View source for Bosnia and Herzegovina

{{Short description|Country in Southeast Europe}}
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{{Redirect-multi|2|Bosnia|BiH|the region within the sovereign state|Bosnia (region)||Bosnia (disambiguation)|and|BIH (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
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{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Bosnia and Herzegovina
| common_name            = Bosnia and Herzegovina
| native_name            = {{Nobold|{{unbulleted list|item_style=font-size:85%;|[[Serbo-Croatian]] (Latin): {{lang|sh-Latn|Bosna i Hercegovina}}<br/>[[Serbo-Croatian Cyrillic|Serbo-Croatian (Cyrillic)]]: {{lang|sh-Cyrl|Босна и Херцеговина}}}}}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg
| flag_size              = 130
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg
| coa_size               = 65
| national_anthem        = {{lang|sh-Latn|Državna himna Bosne i Hercegovine}}<br />{{lang|sh-Cyrl|Државна химна Босне и Херцеговине}}<br />"[[National Anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]" <div style="padding-top:0.5em;"class="centre"></div>
| image_map              = Europe-Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg
| map_caption            = {{map caption |location_color=green |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey}}
| capital                = [[Sarajevo]]<ref name=Constitution/>
| coordinates            = {{Coord|43|52|N|18|25|E|type:city}}
| largest_city           = capital
| official_languages     = {{hlist|[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]|[[Serbian language|Serbian]]|[[Croatian language|Croatian]]}}
| languages_type         = [[Writing system]]
| languages              = {{hlist|[[Latin alphabet|Latin]]|[[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]]}}
| ethnic_groups          = {{unbulleted list
| 50.1% [[Bosniaks]]
| 30.8% [[Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Serbs]]
| 15.4% [[Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Croats]]
| 3.7% [[Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina|others]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2013
| ethnic_groups_ref      = <ref name="Popis2013">{{cite web |title=Popis stanovništva, domaćinstava i stanova u Bosni i Hercegovini, 2013: Rezultati Popisa / Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2013: Final Results |url=https://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/doc/RezultatiPopisa_BS.pdf |last=Agencija za statistiku Bosne i Hercegovine / Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina |date=2016 |language=bs,en |access-date=21 June 2021 |archive-date=25 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625224417/https://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/doc/RezultatiPopisa_BS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| religion               = {{unbulleted list
|51% [[Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Islam]]
|{{Tree list}}
* 46% [[Christianity]]
** 31% [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Orthodoxy]]
** {{nowrap|15% [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]}}
{{Tree list/end}}
|3% [[Irreligion|no religion]] / [[Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina|others]]}}
| religion_year          = 2013 census
| religion_ref           = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Bosnia and Herzegovina |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bosnia-and-herzegovina/ |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}</ref>
| demonym                = {{hlist|[[Bosnians|Bosnian]]|[[Herzegovina#Population|Herzegovinian]]}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Bosnia and Herzegovina • Country facts |url=https://en.populationdata.net/countries/bosnia-and-herzegovina/ |website=PopulationData.net |date=21 March 2020 |access-date=8 April 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612065815/https://en.populationdata.net/countries/bosnia-and-herzegovina/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Danas se iz Norveške kući vraća 13 državljana BiH, a šta je sa ostalima? |url=https://mojabih.oslobodjenje.ba/vijesti/danas-se-iz-norveske-kuci-vraca-13-drzavljana-bih-a-sta-je-sa-ostalima/2700 |website=MojaBiH |date=5 April 2020 |language=bs |access-date=8 April 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612065815/https://mojabih.oslobodjenje.ba/vijesti/danas-se-iz-norveske-kuci-vraca-13-drzavljana-bih-a-sta-je-sa-ostalima/2700 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|CIA|2019}}
| government_type        = [[Federal republic|Federal]] parliamentary{{sfn|CIA|2019}} [[Directorial system|directorial republic]]
| leader_title1          = {{nowrap|[[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|High Representative]]}}
| leader_name1           = {{nowrap|[[Christian Schmidt (politician)|Christian Schmidt]]}}{{efn|name=highrep|The high representative is an international civilian overseer of the [[Dayton Agreement]] with authority to dismiss elected and non-elected officials and enact legislation.}}
| leader_title2          = [[Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Chairwoman of the Presidency]]
| leader_name2           = {{nowrap|[[Željka Cvijanović]]}}
| leader_title3          = [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Members of the Presidency]]
| leader_name3           = {{nowrap|[[Željko Komšić]]<br>[[Denis Bećirović]]}}
| leader_title4          = [[Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Chairwoman of the Council of Ministers]]
| leader_name4           = [[Borjana Krišto]]
| legislature            = [[Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Parliamentary Assembly]]
| upper_house            = [[House of Peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina|House of Peoples]]
| lower_house            = [[House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina|House of Representatives]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Establishment history]]
| established_event1     = [[Bosnia (early medieval polity)]]
| established_date1      = 9th century
