolk Labour |url=https://www.westsuffolklabour.org.uk/dawn-butler-spotlight-black-history-month/ |access-date=16 April 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> Dominican-born [[Patricia Scotland]] was elected the first female [[Commonwealth Secretary-General]] in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sansone |first=Kurt |date=27 November 2015 |title=Commonwealth elects first woman secretary general |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/commonwealth-elects-first-woman-secretary-general.593722 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=[[Times of Malta]] |language=en-gb}}</ref> [[Marvin Rees]], who has partial Jamaican heritage, is the UK's first directly elected black mayor.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harris |first=John |date=23 May 2016 |title=Bristol mayor Marvin Rees |url=http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/may/23/bristol-mayor-marvin-rees-racism-inequality |access-date=27 February 2022 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, [[Paulette Hamilton]] won the [[Erdington]] by-election to become [[Birmingham|Birmingham's]] first Black MP.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2022 |title=Nurse Paulette Hamilton Takes Erdington For Labour To Become Birmingham's First Black MP |url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/article/paulette-hamilton-erdington-win |access-date=6 March 2022 |website=Politics Home |language=en}}</ref> Hamilton has Jamaican ancestry.

Other notable contributors include [[David Lammy]], [[Jennette Arnold]], [[Jocelyn Barrow]], [[Doreen Lawrence]], [[Alison Lowe]], [[Brenda Dacres]], [[Shakira Martin (NUS president)|Shakira Martin]], [[Lydia Simmons]], [[Henry Gunter]], [[Sam Beaver King]], [[Harold Moody]] and [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]].

=== Sport ===
{{Further|Sport in the United Kingdom}}
British African-Caribbean people are well represented in traditional British sports such as [[football (soccer)|football]] and [[rugby football|rugby]], and have also represented the nation at the highest level in sports where Caribbean people typically excel in the home countries such as [[cricket]] and [[sport of athletics|athletics]]. Some British African-Caribbean people have gone on to become international sports stars and top global earners in their chosen sporting field.

====Athletics====
Britain's first [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sprint medals came from [[Harry Edward]], born in Guyana, who won two individual bronze medals at the [[1920 Summer Olympics|1920 games in Antwerp]].<ref name="Fast">[https://www.theguardian.com/Archive/Article/0,4273,4057249,00.html "Fast and loose"], ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 14 November 2006.</ref> Many years later, sprinter [[Linford Christie]], born in [[Saint Andrew Parish, Jamaica]], won 23 major championship medals, more than any other British male athlete to date. Christie's career highlight was winning a [[gold medal]] in the immensely competitive [[100 metres]] event in the [[1992 Summer Olympics|1992 Barcelona Olympics]].<ref>[http://www.afiwi.com/people2.asp?id=200&name=Linford+Christie&coun=0&cat=1&options=&keywords=&alpha_index=&offset= Caribbean online] Linford Christie profile. Retrieved 17 November 2006.</ref> [[Welsh people|Welsh]] hurdler [[Colin Jackson]], who went to considerable lengths to explore his Jamaican heritage in a BBC documentary,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/whodoyouthinkyouare/past-stories/colin-jackson.shtml|title=Who Do You Think You Are? Colin Jackson|date=15 September 2006|access-date=11 April 2022|website=bbc.co.uk|publisher=BBC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920090054/https://www.bbc.co.uk/whodoyouthinkyouare/past-stories/colin-jackson.shtml|archive-date=20 September 2008}}</ref> held the [[110 metres hurdles]] world record for 11 years between 1993 and 2004.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.welshathletics.org/en/page/1993-colin-jackson-sets-a-new-110m-hurdles-world-record|title=1993 - Colin Jackson Sets a New 110m Hurdles World Record|orig-date=2019|access-date=11 April 2022|work=[[Welsh Athletics]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922001308/https://www.welshathletics.org/en/page/1993-colin-jackson-sets-a-new-110m-hurdles-world-record|archive-date=22 September 2020}}</ref>

[[Ethel Scott]] (1907–84), who had a Jamaican father and an English mother, was the first black woman to represent Great Britain in an international athletics competition. She was a sprinter active in international competitions for a brief period in the 1930s. Jamaican-born [[Tessa Sanderson]] became the first British African-Caribbean woman to win Olympic gold, receiving the medal for her [[javelin throw|javelin]] performance in the [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984 Los Angeles Olympics]]. [[Denise Lewis]], of Jamaican heritage, won [[heptathlon]] gold in the [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000 Sydney Olympics]],<ref name="Jam">[https://www.theguardian.com/comment/story/0,3604,769705,00.html "Yardies who built Britain"], Guardian Online. 6 August 2002. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> a games where 13 of Britain's 18 track and field representatives had Afro-Caribbean roots.<ref name="Fast"/> Four years later in the [[2004 Summer Olympics|Athens Olympics]], [[Kelly Holmes]], the daughter of a Jamaican-born car mechanic, achieved the rare feat of taking gold in both the [[800 metres|800]] and [[1500 metres]] races.<ref>''Kelly Holmes: The Autobiography'' (Kelly Holmes) {{ISBN|1-85227-224-4}}</ref> In the same games, Britain's [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 × 100 metres relay|men's 4 × 100-metre relay team]] of [[Marlon Devonish]], [[Darren Campbell]], [[Mark Lewis-Francis]] and [[Jason Gardener]], all of African-Caribbean heritage, beat the favoured United States quartet to claim Olympic gold.<ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,749439,00.html New kid on the blocks] Guardian Unlimited "The Brit pack, almost all of whom are Afro-Caribbean, includes Christian Malcolm, Dwain Chambers and Darren Campbell, but even in this exalted company Lewis-Francis is seen as exceptional." Accessed 17 November 2006.<br /> [https://www.theguardian.com/Archive/Article/0,4273,4057249,00.html Fast and loose] Guardian Online. "Now the second and even third generation of Caribbean-rooted British male sprinters is at hand, many coached by athletes from the first wave". Retrieved 14 November 2006.</ref> [[Jessica Ennis-Hill]], the daughter of a Jamaican self-employed painter and decorator, won heptathlon gold in the [[2012 Summer Olympics|2012 London Olympics]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fordyce |first=Tom |date=4 August 2012 |title=Jessica Ennis wins Olympic heptathlon gold for Great Britain |language=en-GB |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/19131768 |access-date=10 March 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=1 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901132833/https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/19131768}}</ref>

====Boxing====
British [[boxing|boxers]] of a Caribbean background have played a prominent role in the national boxing scene since the early 1980s. In 1995 [[Frank Bruno]], whose mother was a [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] lay preacher from Jamaica, became Britain's first [[List of heavyweight boxing champions|world heavyweight boxing champion]] in the 20th century.<ref>[http://caribbean.halloffame.tripod.com/Frank_Bruno.html Caribbean Hall of Fame] Frank Bruno biography. 2001. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Bruno's reign was shortly followed by British-born Jamaican [[Lennox Lewis]], who defeated [[Evander Holyfield]] and [[Mike Tyson]] to become the world's premier heavyweight during the late 1990s.<ref>[http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/features/hboboxing/lennoxlewis/ "The Lennox Lewis interview"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022081530/http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/features/hboboxing/lennoxlewis/ |date=22 October 2006 }}. Playboy online. April 2002. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Middleweights [[Chris Eubank]], who spent his early years in Jamaica, and [[Nigel Benn]], of Barbadian descent, both claimed world titles and fought a series of brutal battles in the early 1990s.<ref>[http://www.100greatblackbritons.com/bios/nigel_benn-chris_eubanks.html 100 Great Black Britons]. Chris Eubank biography. Retrieved 6 October 2006.<br /> °[http://www.eastsideboxing.com/news/Benn-Eubank-Watson.php The Rubank-Benn-Watson rivalry] Eastsideboxing.com. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> In the [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney Olympics]] of 2000, [[Audley Harrison]] (who has Jamaican heritage) became Britain's first [[Boxing at the 2000 Summer Olympics|heavyweight gold medalist]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/2526861.stm |title=Harrison hits out at Beeb |work=BBC Sport |date=29 November 2002 |access-date=6 October 2006 |url-status=live |archive-date=11 June 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040611064653/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/2526861.stm}}</ref> Other boxing champions from the British African-Caribbean community include the welterweight [[Lloyd Honeyghan]], nicknamed "[[Ragga|Ragamuffin]] Man" by boxing superstar [[Donald Curry]] in 1986, in reference to his (in comparison to Curry's extravagance) normal appearance; Honeyghan subsequently spectacularly defeated Curry.<ref>[http://www.eastsideboxing.com/boxing-news/Honeyghan2301.php The Time Tunnel: Honeyghan-Curry Remembered] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007081117/http://www.eastsideboxing.com/boxing-news/Honeyghan2301.php |date=7 October 2006 }} Eastsideboxing.com. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> [[James DeGale]], who is of [[Afro-Grenadians|Afro-Grenadian]] and English descent, represented Great Britain at the [[2008 Olympics]] as an [[Amateur boxing|amateur]], winning a gold medal in the [[middleweight]] division. He became the first British boxer in history to win both an Olympic gold medal and a professional world title after landing the IBF super-middleweight crown in April 2015.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 February 2019 |title=Boxing - Former world and Olympic champion DeGale retires |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-boxing-degale-idUKKCN1QH1CE |access-date=27 February 2022}}</ref> [[David Haye]], who has English and Jamaican heritage, was the first British boxer to reach the final of the [[World Amateur Boxing Championships]]. Haye is one of only three boxers in history to have unified the cruiserweight world titles and become a world heavyweight champion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hayemaker |url=https://www.hayemaker.com/ |access-date=27 February 2022 |website=Hayemaker |language=en-US}}</ref> Jamaican-born [[Dillian Whyte]], has held the [[World Boxing Council|WBC]] [[Interim championship|interim]] [[heavyweight]] title since March 2021.