| established_event2     = [[Banate of Bosnia]]
| established_date2      = 1154
| established_event3     = [[Kingdom of Bosnia]]
| established_date3      = 1377
| established_event4     = [[Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Ottoman conquest]]
| established_date4      = 1463
| established_event5     = [[Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Austro-Hungarian conquest and 1908 annexation]]
| established_date5      = 1878
| established_event6     = [[Creation of Yugoslavia]]
| established_date6      = 1 December 1918
| established_event7     = [[ZAVNOBiH]]
| established_date7      = 25 November 1943
| established_event8     = [[SR Bosnia and Herzegovina]] within [[SFR Yugoslavia]]
| established_date8      = 29 November 1945
| established_event9     = [[1992 Bosnian independence referendum|Independence]] from [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]
| established_date9      = 3 March 1992
| established_event10    = [[Washington Agreement (1994)|Washington Agreement]]
| established_date10     = 18 March 1994
| established_event11    = [[Dayton Agreement]]
| established_date11     = 14 December 1995
| area_km2               = 51,209<ref name="bhas_gov_ba">{{Cite web |url=https://bhas.gov.ba/data/Publikacije/Bilteni/2023/DEM_00_2022_TB_1_HR.pdf |page=26 |title=Demografija, 2022. |date=31 October 2023 |access-date=19 February 2024 |publisher=Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina |website=bhas.gov.ba}}</ref>
| area_rank              = 125th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] -->
| area_sq_mi             = 19,741 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]-->
| percent_water          = 1.4%
| population_estimate    = {{DecreaseNeutral}} 3,434,000<ref name="bhas_gov_ba" />
| population_census      = 3,531,159<ref name="Popis2013"/>
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 135th
| population_census_year = 2013
| population_density_km2 = 69
| population_density_sq_mi = 179
| population_density_rank = 156th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $71.254 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.BA">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=963,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (BA) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=11 October 2023}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2024
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 110th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $20,623<ref name="IMFWEO.BA" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 81st
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $29.078 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.BA" />
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2024
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 110th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $8,416<ref name="IMFWEO.BA" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 86th
| Gini                   = 32.7 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2015
| Gini_change            = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2011&locations=BA&start=2001 |title=Distribution of family income&nbsp;– Gini index |work=The World Factbook |publisher=TWB |access-date=29 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029064859/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2011&locations=BA&start=2001 |archive-date=29 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI                    = 0.779
| HDI_year               = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=13 March 2024}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 80th
| currency               = [[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark|Convertible mark]]
| currency_code          = BAM
| time_zone              = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset             = +01
| utc_offset_DST         = +02
| time_zone_DST          = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| date_format            = d. m. yyyy. ([[Common Era|CE]])
| drives_on              = right
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Bosnia and Herzegovina|+387]]
| cctld                  = [[.ba]]
| footnotes              = {{notelist
| colwidth =
| notes =
}}
}}
'''Bosnia and Herzegovina'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Bosnia and Herzegovina.ogg|ˈ|b|ɒ|z|n|i|ə|...|ˌ|h|ɛər|t|s|ə|ɡ|oʊ|ˈ|v|iː|n|ə|,_|-|_|ˌ|h|ɜːr|t|s|-|,_|-|ɡ|ə|-}} {{respell|BOZ|nee|ə|_..._|HAIRT|sə|goh|VEE|nə|,_-_|HURT|-,_-|gə|-}} or {{IPAc-en|-|_|ˌ|h|ɜːr|t|s|ə|ˈ|ɡ|ɒ|v|ᵻ|n|ə}} {{respell|-_|HURT|sə|GOV|in|ə}}.{{refn|{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|title=English Pronouncing Dictionary|editor=Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|orig-year=1917|date=2003|isbn=3-12-539683-2}}}}{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Bosnia}}, {{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Herzegovina}}}}}} ({{lang-sh-Latn-Cyrl|Bosna i Hercegovina|Босна и Херцеговина}}),{{efn|Pronounced {{IPA|bs|bôsna i xěrtseɡoʋina|}}.}}{{efn|Abbreviated as '''BiH''', {{lang-sh-Cyrl|БиХ|label=[[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]}}.}} sometimes known as '''Bosnia-<!--hyphen is appropriate since Bosnia and Herzegovina is a single entity; compare with [[Austria-Hungary]]-->Herzegovina''' and [[Pars pro toto|informally]] as '''Bosnia''', is a country in [[Southeast Europe]], situated on the [[Balkans|Balkan Peninsula]]. It borders [[Serbia]] to the east, [[Montenegro]] to the southeast, and [[Croatia]] to the north and southwest. In the south it has a {{convert|20|km|abbr=off}} long coast on the [[Adriatic Sea]], with the town of [[Neum]] being its only access to the sea. [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] has a moderate [[continental climate]] with hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In the central and eastern regions, the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and in the northeast it is predominantly flat. [[Herzegovina]], the smaller, southern region, has a [[Mediterranean climate]] and is mostly mountainous. [[Sarajevo]] is the capital and the largest city.

The area has been inhabited since at least the [[Upper Paleolithic]], but evidence suggests that during the [[Neolithic]] age, permanent human settlements were established, including those that belonged to the [[Butmir culture|Butmir]], [[Kakanj culture|Kakanj]], and [[Vučedol culture|Vučedol]] cultures. After the arrival of the first [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Europeans]], the area was populated by several [[Illyria]]n and [[Celts|Celtic]] civilizations. The [[Early Slavs|ancestors]] of the [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] peoples that populate the area today arrived during the 6th through the 9th century. In the 12th century, the [[Banate of Bosnia]] was established; by the 14th century, this had evolved into the [[Kingdom of Bosnia]]. In the mid-15th century, it was annexed into the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina|under whose rule it remained]] until the late 19th century; the Ottomans brought [[Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Islam]] to the region. From the late 19th century until [[World War I]], the country was [[Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina|annexed into the Austro-Hungarian monarchy]]. In the [[interwar period]], Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]].  After [[World War II]], it was granted full republic status in the newly formed [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. In 1992, following the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]], the republic [[1992 Bosnian independence referendum|proclaimed independence]]. This was followed by the [[Bosnian War]], which lasted until late 1995 and ended with the signing of the [[Dayton Agreement]].

The country is home to three main [[ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina|ethnic groups]]: [[Bosniaks]] are the largest group, [[Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Serbs]] the second-largest, and [[Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Croats]] the third-largest. Minorities include [[History of the Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Jews]], [[Romani people in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Roma]], [[National minorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Albanians, Montenegrins, Ukrainians and Turks]]. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] legislature and a three-member [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|presidency]] made up of one member from each of the three major ethnic groups. However, the central government's power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized. It comprises two autonomous entities—the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Republika Srpska]]—and a third unit, the [[Brčko District]], which is governed by its own local government.