====Cricket====
[[Cricket]] has long been a popular pastime among African-Caribbean people in both the West Indies and the United Kingdom, though this has waned somewhat since its peak during the 1960s–1980s.<ref name="Oval">[http://www.catalystmagazine.org/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew0e8.RefLocID-0hg01b001006001.Lang-EN.htm Not-cricket cricket], ''Catalyst'' magazine. "Test match ticket prices have risen beyond most working class pockets and, some years ago, the ground authorities banned the drums, whistles and klaxons that once created an atmosphere of Caribbean carnival at the Kennington Oval, particularly. The ban has since been slightly relaxed, but probably too late. First, and even some second, generation Caribbean immigrants went to cheer the all-conquering West Indies team, now in decline." Accessed 21 November 2006.</ref> After the period of widespread immigration, tours of England by the combined [[West Indian cricket team]] became cultural celebrations of Caribbean culture in Britain, particularly at cricket grounds such as [[The Oval]] in [[South London]].<ref name="Oval"/> Almost all the great [[List of West Indian Test cricketers|West Indian cricketers]] became regular features of the [[County Championship|domestic county game]], including [[Garfield Sobers]], [[Vivian Richards]] and [[Michael Holding]]. In turn, British cricketers of Caribbean origin also began to make an impact in English cricket. In the 1980s–1990s, players including [[Gladstone Small]] (born in Barbados),<ref>[http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/20217.html Gladstone Small player profile]. cricinfo.com. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> [[Devon Malcolm]] (born in Jamaica)<ref>[http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/england/content/current/player/16885.html Devon Malcolm player profile]. cricinfo.com. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> and [[Phillip DeFreitas]] (born in [[Dominica]])<ref>[http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/11865.html Phil DeFreitas player profile]. cricinfo.com. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> represented [[English cricket team|England]], making significant contributions to the side. Phillip DeFreitas, Devon Malcolm and Gladstone Small made 44, 40 and 17 [[test cricket|test match]] appearances for England respectively. DeFreitas also played 103 [[One Day International]]s for England. Malcolm made 10 appearances and Small made 53 appearances in the shorter format. Small and DeFreitas also represented England in the final of the [[1987 Cricket World Cup]] against Australia.<ref>[http://www.cricketweb.net/worldcup2007/scorecards/WCFinal1987.txt Australia v England scorecard 1987] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070531223128/http://www.cricketweb.net/worldcup2007/scorecards/WCFinal1987.txt |date=31 May 2007 }} Cricket web.net. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

====Football====
[[Image:Rio Ferdinand by Walterlan Papetti.jpg|thumb|left|[[Rio Ferdinand]], whose father came from [[St. Lucia]] to Britain,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thefa.com/WorldCup2006/NewsAndFeatures/Postings/2006/06/WorldCup_Rioready.htm |title=Rio: Game is 'great occasion' |date=15 June 2006 |website=[[The FA]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201165557/http://www.thefa.com/WorldCup2006/NewsAndFeatures/Postings/2006/06/WorldCup_Rioready.htm |archive-date=1 February 2009}}</ref> is a former captain of the [[England national football team|England national team]].]]
[[Image:Fabian Delph 2018-06-28 3.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Fabian Delph]], of [[Guyana|Guyanese]] ancestry, won the [[2017–18 Premier League]] with [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] and represented [[England national football team|England]] at the [[2018 FIFA World Cup]]]]
[[Image:MichaelJohnson02.jpg|thumb|The former [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]] player [[Michael Johnson (footballer born 1973)|Michael Johnson]], who has played for the [[Jamaica national football team]]|200x200px]]

The inaugural West Indian-born [[football (soccer)|footballer]] to play football at a high level in Britain was [[Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856)|Andrew Watson]], who played for [[Queen's Park F.C.|Queen's Park]] ([[Glasgow]]) and went on to play for [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]]. Born in May 1857 in [[British Guiana]], Watson lived and worked in Scotland and came to be known as one of the best players of his generation. He played in 36 games for Queen's Park and also appeared for the London Swifts in the English [[FA Cup]] championship of 1882, making him the first Black player in English Cup history. Watson earned two [[Scottish Cup]] medals and four Charity Cup medals during his career; ''Who's Who'' also acknowledged his performances in international matches. Watson's place in football history included a spell in management as Club Secretary for Queen's Park – making Watson the first Afro-Caribbean man to reach the boardroom.<ref>[http://www.black-history-month.co.uk/articles/andrew_watson.html First Black footballer Andrew Watson inspired British soccer in 1870s] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610052137/http://www.black-history-month.co.uk/articles/andrew_watson.html |date=10 June 2010 }} Black history month.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

Other early Caribbean footballers included [[Walter Tull]], of Barbadian descent, who played for the north London club [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] in the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWtull.htm |title=Walter Tull |website=spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk |access-date=2011-06-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425073356/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWtull.htm |archive-date=25 April 2011 }}</ref> Some years later, Jamaican-born [[Lindy Delapenha|Lloyd "Lindy" Delapenha]] made an impact playing for [[Middlesbrough Football Club|Middlesbrough]] between 1950 and 1957, becoming a leading goal scorer and the first Black player to win a championship medal.<ref>[http://www.furd.org/default.asp?intPageID=269 "Football Unites, Racism Divides"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213335/http://www.furd.org/default.asp?intPageID=269 |date=26 April 2018 }}. Official website. Biography of Lloyd "Lindy" Delapenha.Accessed 6 October 2006.</ref> However, it was not until the 1970s that African-Caribbean players began to make a major impact on the game. [[Clyde Best]] ([[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] 1969–1976), born in [[Bermuda]],<ref>[http://www.bfa.bm/headline.php?storyId=72 FIFA Order of Merit Presented to Clyde Best] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070522112032/http://www.bfa.bm/headline.php?storyId=72 |date=22 May 2007 }} Bermuda Football Association homepage. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> paved the way for players such as [[Cyrille Regis]] (born in [[French Guiana]]),<ref name="regis">[http://www.furd.org/default.asp?intPageID=34 Football Unites, Racism Divides] Cyril Regis. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> and [[Luther Blissett (footballer)|Luther Blissett]] (born in Jamaica).<ref>[http://www.thefa.com/Features/EnglishDomestic/Postings/2003/07/54903.htm Englishmen Abroad: Luther Blissett] F.A. com. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Blissett and Regis joined [[Viv Anderson]] to form the first wave of Black footballers to play for the [[England national football team|England national team]]. Although the number of players of African-Caribbean origin in the English league was increasing far beyond proportions in wider society, when Black players represented the England national team, they still had to endure racial attacks at home and abroad. When selected to play for England, Regis received a bullet through the mail with the threat: "You'll get one of these through your knees if you step on our [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] turf."<ref name="regis"/>

By the 1980s the British African-Caribbean community was well represented at all playing levels of the game. [[John Barnes]], born in Jamaica, was one of the most talented players of his generation and one of the few footballers to win every honour in the domestic English game including the [[PFA Players' Player of the Year]].<ref name="Barnes">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tv_and_radio/world_football/2399629.stm Society has to change – Barnes] ''[[Alan Green (broadcaster)|Alan Green]] talks to John Barnes.'' BBC Online. 4 November 2002. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Although Barnes played for England on 78 occasions between 1983 and 1991, his performances rarely matched his club standard.<ref name="Barnes racism">[http://www.football-england.com/john_barnes.html John Barnes profile. Football-England] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116205048/http://www.football-england.com/john_barnes.html |date=16 November 2006 }} "His international career began when there was a definite hooligan element among England's support. There was also a definite racist element. Famously, a group of travelling supporters was heard remarking, after Barnes had scored his wonderful goal in Brazil, that England had only won 1–0 because his goal didn't count. It is true that the consistent brilliance he showed for Liverpool always eluded him in an England Shirt but for everybody who thought the problem lay with him there was as many again who felt it was the inadequacy of his teammates." Accessed 21 November 2006.</ref> Subsequently, Barnes identified a culture of racism in football during his era as a player.<ref name="Barnes"/> Players of African-Caribbean origin continued to excel in English football, in the 1990s [[Paul Ince]] – whose parents were from [[Trinidad]] – went on to captain [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] and the England national team. The contribution was reciprocated when a number of British born footballers including [[Robbie Earle]], [[Frank Sinclair]] and [[Darryl Powell]] represented the [[Jamaica national football team]] in the [[1998 FIFA World Cup|1998 World Cup]] finals.