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a [[developing country]] and ranks 74th in the [[list of countries by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]]. Its economy is dominated by industry and agriculture, followed by tourism and the service sector. Tourism has increased significantly in recent years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf|title=Human Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update|publisher=UNDP|access-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322153238/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.ARVL?locations=BA|title=International tourism, number of arrivals – Bosnia and Herzegovina|publisher=World Bank|access-date=14 November 2020|archive-date=25 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125022323/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.ARVL?locations=BA|url-status=live}}</ref> The country has a social-security and universal-healthcare system, and primary and secondary level education is free. It is a member of the [[United Nations|UN]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], the [[Council of Europe]], the [[Partnership for Peace]], and the [[Central European Free Trade Agreement]]; it is also a founding member of the [[Union for the Mediterranean]], established in July 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ufmsecretariat.org/who-we-are/member-states/|title=List of Member States of the Union for the Mediterranean – UfM|access-date=5 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512125018/http://ufmsecretariat.org/who-we-are/member-states/|archive-date=12 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Bosnia and Herzegovina is an [[Accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the European Union|EU candidate country]] and has also been a candidate for [[NATO]] membership since April 2010.<ref>{{cite web |title=Membership Action Plan (MAP) |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_37356.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418174843/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_37356.htm |archive-date=18 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website= |publisher=NATO |quote=In April 2010, when the foreign ministers of NATO member countries met in Tallinn, after reviewing the progress that Bosnia and Herzegovina had made in its reform efforts, they invited the country to join the Membership Action Plan.}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The first preserved widely acknowledged mention of a form of the name "[[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]]" is in {{Lang|la|[[De Administrando Imperio]]}}, a politico-geographical handbook written by the [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine emperor]] [[Constantine VII]] in the mid-10th century (between 948 and 952) describing the "small land" ({{lang|el|χωρίον|italic=no}} in [[Greek language|Greek]]) of "Bosona" ({{lang|el|Βοσώνα|italic=no}}), where the Serbs dwell.<ref name="Moravcsik-153">{{cite book|edition=Moravcsik, Gyula|author=Constantine VII''Porphyrogenitus''|author-link=Constantine VII|date=1993|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies|title=[[De Administrando Imperio]]|location=Washington D.C.|pages=153–55}}</ref> Bosnia was also mentioned in the ''DAI'' (χωριον βοσονα, small land of Bosnia), as a region of Baptized Serbia.{{sfn|Moravcsik|1967|pp=153, 155}}{{sfn|Živković|2010b|pp=161–180}} The section of the handbook is devoted to the [[Časlav of Serbia|Serbian prince]]'s lands, and Bosnia is treated as a separate territory, though one that is particularly dependent on Serbs.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002|p=10}}

The name of the land is believed to derive from the name of the river [[Bosna (river)|Bosna]] that courses through the Bosnian heartland. According to [[Philology|philologist]] Anton Mayer, the name ''Bosna'' could derive from [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]] *"Bass-an-as", which in turn could derive from the Proto-Indo-European root ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰegʷ-|bʰegʷ-]]'', meaning "the running water".{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}} According to the English medievalist [[William Miller (historian)|William Miller]], the Slavic settlers in Bosnia "adapted the Latin designation ... Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna and themselves ''Bosniaks''".<ref>{{cite book |author=[[William Miller (historian)|William Miller]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0wpEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA464 |title=Essays on the Latin Orient |date=1921 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107455535 |location=Cambridge |page=464}}</ref>

The name ''Herzegovina'' means "herzog's [land]", and "herzog" derives from the German word for "duke".{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}} It originates from the title of a 15th-century Bosnian magnate, [[Stjepan Vukčić Kosača]], who was "Herceg [Herzog] of Hum and the Coast" (1448).{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=578}} Hum (formerly called [[Zachlumia]]) was an early medieval principality that had been conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. When the Ottomans took over administration of the region, they called it the [[Sanjak of Herzegovina]] (''Hersek''). It was included within the [[Bosnia Eyalet]] until the formation of the short-lived [[Herzegovina Eyalet]] in the 1830s, which reemerged in the 1850s, after which the administrative region became commonly known as ''Bosnia and Herzegovina''.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{cite web | title=Facts, Geography, History, & Maps | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina | access-date=2021-06-21 | archive-date=3 April 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403215257/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina | url-status=live }}</ref>

On initial [[1992 Bosnian independence referendum|proclamation of independence in 1992]], the country's official name was the [[Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], but following the 1995 [[Dayton Agreement]] and the new [[Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina|constitution]] that accompanied it, the official name was changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref>''The World Factbook'' (Washington DC: National Foreign Assessment Center, Central Intelligence Agency, 2013), 90–93. {{ISBN|0160921953}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Early history of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:NHM - Bandin Fahrzeug mit Vögeln.jpg|thumb|Iron Age cult carriage from Banjani, near [[Sokolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Sokolac]]]]