At the turn of the millennium, British-born Black footballers constituted about 13% of the [[FA Premier League|English league]],<ref>[http://www.furd.org/default.asp?intPageID=69 Football Unites Racism Divides], Furd.org, Accessed 26 October 2006.</ref> and a number of groups including "Kick It Out" were highlighting issues of racism still in the game.<ref>[http://www.kickitout.org/index.php?id=4 Kick It Out is football's anti-racism campaign.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427092207/http://www.kickitout.org/index.php?id=4 |date=27 April 2006 }} Accessed 26 October 2006.</ref> In the [[2006 FIFA World Cup|2006 World Cup finals]], [[Theo Walcott]], a striker of English and Jamaican parents,<ref>[http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/sports/html/20060610T220000-0500_106677_OBS_ENGLAND_S_TEENAGED_STAR_WALCOTT_LINKED_TO_JAMAICA_.asp England's teenaged star Walcott linked to Jamaica] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615170131/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/sports/html/20060610T220000-0500_106677_OBS_ENGLAND_S_TEENAGED_STAR_WALCOTT_LINKED_TO_JAMAICA_.asp |date=15 June 2006 }} The Jamaica Observer. 11 June 2006. Retrieved 26 October 2006.</ref> became the youngest ever player to join an [[2006 FIFA World Cup squads#England|England World Cup squad]] – a side that included African-Caribbean players in every department, goal-keeping, defence, midfield and attack. The England football squad for the 2006 world cup also contained [[Ashley Cole]] (Barbadian father),<ref>[http://football.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,,1360980,00.html "Defender cast in unwanted role of target man"], ''The Guardian''. 27 November 2004. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> [[Rio Ferdinand]] (father from [[Saint Lucia|St. Lucia]])<ref>[http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/12/12/looks.shtml England's Ferdinand looks forward to World Cup clash against Trinidad] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070526092638/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/12/12/looks.shtml |date=26 May 2007 }} Caribbean net news. 12 December 2005. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> [[Sol Campbell]] (Jamaican parents)<ref name="Jam"/> alongside goalkeeper [[David James (footballer, born 1970)|David James]], [[Jermaine Jenas]] and [[Aaron Lennon]], all with ancestors from the Caribbean. [[Tyrone Mings]], [[Marcus Rashford]], [[Raheem Sterling]] and [[Kyle Walker]] are some of the British African-Caribbeans who represented England in 2021.

====Motorsports====
[[Lewis Hamilton]], whose paternal grandparents immigrated from [[Grenada]], won the [[2008 Formula One World Championship]], in only his second season in the sport; and, after narrowly finishing second in his debut season.  He won the Drivers' Championship again in 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020 becoming the most successful British driver in the history of Formula One. Hamilton is of [[Afro-Grenadian]] and English descent.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/lewis-hamilton-on-racing-home-for-christmas-and-why-f1-needs-more-diversity-dq9bhjzdp|title=Lewis Hamilton on racing home for Christmas and why F1 needs more diversity|author=Jeremy Taylor|date=December 13, 2020|work=[[The Times]]}}</ref>

====Rugby league and union====
[[Clive Sullivan]], who had both Jamaican and [[Antigua]]n heritage, captained the Great Britain team which won the [[1972 Rugby League World Cup]]. Sullivan was the first black captain for a Great Britain team, in ''any'' sport.<ref>{{cite web |last= |date=9 December 2021 |title=Clive Sullivan: The remarkable story of rugby league's trailblazer |url=https://www.loverugbyleague.com/post/clive-sullivan-rugby-league-wales/ |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=LoveRugbyLeague }}</ref> Part of the [[2003 Rugby World Cup]] victory, [[Jason Robinson (rugby)|Jason Robinson]] was the first African-Caribbean to captain the England rugby union side. He is of [[Afro-Jamaican]] and [[Scottish people|Scottish]] descent,<ref name="Heppenstall2019">{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/rugby-league/2019/10/19/jason-robinson-has-gone-back-roots-help-jamaicas-rugby-leaguereggae/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/rugby-league/2019/10/19/jason-robinson-has-gone-back-roots-help-jamaicas-rugby-leaguereggae/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Why Jason Robinson has gone back to his roots to help Jamaica's rugby league Reggae Warriors |author=Ross Heppenstall|date=19 October 2019|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|quote=[[Jason Robinson (rugby)|Robinson]]'s mother is Scottish and his biological father William Thorpe, a Jamaican living in Leeds, abandoned him before he was born. ... “I played for England throughout my career but I'm actually half-Jamaican and half-Scottish,” says the 45-year-old ... Jamaica can call on several Super League players with Jamaican heritage such as [[Ben Jones-Bishop]], [[Ashton Golding]] and [[Michael Lawrence (rugby league)|Michael Lawrence]].}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and his biological son [[Lewis Tierney]] has the same background with also English ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wilson|first1=Andy|title=Jason Robinson's son Lewis Tierney signs with Wigan Warriors|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/oct/23/lewis-tierney-jason-robinson-wigan-warriors|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=23 October 2012}}</ref> [[Ellery Hanley]], who has Jamaican heritage, became the first man to captain his side to three consecutive [[Challenge Cup]] victories.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=On this day: Ellery Hanley makes history with third |url=https://www.sportsmole.co.uk/rugby-league/wigan-warriors/on-this-day/feature/on-this-day-ellery-hanley-makes-history-with-third-successive-challenge-cup_397718.html |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=Sports Mole |language=en-GB}}</ref> Hanley is the only player to win the coveted [[Man of Steel Awards|Man of Steel award]] on three occasions and is widely considered to be one of the greatest players in rugby league history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Holland |first=Zach |date=27 March 2020 |title=Ellery Hanley: The greatest player in British rugby league history |url=https://www.loverugbyleague.com/post/ellery-hanley-the-greatest-player-in-british-rugby-league-history/ |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=LoveRugbyLeague |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2021 |title=Ellery Hanley in Conversation |url=https://www.blackhistorymonth.org.uk/article/listings/region/bradford/ellery-hanley-in-conversation/ |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=Black History Month 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Laybourn |first=Ian |date=5 April 2020 |title=Top 10 greatest British rugby league players |url=https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/top-10-greatest-british-rugby-110000314.html |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=Yahoo.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Jimmy Peters (rugby)|Jimmy Peters]], who was of partial Jamaican descent, was the first black man to play rugby union for [[England national rugby union team|England]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 September 2019 |title=Jimmy Peters: England's first black rugby union international |language=en-GB |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby-union/49755681 |access-date=4 March 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=4 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004023405/http://bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby-union/49755681}}</ref> Another England international rugby union player, [[Danny Cipriani]] is of [[Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonian|Afro-Trinidadian]], [[Italian people|Italian]] and English ancestry.<ref name="McRae2008">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/jan/08/rugbyunion.sixnations|title='I've been dying to get picked since I was so young'|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=8 Jan 2008|author=Donald McRae|quote=His father, Jay, separated from Anne soon after his birth and returned to [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. While he has remained in contact with his dad, and is amused to point out that he and his mother are the only [[White people in the United Kingdom|white members]] of an extended Caribbean family, [[Danny Cipriani|Cipriani]] insists...}}</ref> [[Jeremy Guscott]], who is of [[Afro-Jamaican]] and English descent, played for [[Bath Rugby|Bath]], [[England national rugby union team|England]] and the [[British and Irish Lions]]. Other professional players of Afro-Jamaican heritage include [[Ashton Golding]], [[Michael Lawrence (rugby league)|Michael Lawrence]], [[Umyla Hanley]], [[Anthony Sullivan (rugby)|Anthony Sullivan]], [[Des Drummond]] and [[Ben Jones-Bishop]].<ref name="Heppenstall2019" />

==Cultural influence==
{{Further|Culture of the United Kingdom}}

===Carnivals and celebrations===
[[Image:Leicester Caribbean carnival.jpg|thumb|The [[Leicester Caribbean Carnival]]]]
African-Caribbean communities organise and participate in Caribbean Carnivals (Caribbean-style carnivals) throughout the UK. The best known of these is the annual [[Notting Hill Carnival]], attracting up to 1.5&nbsp;million people from Britain and around the world, making it the largest street festival in Europe. The carnival began in 1964 as a small procession of Trinidadians in memory of festivals in their home country, and today is regarded as a significant event in [[British culture]].<ref name="culture">[http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/knowledge/culture/nottinghill/ Professor David Dabydeen, "Notting Hill Carnival"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219092813/http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/knowledge/culture/nottinghill/ |date=19 December 2011 }}, Yesu Persaud Centre for Caribbean Studies, Warwick.</ref> In 2006 the carnival was voted onto the list of icons of England.<ref>{{cite news|title=New icons of Englishness unveiled|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/4952920.stm|agency=BBC News|issue=27 April 2006|date=10 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Luton Carnival]], which has taken place since 1976,<ref>''Spring Bank Holiday Celebrations Official Programme'' from 1976 displayed at an exhibition at Stockwood Discovery Centre in June 2016. Luton Culture, [http://www.lutonculture.com/whats-on/whats-on/2016/06/01/the-spirit-of-carnival/1868/ What's On: The Spirit Of Carnival].</ref> is the largest one day carnival in the U.K. (it is second only to Notting Hill carnival, which takes place over two days). [[Leeds West Indian Carnival]] is Europe's oldest West Indian carnival and now attracts around 130,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/immig_emig/england/leeds/index.shtml |title=Legacies – Immigration and Emigration – England – Leeds – Partying towards equality |publisher=BBC |date=13 November 2003 |access-date=26 March 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.leedscarnival.co.uk/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=2 "Carnival Dates for 2006"]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818022433/http://www.leedscarnival.co.uk/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=2 |date=18 August 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bellamy |first=Alison |url=http://www.yorkshireeveningpost.co.uk/news/Leeds-prepares-for-carnival-fever.5562668.jp |title=Leeds prepares for carnival fever |work=Yorkshire Evening Post |access-date=26 March 2010}}</ref> Other carnivals include the Leicester Caribbean Carnival and the Birmingham International Carnival.

In 2018, following campaigns and a petition started by [[Patrick Vernon]] for 22 June to be recognized as a national day to commemorate and celebrate migration and migrant communities in Britain,<ref>[https://www.hackneycitizen.co.uk/2018/05/21/former-hackney-councillor-national-windrush-day/ "Former Hackney councillor renews call for national Windrush Day"], ''Hackney Citizen'', 21 May 2018.</ref><ref>Erenata Kadrolli, [http://www.eastlondonlines.co.uk/2018/05/petition-launched-to-recognise-windrush-day/ "Petition launched to recognise Windrush Day"], ''East London Lines'', 25 May 2018.</ref><ref>Patrick Vernon, [https://www.standard.co.uk/comment/letters/the-reader-we-should-designate-a-day-to-celebrate-the-windrush-s-arrival-a3849961.html "The Reader: We should designate a day to celebrate the Windrush's arrival"], Have Your Say, ''Evening Standard'', 29 May 2018.</ref> and at the height of the Windrush scandal, it was announced by the British government that an annual [[Windrush Day]] would be held, supported by a grant of up to £500,000, to recognise and honour the contribution of those who arrived between 1948 and 1971 and to "keep their legacy alive for future generations, ensuring that we all celebrate the diversity of Britain's history."<ref>Nadeem Badshah, [https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jun/18/uk-makes-windrush-day-official-500k-grant-support-events "UK makes Windrush Day official with £500k grant to support events"], ''The Guardian'', 18 June 2018.</ref>

The [https://windrushfestival.com Windrush Festival] in London was created in 2018 as a way for home-grown Black businesses and Caribbean-British born Windrush Generation performers to have a platform to celebrate their culture and presence in Britain. The main event Radiate Windrush Festival<ref>{{Cite web |title=Radiate Festival - London's Windrush Celebration |url=https://radiatefestival.com/ |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=Radiate Festival |language=en}}</ref> is always held on the last weekend of June to follow on from National Windrush Day, other festivals across the country are held generally in the month of June or July.

===Cuisine===
{{Further|Caribbean cuisine}}
[[Image:HotPeppersinMarket.jpg|thumb|[[Scotch bonnet]] peppers imported from the Caribbean on sale at London's [[Brixton Market]]. The peppers are a key ingredient of [[Jerk (cooking)|jerk]] dishes.]]
The earliest Caribbean immigrants to post-war Britain found differences in diet and availability of food an uncomfortable challenge.<ref>[http://www.movinghere.org.uk/stories/story83/story83.htm?identifier=stories/story83/story83.htm First Impressions of England in 1964] Migration histories. "The food which was served to us in seemingly enormous but bland quantities". Retrieved 21 November 2006.<br />°[http://www.movinghere.org.uk/stories/story462/story462.htm?identifier=stories/story462/story462.htm Hardship] Migration histories. "It was really hard, and cold, the food wasn't nice, I used to cry, I wanted to go home." Accessed 21 November 2006,</ref> and many people longed for a "taste of home".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caribbean Recipes: Food and Ingredients from the Windrush Generation |url=https://www.souschef.co.uk/blogs/the-bureau-of-taste/windrush-2023 |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Sous Chef |language=en}}</ref> In later years, as the community developed and food imports became more accessible to all, [[grocer]]s specialising in Caribbean produce opened in British [[High Street|high streets]]. Caribbean restaurants can now also be found in most areas of Britain where West Indian communities reside, serving traditional [[Caribbean cuisine|Caribbean dishes]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Traditional Jamaican Sunday Celebration - Food & Recipes|first=Lynda-Louise |last=Burrell |url=https://www.souschef.co.uk/blogs/the-bureau-of-taste/a-traditional-jamaican-sunday-celebration-spread |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Sous Chef |language=en}}</ref> such as [[curried goat]], fried [[dumpling]]s, [[ackee]] and [[Dried and salted cod|salt fish]] (the national dish of Jamaica), [[Pelau]] (the national dish of Trinidad and Tobago), [[Cou-Cou]] and [[Flying fish|Flying Fish]] (the national dish of Barbados), Pudding and Souse, as well as Fish Cakes from Barbados, the spices known as "[[Jamaican jerk spice|jerk]]", and the traditional Sunday West Indian meal of [[rice and peas]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How To Make Jamaican Rice & Peas: My Mother's Recipe|first=Lynda-Louise |last=Burrell |url=https://www.souschef.co.uk/blogs/the-bureau-of-taste/how-to-make-jamaican-rice-and-peas-my-mothers-recipe |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Sous Chef |language=en}}</ref>

The best-known Caribbean food brands in the UK are Jamaican Sun, Tropical Sun, Dunn's River and [[Grace (food company)|Grace]]. In March 2007, Grace foods bought ENCO Products, owners of the Dunn's River Brand, as well as Nurishment, and the Encona Sauce Range. Tropical Sun products have been widely available in the UK for more than two decades and there is a sister brand, Jamaica Sun, with products sourced exclusively from Jamaica. The most popular brands can now often be found in the large supermarkets; although the full range continues to be offered only by the local ethnic stores, the interest by the mainstream supermarkets reflects the wider population's interest in ethnic and more lately Afro-Caribbean foods.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/news_and_events/events_caribbeancuisine.shtml Caribbean food in Britain.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112225816/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/news_and_events/events_caribbeancuisine.shtml |date=12 January 2010 }} BBC Online. Retrieved 21 November 2006.</ref> Caribbean food topped a (2015) list of the types of cuisine British diners would like to see more of on menus.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2015 |title=The most wanted cuisine in the UK is…Caribbean! |url=https://www.hospitalityandcateringnews.com/2015/05/wanted-cuisine-uk-iscaribbean/ |access-date=15 March 2022 |website=Hospitality & Catering News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Emma |first=Eversham |date=26 April 2016 |title=Diners see Caribbean as most under-represented cuisine in UK restaurants |url=https://www.bighospitality.co.uk/Article/2015/04/27/Diners-see-Caribbean-as-most-under-represented-cuisine-in-UK-restaurants |access-date=15 March 2022 |website=bighospitality.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref>

According to a report by the Caribbean Export Development Agency (Caribbean Export), the number of Caribbean restaurants in the UK tripled in the 12 months leading up to August 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 October 2021 |title=Report – Absolutely Caribbean: Unlocking the Profit Potential of the Caribbean |url=https://www.carib-export.com/publications/report-absolutely-caribbean-unlocking-the-profit-potential-of-the-caribbean/ |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref>

===Community centres===
In many parts of Britain, African-Caribbean people have been recognised as being part of a distinct community.<ref name="data"/> In the 1950s and 1960s, [[community centre]]s and associations sprung up in some British towns and cities with an aim to serve African-Caribbean populations. One such example was the African Caribbean Self Help Organisation (ACSHO), founded in 1994 in the district of [[Handsworth, West Midlands|Handsworth]] in Birmingham.<ref>
[http://acsho.org.uk/index.html African Caribbean Self Help Organisation website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061211020631/http://acsho.org.uk/index.html |date=11 December 2006 }}.</ref> Responsibilities included arranging social events, such as [[festival]]s, carnivals and coach trips, which helped bring the communities together.<ref name="pubs"/> Large centres presently operating include the Leeds West Indian centre<ref>[http://www.skiddle.com/whatson/guide.php/skiddle/LEEDS/THE_WEST_INDIAN_CENTER_(LEEDS)/ Leeds West Indian centre]. Details. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> and the Manchester West Indian centre.<ref>[http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/meeting/afro.html Manchester City Council West Indian centre] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018092708/http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/meeting/afro.html |date=18 October 2006 }} Details. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Typical of present-day centres is the Afro Caribbean Millennium Centre in Birmingham, which was established with [[National Lottery (United Kingdom)|National Lottery]] funding to support principally Caribbean people in areas such as employment, housing, education, immigration, and cultural issues.<ref>
[http://www.acmccentre.com/acmc.shtml Afro Caribbean Millennium Centre website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929090938/http://www.acmccentre.com/acmc.shtml |date=29 September 2007 }}. Retrieved 18 November 2006.</ref>

===Religious activity===
{{Further|Religion in the United Kingdom|Black church}}
The influx of African-Caribbean people to the United Kingdom was accompanied by religious practices more common to the North American continent. In Britain, many African-Caribbean people continued to practise [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|Non-conformist]] [[Protestantism|Protestant denominations]] with an [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] influence such as [[Pentecostalism]] and [[Seventh Day Baptist|Seventh Day Baptism]]. African-Caribbean people have supported new churches in many areas of the country, which have grown to act as social centres for the community. [[Mike Phillips (writer)|Mike Phillips]], writing for the UK national archive project, described the influences of the new churches thus; "[they] gave the entire Caribbean community a sense of stability. At a time when migrants were under severe psychological pressure and distrusted the official services, or were misunderstood when they went to them, the Black church groups offered invaluable advice and comfort."<ref>[http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/caribbean/culture/religion_role2.htm# Worship for Caribbeans in Britain] Migration histories. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> In 2005, ''[[The Economist]]'' magazine discussed the growth of evangelical churches in London and Birmingham; "Another reason is that Britain's most prominent Afro-Caribbean institutions{{spaced ndash}}the Black evangelical churches{{spaced ndash}}are dominated by the urban poor. That has to do with the way the Caribbean was missionised: the hotter brand of Christianity gained most converts among the dispossessed, who then re-exported it to Britain."<ref>[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=4064660 The suburbs turn Black] Economist.com. 9 June 2005. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> The manner of worship in some of these churches is more akin to that of [[African-American]] practices than to traditional [[Roman Catholicism in Great Britain|English Catholic]] or [[Church of England|Anglican]] liturgy. [[Gospel music]] also came to play a part in British cultural life. African-Caribbean people played a central role establishing British gospel choirs, most notably the [[London Community Gospel Choir]].

Some British African-Caribbean people continue to practise other religious beliefs such as [[Rastafari]], which developed in Jamaica. The Rastafarian belief system, associated personal symbols such as [[dreadlocks]] and cultural practices concerning [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] have influenced British society far beyond the African-Caribbean community, being adopted by both white British and others.<ref>[http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/caribbean/culture/religion_role3.htm# Rastafari] Migration histories website. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

===Language and dialect===
{{British African-Caribbean community}}
{{Further|British Black English|Caribbean English|English-based creole languages}}
[[English language|English]] is the [[English-speaking world|official language]] of the former British West Indies, therefore African-Caribbean immigrants had few communication difficulties upon arrival in the UK compared to immigrants from other regions.<ref name="data"/> As integration continued, African-West Indians born in Britain instinctively adopted hybrid dialects combining Caribbean and local [[List of dialects of the English language|British dialects]].<ref name="Creole">[http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~patrickp/aavesem/BrACEbib.htm British Afro-Caribbean English: A bibliography]. Compiled by Peter L. Patrick. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> These dialects and accents gradually entered mainstream British vernacular, and shades of Caribbean dialects can be heard among Britons regardless of cultural origin. A [[Lancaster University]] study{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} has identified an emergence in certain areas of Britain of a distinctive accent which borrows heavily from Jamaican creole.

===Literature===
{{Further|British literature |Caribbean literature}}
[[Image:Africa shopping.jpg|thumb|A shop in [[Electric Avenue]], [[Brixton]]. In 1999 the street was hit by a nail bomb planted by the Neo-Nazi [[David Copeland]], who targeted the local African-Caribbean community.<ref>{{cite news |title=Profile: Copeland the killer |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/781755.stm |work=BBC News |date=30 June 2000 |access-date=24 June 2007}}</ref>]]

Jamaican poet [[James Berry (poet)|James Berry]] was one of the first Caribbean writers to come to Britain after the 1948 British Nationality Act. He was followed by writers including Barbadians [[George Lamming]] and [[Edward Kamau Brathwaite]], Trinidadians [[Samuel Selvon]] and [[C. L. R. James]], Jamaican [[Andrew Salkey]] and the Guyanese writer [[Wilson Harris]]. These writers viewed London as the centre of the English literary scene, and took advantage of the [[BBC Radio]] show ''[[Caribbean Voices]]'' to gain attention and be published. By relocating to Britain, these writers also gave [[Caribbean literature]] an international readership for the first time and established Caribbean writing as an important perspective within [[English literature]].<ref name="Windrush literature">[[Onyekachi Wambu]], [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/literature_01.shtml Black British Literature since Windrush], [[BBC Online]]. Retrieved 24 November 2006.</ref>

Some Caribbean writers also began writing about the hardships faced by settlers in post-war Britain. Lamming addressed these issues in his 1954 [[novel]] ''[[The Emigrants (Lamming novel)|The Emigrants]]'', which traced the journey of migrants from Barbados as they struggled to integrate into British life.<ref name="Windrush literature"/> Selvon's novel ''[[The Lonely Londoners]]'' (1956) details the life of West Indians in post-World War II London. Writing much later, [[Ferdinand Dennis]] both in his journalism and novels, such as ''The Sleepless Summer'' (1989) and ''The Last Blues Dance'' (1996), deals with "an older generation of Caribbean immigrants, whose narratives, stoical and unpolemical, rarely find expression".<ref>[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/108024.article "Paradise, Jamaica"], ''Times Higher Education'', 29 June 1998.</ref>

By the mid-1980s, a more [[Extremism|radical]] wave of writers and poets were addressing the African-Caribbean experience in Britain, promoted by a group of new mainly black-led publishing houses such as Akira, Karia Press (founded by [[Buzz Johnson]]), [[Dangaroo Press]], and Karnak House (founded by [[Amon Saba Saakana]]), alongside the older established [[New Beacon Books]] (founded in 1966 by [[John La Rose]]), [[Allison & Busby]] (founded in 1967 by [[Margaret Busby]]) and [[Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications]] (founded in 1969 by [[Jessica Huntley]]), and the [[International Book Fair of Radical Black and Third World Books]] (1982–95).<ref name="Windrush literature"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.andotherstories.org/2017/06/09/raising-the-visibility-of-black-british/|title=Raising the Visibility of Black British Publishers|author=Nichola Smalley|website=And Other Stories|date=9 June 2017}}</ref>

In 1984, the poet [[Fred D'Aguiar]] (born in London to Guyanese parents) won the [[T. S. Eliot Prize]], and in 1994 won the [[Costa Book Awards|Whitbread First Novel Award]] for ''The Longest Memory''. [[Linton Kwesi Johnson]]'s rhyming and socio-political commentary over [[dub music|dub]] beats – including such favourites as "Dread Beat An' Blood" and "Inglan Is A Bitch" – made him the unofficial poet laureate of the British African-Caribbean community.<ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/07/19/1026898910975.html "Linton Kwesi Johnson takes his place".] "Johnson is credited with coining the term dub poetry for the fusion of verse and bass-heavy rhythms" – "He has even been called the alternative poet laureate". ''[[The Age]]'' newspaper online. 19 July 2002. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Another [[dub poetry|dub poet]], [[Benjamin Zephaniah]], born in [[Birmingham]] to Jamaican parents, overcame a spell in prison to become a well-known writer and public figure.<ref>[http://www.britishcouncil.org/argentina-arts-zephaniah_about.htm "Benjamin Zephaniah: A poet to be seen and heard"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210002451/http://www.britishcouncil.org/argentina-arts-zephaniah_about.htm |date=10 December 2007 }} British council website. Argentina. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> In 2003 he declined an [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], stating that it reminded him of "thousands of years of brutality, it reminds me of how my foremothers were raped and my forefathers brutalised".<ref>Merope Mills, [https://www.theguardian.com/uk_news/story/0,3604,1094118,00.html "Rasta poet publicly rejects his OBE"], ''The Guardian'', 27 November 2003. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

African-Caribbean British writers have achieved recent literary acclaim. In 2004, [[Andrea Levy]]'s novel ''Small Island'' won the [[Whitbread Book of the Year]] and the [[Orange Prize for Fiction]], one of Britain's highest literary honours. The book also earned her the 2005 [[Commonwealth Writers' Prize]]''.'' Levy, born in London to Jamaican parents, is the author of four novels, each exploring the problems faced by Black British-born children of Jamaican emigrants.<ref name="levy">[http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/profile/?p=auth149 Author Profile Andrea Levy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930225041/http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/profile/?p=auth149 |date=30 September 2007 }}. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> In 2005, [[Dreda Say Mitchell]] became the first black British writer to be awarded the [[CWA New Blood Dagger|Crime Writers Association's John Creasey Dagger]] for her debut book ''Running Hot''. The book drew upon Mitchell's experiences of working with prisoners and is a chase thriller about a young man trying to break the cycle of going to prison.<ref>{{Cite web |last=crimefictionlover |date=13 January 2020 |title=Interview: Dreda Say Mitchell {{!}} Crime Fiction Lover |url=https://crimefictionlover.com/2020/01/interview-dreda-say-mitchell/ |access-date=6 March 2022 |website=crimefictionlover.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Mitchell is of Grenadian extraction. In 2006 [[Zadie Smith]] won the [[Anisfield-Wolf Book Award]], the [[Commonwealth Writers' Prize#Commonwealth Writers' Prize: Best Book (1987–2011)|Commonwealth Writers' Best Book Award]] (Eurasia Section) and the Orange Prize for ''[[On Beauty]]''. Smith's acclaimed first novel, ''[[White Teeth]]'' (2000), was a portrait of contemporary multicultural London, drawing from her own upbringing with an English father and a Jamaican mother.<ref name="zadie">[http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/?p=auth257 Author Profile] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019023541/http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/?p=auth257 |date=19 October 2006 }} Zadie Smith. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> ''White Teeth'' was an international best seller and won multiple accolades, including the [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] for fiction, the [[Costa Book Awards|Whitbread Book Award]] in category best first novel, the [[Guardian First Book Award]] and the [[Betty Trask Award]]. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine included the novel in its [[Time's List of the 100 Best Novels|list of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Grossman |first=Lev |date=11 January 2010 |title=Is White Teeth one of the All-TIME 100 Best Novels? |language=en-US |magazine=Time |url=https://entertainment.time.com/2005/10/16/all-time-100-novels/slide/white-teeth-2000-by-zadie-smith/ |access-date=7 March 2022 |issn=}}</ref>

The UK also has a modest output of African-Caribbean [[popular fiction]]. A widely known example is ''Yardie'', a work of [[Urban fiction]] written by [[Victor Headley]] in 1992, describing the life of a Jamaican courier carrying cocaine from Jamaica to London. The book was published by Steve Pope and [[Dotun Adebayo]] of Xpress books.<ref>[http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-818428-X.pdf Online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105024044/http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-818428-X.pdf |date=5 January 2007 }} ''A New English Literature 1990–2000'']. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 22 November 2006.</ref> ''Spare Room was'' Dedra Say Mitchell's first [[psychological thriller]]. Published in 2019, the book became a critically acclaimed international best seller.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spare Room by Dreda Say Mitchell |url=https://www.fantasticfiction.com/m/dreda-say-mitchell/spare-room.htm |access-date=7 March 2022 |website=Fantasticfiction.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Psychological Thrillers – Dreda Say Mitchell and Ryan Carter |url=https://dredamitchell.com/psychological-thrillers/ |access-date=7 March 2022 |language=en-GB}}</ref> At the 2020 [[British Book Awards]], [[Candice Carty-Williams]] became the first black woman to win the "Book of the Year" accolade, for her novel ''[[Queenie (novel)|Queenie]].''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sherwin |first=Adam |date=29 June 2020 |title=Candice Carty-Williams named first black female Book of the Year winner for Queenie |url=https://inews.co.uk/culture/books/candice-carty-williams-first-black-female-book-of-the-year-queenie-454668 |access-date=7 March 2022 |website=inews.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> The novel, which describes the life and loves of Queenie Jenkins, a vibrant, young British-Jamaican, received positive reviews and was marketed as "a black [[Bridget Jones]]".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Evans |first=Diana |date=12 April 2019 |title=Queenie by Candice Carty-Williams review – timely and important |url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/apr/12/queenie-candice-carty-williams-review |access-date=7 March 2022 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> ''Queenie'' entered the ''[[Sunday Times]]'' Bestseller hardback chart at number two and went on to win numerous accolades.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wood |first=Heloise |date=12 June 2019 |title=Candice Carty-Williams leaves Vintage |url=https://www.thebookseller.com/news/news/carty-williams-leaves-vintage-1022341 |access-date=7 March 2022 |website=The Bookseller |language=En}}</ref>

=== Media ===
{{Further|Media of the United Kingdom}}
''[[The Voice (British newspaper)|The Voice]]'' newspaper was the primary African-Caribbean newspaper in Britain, and was founded in the early 1980s by [[Val McCalla]]. However, today it is owned by a Jamaican publisher and has a Caribbean focus. ''[[Pride magazine]]'', which has been going for 21 years, is the largest lifestyle magazine for the community and was described by ''[[The Guardian]]'' newspaper as the dominant lifestyle magazine for the black community in the UK for more than 15 years. Its owner Pride Media also specialises in helping organisations target the community through a range of media. Other publications have included the ''[[Gleaner Company|Gleaner]]'', ''[[Black Voice]]'', ''New Editor'' and ''[[The Caribbean Times]]''. The growth of such media is a response to the perceived imbalances of "mainstream" media. In 2006, Sir [[Ian Blair]], Chief Commissioner of London's Metropolitan Police, joined a long list of commentators in branding the mainstream media as [[Institutional racism|"institutionally racist"]] for its alleged failure to offer a proper balance in reporting affairs related to the community.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4651368.stm "Met chief accuses media of racism"], BBC news online. 26 January 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2006.</ref>

Trinidad-born Sir [[Trevor McDonald]] is one of the community's best-known journalists, having been the main presenter (newscaster) for the national [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] network for more than 20 years.<ref>[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/M/htmlM/mcdonaldtre/mcdonaldtre.htm Trevor McDonald, profile] Museum of Broadcast Communications. "McDonald is not only one of the most respected elder statesmen of news broadcasting". Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Other notable media figures include [[Gary Younge]], ''[[The Guardian]]'' columnist, [[Clive Myrie]], [[Gillian Joseph]], [[Charlene White]], [[Darren Jordon]] and [[Moira Stuart]], the veteran BBC news presenter.<ref>[http://www.blackbritain.co.uk/lifestyle/details.aspx?i=45&c=Book+Review&h=Stranger+in+a+Strange+Land+by+Gary+Younge "Young writes from the perspective of an African descendant"], blackbritain.co.uk, 16 September 2006. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007195100/http://www.blackbritain.co.uk/lifestyle/details.aspx?i=45&c=Book+Review&h=Stranger+in+a+Strange+Land+by+Gary+Younge |date=7 October 2006 }} Black Britain website. "Throughout his book, [Gary Younge] never lets you forget that he has this unique African Caribbean/British outlook on life in the land of the free." Accessed 17 November 2006.<br />°[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/5177274.stm Honorary degree for Moira Stuart] BBC Online. "Ms Stuart's maternal grandparents, both from the Caribbean, met while they were studying medicine at Edinburgh University." Accessed 17 November 2006.</ref> Trinidadian-born [[Darcus Howe]] wrote regularly in the ''[[New Statesman]]'' and fronted a number of documentary series, including the [[Channel 4]] current affairs programme ''Devil's Advocate''. Much of Howe's work related to the experiences of British African-Caribbean people and racism faced by the Black community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.awigp.com/default.asp?numcat=darcus |title=Darcus Howe profile |website=The new West Indian |id=N° 13 Février 2002 |access-date=17 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050315054726/http://www.awigp.com/default.asp?numcat=darcus |archive-date=15 March 2005}}</ref> Other notable producer/directors are [[Terry Jervis]] (Jervis Media) and [[Pogus Caesar]] (Windrush Productions); both have made multicultural, entertainment and sports programmes for [[Carlton TV]], [[BBC TV]] and [[Channel 4]].<ref>[http://www.100greatblackbritons.com/bios/terry_jervis.html Terry Jervis profile], "Successful black producer", 100 Great Black Britons. Retrieved 17 November 2006.</ref>

The community has a strong tradition of "underground" [[pirate radio]] broadcasters. Among the most established are London's Lightning Radio, Genesis Radio and Galaxy Radio, which play a mix of [[ragga]], [[reggae]], [[dancehall|bashment]], [[hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[rhythm and blues|R&B]]. Pirate radio stations such as Supreme Radio, Galaxy Radio (which calls itself "the only de-brainwashing station"), Genesis Radio (known as "the people's station" or "the black power station") and the more recently emerged radio station Omega FM Radio are particularly highly regarded in the Afro Caribbean community for not only playing a variety of music such as soca, soul, dancehall, jazz, hip hop, Reveail and Funky House, but also for dedicating time to have "talk shows" and "information shows" often taking an uncompromising stance in view. Thus giving the community the opportunity to phone in and participate in an array of subjects that mainstream radio, wider media and even other pirate radio stations refuse to address.

In 2002, the BBC established its digital broadcasting strand, [[BBC Radio 1Xtra]], to focus on new Black music – which in effect means catering to the tastes of the country's African-Caribbean youth.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/1xtra/index.shtml?survey=no&url=www.bbc.co.uk/1xtra/index.shtml&js=yes 1Xtra BBC Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313213332/http://www.bbc.co.uk/1xtra/index.shtml?survey=no&url=www.bbc.co.uk/1xtra/index.shtml&js=yes |date=13 March 2012 }}. Retrieved 17 November 2006.</ref> The Internet has afforded the community the opportunity to publish en-masse, and there are now thousands of websites and blogs produced by or for African-Caribbean people in the UK such as the BBC's Family History page,<ref>{{cite web|first=Kathy |last=Chater|date=17 April 2011|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/familyhistory/get_started/caribbean_01.shtml |title=Caribbean Family History|publisher= BBC Online|access-date= 17 November 2006}}</ref> and The African-Caribbean Network, Blacknet UK, launched in 1996.<ref>[http://www.blacknet.co.uk Blacknet UK]. Accessed 17 November 2006.</ref>

Award-winning Myrna Loy, a female poet and published writer who has recited poetry alongside Linton Kwesi Johnson is a poet in her own right.  Her poetry radiates passion for political situations, rages against hypocrisy and abuse and balances it with appreciation and gratitude. She came second in the [[Bridport Prize]], which is one of the UK's notable and prestigious poetry competitions; and came second for her poem "The Last Poem", performed at the Castillo Centre in Manhattan. Loy is three-times published, her book ''The Other Side of Tourism'' shares her conflict between her British and Jamaican roots, and her two poetry books ''Poetry's Teacher'' and ''Poetry's Promise'' share her person and professional life experiences.  As a Black Briton, she says: "British culture teaches us to conform, to hide our light under a bushel, to not sing our praises, so as a result I reveal "my light" through my poetry, paintings and my quarterly magazine called ''Blackbright News'', which celebrates the wonderful works Black People (not only in Britain) have done.  I may eventually be relegated to the area where tyrants and revolutions belong, but in the meantime, I intend to shout from the roof-tops what I feel and why I feel it!"  Myrna (aka Lady Loy) is a radio presenter on Jamrock Radio, and uses this arena to promote black music and black talent.

===Musical impact===
{{Further|Caribbean music in the United Kingdom}}
[[Image:Dennis Seaton Singer Musical Youth 2005.JPG|thumb|The former [[Musical Youth]] frontman Dennis Seaton in 2005]]
The period of large-scale immigration brought many new musical styles to the United Kingdom. These styles gained popularity amongst Britons of all cultural origins, and aided Caribbean music in gaining international recognition. The earliest of these exponents was the [[calypso music|calypso]] artist [[Lord Kitchener (calypsonian)|Lord Kitchener]], who arrived in Britain on the ''[[Empire Windrush|Windrush]]'' in 1948 accompanied by fellow musician [[Lord Beginner]].<ref name="lord">Hall, Stuart, [http://arts.guardian.co.uk/nottinghillcarnival2002/story/0,,773465,00.html "Calypso kings"]. ''The Guardian'', 28 June 2002. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Already a star in his native [[Trinidad]], Lord Kitchener got an immediate booking at the only West Indian club in London. Six months later, he was appearing in three clubs nightly, and his popularity extended beyond the West Indian and African [[nightclub]] audiences, to include [[music hall]] and [[variety show]] audiences.<ref name="lord"/> Kitchener's recording "London is the place for me" exemplified the experience of the ''Windrush generation''.<ref name="Kwela">[http://www.nthposition.com/londonistheplacefor.php London is the place for me] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061115092923/http://www.nthposition.com/londonistheplacefor.php |date=15 November 2006 }} Review by Ian Simmons. NthPosition.com. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Other calypso musicians began to collaborate with African [[Kwela]] musicians and [[British jazz]] players in London clubs.<ref name="Kwela"/>

Jamaican music styles reached Britain in the 1960s, becoming the staple music for young British African-Caribbean people. Tours by [[ska]] artists such as [[Prince Buster]] and the [[Skatalites]] fed the growing British-Caribbean music scene, and the success of Jamaican artists [[Millie (singer)|Millie Small]], [[Desmond Dekker]] and [[Marcia Griffiths|Bob and Marcia]] propelled Caribbean music and people into mainstream cultural life. British African-Caribbean people followed the changing styles of Jamaican music and began to produce homegrown music appealing to both Black and White communities. In 1968, [[The Cats (reggae band)|The Cats]] released a cover of [[Swan Lake]], which became the first Top 50 by a British reggae group and the following year, the British African-Caribbean ska band [[Symarip]] recorded "[[Skinhead Moonstomp]]" – a cover of the [[Derrick Morgan]] song [[Moon Hop]] – which had a huge effect on the British ska scene. The ska sound and [[rude boy]] imagery inspired a generation of White [[working-class]] youths (especially [[mod (subculture)|mods]] and [[skinhead]]s), and later helped spawn Britain's [[Multiculturalism|multi-cultural]] [[2 Tone (music genre)|2 Tone]] movement in the late-1970s.<ref>[http://www.skinheadnation.co.uk/traditionalskinheads.htm "Bring back the skins"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004233900/http://skinheadnation.co.uk/traditionalskinheads.htm |date=4 October 2006 }}, Skinhead nation.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

[[Image:Goldie 2003.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The DJ and musician [[Goldie]], born to Scottish and Jamaican parents<ref name="goldie">[http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyo/524/clubs.asp Goldie profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083511/http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyo/524/clubs.asp |date=29 September 2007 }} City Guide by Don Crispy. Japan Today magazine. "Born to a Scottish-Jamaican couple in England and put up for adoption, Goldie was raised in various foster homes". Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref>]]As Jamaican ska gave way to the slower styles of [[rocksteady]] and the more politicised [[reggae]], British African-Caribbean people followed suit. [[Reggae sound system|Sound systems]] to rival those in Jamaica sprung up throughout communities, and "Blues parties" – parties in private houses, where one paid at the door – became an institution. The arrival of [[Bob Marley]] to [[London]] in 1971 helped spawn a Black British music industry based on reggae. His association with the [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarian]] movement influenced waves of young people, reared in Britain, to discover their Caribbean roots. [[Barbadian British|British Barbadian]] [[Dennis Bovell]] became Britain's prominent reggae band leader and producer, working with many international reggae stars, and introducing a reggae flavour to the British pop charts with non-reggae acts such as: [[Dexys Midnight Runners]] and [[Bananarama]]. Bovell also worked extensively with London-based [[dub poetry|dub poet]] [[Linton Kwesi Johnson]].<ref>[http://www.lkjrecords.com/dennisbovell.htm Dennis Bovell profile] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061105222557/http://www.lkjrecords.com/dennisbovell.htm |date=5 November 2006 }}, LJK records website. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

British music with reggae roots prospered in the 1980s and early-1990s. British African-Caribbean artists [[Musical Youth]], [[Aswad (band)|Aswad]], [[Maxi Priest]] and [[Eddy Grant]] had major commercial successes, and the multicultural band [[UB40]] helped promote reggae to an international audience. Birmingham-based [[Steel Pulse]] became one of the world's foremost exponents of [[roots reggae]] and accompanying [[Black Power|black consciousness]], their 1978 debut album ''[[Handsworth Revolution]]'' becoming a seminal release.<ref>[http://www.the-drum.org.uk/event_info.php?id=328&eid=47 Handsworth Evolution programme] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008071352/http://www.the-drum.org.uk/event_info.php?id=328&eid=47 |date=8 October 2006 }} The Drum national centre for Black British arts and culture. "Steel Pulse exploded onto the UK reggae scene in the late-70s with their seminal album – Handsworth Revolution". Retrieved 6 October 2006. <br />↑Allmusic. "Handsworth Revolution" [{{AllMusic|class=album|id=r104064|pure_url=yes}} "Steel Pulse's debut album set the band decisively apart from its British colleagues"] (review). Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

British African-Caribbean music had been generally synonymous with Caribbean styles until the 1990s, although some artists had been drawing on British and American musical forms for several decades. In the 1970s and 1980s, British African-Caribbean artists such as [[Hot Chocolate (band)|Hot Chocolate]] and [[Imagination (band)|Imagination]] became leaders of the British [[disco]], [[soul music|soul]] and R&B scenes.<ref>[http://www.100greatblackbritons.com/bios/errol_brown.html Errol Brown profile] 100 Great Black Britons. "(Hot Chocolate frontman) Errol Brown was born in Jamaica and moved to Britain when he was 12". Retrieved 6 October 2006. <br />° [http://www.socanews.com/artman_new/publish/Features/1674.shtml "St Lucia celebrates 27 years of Independence"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070920123545/http://www.socanews.com/artman_new/publish/Features/1674.shtml |date=20 September 2007 }}, ''Soca News''. 7 February 2006. "In the UK, many of the younger generation of St Lucian parentage continue to excel in various fields including [Imagination singer] Leee John (singer/songwriter)". Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> By the mid-1980s, British African-Caribbean people were also incorporating American [[hip hop music|hip-hop]] and [[House music|House]] styles, becoming leading figures in Britain's developing dance music culture. This led to an explosion of musical forms. British artists created musical hybrids combining many elements including European [[techno music|techno]], Jamaican [[dancehall]], dub, [[breakbeat]]s and contemporary American R&B. These unique blends began to gain international acclaim through the success of [[Soul II Soul]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2016/bbc-music-my-generation-80s |title=BBC Music: My Generation goes back to the 80s with Soul II Soul frontman Jazzie B |date=2 November 2016 |access-date=11 April 2022 |work=BBC Music |url-status=live |archive-date=5 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105192746/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2016/bbc-music-my-generation-80s |quote=Soul II Soul, by the end of the 80s, created and released their own music which [...] topped the charts around the globe.}}</ref> and the multi-racial [[Massive Attack]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/profiles/massiveattack.shtml |title=Music >> Artist Profiles – everything you need to know about Massive attack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825194321/http://www.bbc.co.uk/music/profiles/massiveattack.shtml |archive-date=25 August 2006 |url-status=dead |website=bbc.co.uk |access-date=6 October 2006}}</ref>

British African-Caribbean people were at the leading edge of the [[Oldschool jungle|jungle]] and [[drum and bass]] movements of the 1990s. Although the fast-tempo drums and loud intricate bass lines sounded fresh, Caribbean roots could still be detected.<ref>[http://www.uk-clubbing-directory.co.uk/pages/genre_types.asp Type of club genre] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025203102/http://www.uk-clubbing-directory.co.uk/pages/genre_types.asp|date=25 October 2006}} UKCD.com – Clubbing. "Jungle sped up breakbeats to 200 beats per minute and added ragga vocals from the Caribbean and heavy bassline". Retrieved 6 October 2006.<br />
° Story of Reggae, UK Urban and Dance. BBC online. [http://niceup.com/history/bbc/ukurbandance.html]. "When the UK started making its own dance music, the dub and remix techniques and bass-heavy sound balances of reggae dictated how things shaped up{{spaced ndash}}drum'n'bass didn't even bother to think up a new name for itself. The later styles, jungle and UK garage, borrowed heavily from dancehall in terms of attitude and presentation". Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Two successful exponents of these styles were DJs [[Goldie]] and [[Roni Size]], both of Jamaican heritage.<ref name="goldie"/><ref>[http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyomusicconcerts/concert/348/tokyomusicconcertsinc.htm Roni Size Concert preview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061118052100/http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyomusicconcerts/concert/348/tokyomusicconcertsinc.htm |date=18 November 2006 }} Tokyo music concerts. "Born to Jamaican immigrant parents, Size was weaned on the sounds of hip hop and reggae". Retrieved 8 October 2006.</ref> Later, British African-Caribbean musicians and DJs were at the forefront of the [[UK garage]] and [[Grime (music)|Grime]] scenes.<ref>Story of Reggae, UK Urban and Dance. BBC online. [http://niceup.com/history/bbc/ukurbandance.html]. Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref>

==Social and political issues==
===Discrimination and racism===
Historically, community centres have sought to address issues that arise within the community, including problems of [[Sus law|police harassment]] and concerns about the housing of African Caribbeans, which was viewed as discriminatory during the early decades of mass immigration. One such community centre was the Gloucestershire West Indian Association, which was formed in 1962. The formation of this group was in response to a number of issues that arose within the community at this time. These included problems around police harassment and concerns about the housing of Black people on certain council estates in the city, which was viewed as discrimination and segregation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gloucestershire/untold_stories/african/wi_association.shtml |title=Voices: Our Untold Stories >>African Caribbean Stories |website=BBC Online |date=24 September 2014 |access-date=6 October 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321075343/https://www.bbc.co.uk/gloucestershire/untold_stories/african/wi_association.shtml |archive-date=21 March 2016}}</ref> The centres also allowed African-Caribbean peoples to socialise without risking the potential racial discrimination and aggression of "unfriendly [[public house|pubs]]".<ref name="pubs">{{Cite web|url=http://www.irespect.net/Untold%20Stories/Caribbean/Building%20a%20Community.htm |title=Building a Community |publisher=Gloucestershire County Council |website=irespect.net |access-date=9 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070603070953/http://www.irespect.net/Untold%20Stories/Caribbean/Building%20a%20Community.htm |archive-date=3 June 2007}}</ref> Many of these associations appointed a Community Relations Officer whose role was to liaise between the community and wider British society including the [[The Establishment|establishment]].

Although the community does not face any official or informal restrictions on [[participation (decision making)|political participation]], Britons of Caribbean origin are under-represented in local and [[Politics of the United Kingdom|national politics]].<ref name="data"/> British African-West Indians have long asserted that they encounter discriminatory barriers to most middle- and higher-status occupations, as well as discrimination in hiring practices at all levels of [[employment]]. There is also considerable evidence that African-Caribbean people experience differential treatment at the hands of public officials, the [[Courts of the United Kingdom|British courts]] and penal system, and the [[Policing in the United Kingdom|police]].<ref name="data"/> Studies have proposed that the isolation of certain regional urban areas by financial institutions such as insurance brokers disproportionately affects the community to its detriment.<ref name="data"/>

Britain's [[Education in the United Kingdom|school system]], despite efforts to address issues of discrimination,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Inner London Education Authority Television Service Teachers Notes: West Indian English |publisher=Corporation of London |url=http://www.movinghere.org.uk/deliveryfiles/LMA/ILEA_S_LR_11_144/0/1.pdf |id=LMA/ILEA/S/LR/11/144 |website=movinghere.org.uk |access-date=6 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717034605/http://www.movinghere.org.uk/deliveryfiles/LMA/ILEA_S_LR_11_144/0/1.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2007}}</ref> has often been accused of being racially biased to a perceived lack of representation of Black history and culture in the cirricula.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.irr.org.uk/2005/december/ha000017.html |title=Schools still failing Black children |last=Firth |first=Danny |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060926092418/http://www.irr.org.uk/2005/december/ha000017.html |archive-date=26 September 2006 |website=iRR news |date=21 December 2005 |access-date=6 October 2006}}</ref> Grenadian author [[Bernard Coard]] published ''[[How the West Indian Child Is Made Educationally Sub-normal in the British School System]]'' in May 1971. For example, the distinct [[Caribbean English|Caribbean dialects]], [[English-based creole languages|creoles]] and [[patois]] (''patwah'') spoken by many African-Caribbean immigrants and their descendants, have been problematic in the field of education. In a study by language and education specialist professor Viv Edwards, ''The West Indian language issue in British schools'', language – the Creole spoken by the students – was singled out as an important factor disadvantaging Caribbean children in British schools. The study cited negative attitudes of teachers towards any non-standard variety, noting that:
{{blockquote|text=The teacher who does not or is not prepared to recognise the problems of the Creole-speaking child in a British English situation can only conclude that he is stupid when he gives either an inappropriate response or no response at all. The stereotyping process leads features of Creole to be stigmatised and to develop connotations of, amongst other things, low academic ability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/pace/5-special.htm |title=Pace in the UK |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921030809/http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/pace/5-special.htm |archive-date=21 September 2006 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi |website=hawaii.edu |access-date=9 October 2006}}</ref>}}

Although there are hundreds of African-Caribbean teachers in the UK, it has been suggested that their under-representation in inner-city schools is a major factor in the failure, particularly of secondary-level schools, to achieve a satisfactory average of achievement for the community's children (see [[Bernard Coard]] and the [[Swann Report]] of 1985).<ref>{{Cite web|first=Makeda J. |last=Graham |url=http://www.ritesofpassage.org/df99-articles/mis-education.htm |title=Mis-Education – The Need to Develop Effective Educational Strategies for Young People of African Descent |website=ritesofpassage.org |date=June 1999 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218163137/http://www.ritesofpassage.org/df99-articles/mis-education.htm |archive-date=18 February 2007 }}</ref>

=== Business ===
In 2004, Greater London Authority Economics produced a report to examine the economic contribution black businesses made to London's economy. The report found that black businesses made up 4% of all London's businesses, provided over 70,000 jobs and had a total turnover of almost £4.5 billion. Of this total, 42% of the businesses were owned by Black Caribbeans or those of partial Black Caribbean origin.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2004 |title=The contribution of black businesses to London's economy |url=https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ready_for_business.pdf |access-date=15 April 2022}}</ref>

Businesses owned by Africans and Caribbeans generate more than £10bn for the UK each year, according to the Centre for Research in Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship (CREME).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Houghton |first=Tom |date=26 October 2021 |title=17 young black entrepreneurs who are changing industries across the North West |url=https://www.business-live.co.uk/enterprise/17-young-black-entrepreneurs-who-21962328 |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=Business Live |language=en}}</ref>

Notable high profile Black Caribbean business successes include [[Levi Roots]], whose [[Reggae Reggae Sauce|''Reggae Reggae sauce'']] and ''Levi Roots brand'' has grown into a multi-million pound enterprise.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunsby |first=Megan |date=21 May 2021 |title=Dragons' Den success stories: Levi Roots |url=https://startups.co.uk/dragons-den/levi-roots/ |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=Startups.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[Wilfred Emmanuel-Jones]]' ''The Black Farmer'' range of food products has annual revenues of over £7m.<ref>{{Cite news |date= |title=My First Million – Wilfred Emmanuel-Jones |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/d6f2361a-6356-11e4-8a63-00144feabdc0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211231243/https://www.ft.com/content/d6f2361a-6356-11e4-8a63-00144feabdc0 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=15 April 2022 }}</ref> [[Pat McGrath (make-up artist)|Pat McGrath Labs]] has an estimated value of $1 billion.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=7 March 2019 |title=Pat McGrath Labs is worth more than Kylie Cosmetics (and it's finally coming to the UK) |url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/beauty/make-up-nails/a26748058/pat-mcgrath-labs-kylie-cosmetics/ |access-date=19 April 2022 |magazine=Harper's BAZAAR |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[African and Caribbean War Memorial]]
* [[Americans in the United Kingdom#African Americans|African American British]]
* [[Afro-Caribbean people]]
* [[Belizean British]]
* [[British Indo-Caribbean people]]
* [[Identity Cards Act 2006#Ethnic minorities|British national identity card]]
* [[Museumand: The National Caribbean Heritage Museum]]
* ''[[New Nation]]'', an Afro-Caribbean newspaper

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* [[Hakim Adi|Adi, Hakim]], ''The History of African and Caribbean Communities in Britain'', London: Wayland, 1995. {{ISBN|0-7502-1517-8}}
* Bygott, David, ''Black and British'', Oxford University Press (18 April 1996). {{ISBN|0-19-913305-0}}
* Palmer, Ransford W., ''In Search of a Better Life: Perspectives on Migration from the Caribbean'', Praeger Publishers (21 May 1990). {{ISBN|0-275-93409-8}}
* [[Mike Phillips (writer)|Phillips, Mike]], & [[Trevor Phillips]], ''Windrush: The Irresistible Rise of Multi-Racial Britain'', HarperCollins Publishers, 1998. {{ISBN|0-00-255909-9}}
* Taylor, Simon, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071224004946/http://www.fircroft.ac.uk/Land_of_Dreams.html ''A Land of Dreams: A Study of Jewish and Afro-Caribbean Migrant Communities in England''], Routledge (April 1993). {{ISBN|0-415-08447-4}}
* Waters, Rob. ''Colonized by Humanity: Caribbean London and the Politics of Integration at the End of Empire'' (Oxford University Press, 2023) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=60486 online scholarly review]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051018034727/http://www.theplebeian.net/ "Young Blacks, Political Groups and the Police in Handsworth"]. An examination of police attempts to isolate young Blacks and attempts by leftist political groups to attract Black youth into their political orbit that preceded the Handsworth protests of 1985.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.blackpresence.co.uk/ The Black Presence in Britain ]
* [http://www.voice-online.co.uk/ The Voice Newspaper]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190820042056/http://digitalhandsworth.org.uk/ Digital Handsworth]
* [http://www.byempowerment.blogspot.com/ Black Youth Empowerment UK]
* [http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/Collections/OnlineResources/RWWC/Themes/1102/ Reassessing what we collect website – The Caribbean Community in London] History of Caribbean London with objects and images
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/museum/item.asp?item_id=50 Windrush settlers arrive in Britain, 1948 – treasures of The National Archives (UK).]
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/museum/additional_image_types.asp?extra_image_type_id=2&image_id=69 Windrush settlers arrive in Britain, 1948 – Transcript]
* [https://windrushfoundation.org Windrush Foundation]

===Carnivals and celebrations===
* [http://www.leedscarnival.co.uk Leeds Carnival]
* [http://www.londoncarnival.co.uk London Notting Hill Carnival]
* [http://www.luton.gov.uk/carnival Luton Carnival]
* [https://radiatefestival.com Radiate Windrush Festival]

===Community sites===
* [http://www.blacknet.co.uk UK Black Community website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060724002727/http://www.limelightmagazine.com/front.htm African Caribbean Coventry website]
* [http://www.itzcaribbean.com/ itzcaribbean.com ]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929090938/http://www.acmccentre.com/acmc.shtml Afro Caribbean Millennium Centre] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070626010926/http://www.calibbian.com/privacy.htm Caribbean] Website for the Birmingham-based community centre
* [http://www.cap-centre.com/ Community Action Project] Sandwel based community centre website
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090529090346/http://www.blackcnet.com/ African and Caribbean Black Community Network]

{{Black British topics}}
{{African diaspora}}
{{Caribbean diaspora}}
{{AmericansinUK}}
{{UK census ethnic groups}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:British African-Caribbean People}}
[[Category:African diaspora in the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Black British people| ]]
[[Category:British people of West Indian descent| ]]
[[Category:Caribbean diaspora in the United Kingdom| ]]
[[Category:Black British history]]