===Early history===
Bosnia has been inhabited by humans since at least the [[Paleolithic]], as one of the oldest cave paintings was found in [[Badanj Cave|Badanj cave]]. Major Neolithic cultures such as the [[Butmir culture|Butmir]] and [[Kakanj culture|Kakanj]] were present along the river [[Bosna (river)|Bosna]] dated from {{circa|6230 BCE}}–{{circa|4900 BCE}}. The bronze culture of the [[Illyrians]], an ethnic group with a distinct culture and art form, started to organize itself in today's [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], Bosnia and Herzegovina, [[Serbia]], [[Kosovo]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Albania]].<ref>{{harvnb|Shpuza|2022|p=553}}; {{harvnb|Zindel|Lippert|Lahi|Kiel|2018|p=346}}; {{harvnb|Bejko|Morris|Papadopoulos|Schepartz|2015|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Wilkes|2012|p=726}}; {{harvnb|Dausse|2015|p=28}}.</ref>

From the 8th century BCE, Illyrian tribes evolved into kingdoms. The earliest recorded kingdom in [[Illyria]] was the Enchele in the 8th century BCE. The Autariatae under Pleurias (337 BCE) were considered to have been a kingdom. The Kingdom of the [[Ardiaei]] (originally a tribe from the [[Neretva]] valley region) began at 230 BCE and ended at 167 BCE. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of [[Bardylis|Bardylis of the Dardani]] and of [[Agron of Illyria|Agron of the Ardiaei]] who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom. Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well.

From the 7th century BCE, bronze was replaced by iron, after which only jewelry and art objects were still made out of bronze. Illyrian tribes, under the influence of [[Hallstatt culture]]s to the north, formed regional centers that were slightly different. Parts of Central Bosnia were inhabited by the [[Daesitiates]] tribe, most commonly associated with the [[Central Bosnian cultural group]]. The Iron Age [[Glasinac-Mati culture]] is associated with the [[Autariatae]] tribe.

A very important role in their life was the cult of the dead, which is seen in their careful burials and burial ceremonies, as well as the richness of their burial sites. In northern parts, there was a long tradition of cremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the south the dead were buried in large stone or earth [[Tumulus|tumuli]] (natively called ''gromile'') that in Herzegovina were reaching monumental sizes, more than 50 m wide and 5 m high. ''Japodian tribes'' had an affinity to decoration (heavy, oversized necklaces out of yellow, blue or white glass paste, and large bronze [[Fibula (brooch)|fibulas]], as well as spiral bracelets, diadems and helmets out of bronze foil).

In the 4th century BCE, the first invasion of [[Celts]] is recorded. They brought the technique of the [[Potter's wheel|pottery wheel]], new types of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts. They only passed on their way to Greece, so their influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina is negligible. Celtic migrations displaced many [[List of ancient tribes in Illyria|Illyrian tribes]] from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages.

[[File:Mogorjelo Villa Rustica.jpg|thumb|[[Mogorjelo]], an ancient Roman suburban Villa Rustica from the 4th century, near [[Čapljina]]]]

In the [[Neretva Delta]] in the south, there were important [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] influences of the Illyrian [[Daorson|Daors]] tribe. Their capital was ''Daorson'' in Ošanići near [[Stolac]]. Daorson, in the 4th century BCE, was surrounded by [[megalith]]ic, 5 m high stonewalls (as large as those of [[Mycenae]] in Greece), composed of large trapezoid stone blocks. Daors made unique bronze coins and sculptures.

Conflict between the Illyrians and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] started in 229&nbsp;BCE, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD&nbsp;9. It was precisely in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the [[Punic Wars]], as described by the Roman historian [[Suetonius]].<ref>[[Suetonius]], Tiberius 16,17</ref> This was the Roman campaign against [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], known as {{Lang|la|[[Bellum Batonianum]]}}.<ref>Miller, Norma. Tacitus: Annals I, 2002, {{ISBN|1-85399-358-1}}. It had originally been joined to Illyricum, but after the great Illyrian/Pannonian revolt of AD 6 it was made a separate province with its own governor</ref> The conflict arose after an attempt to recruit Illyrians, and a revolt spanned for four years (6–9 AD), after which they were subdued.<ref>Stipčević, Aleksandar, ''The Illyrians: History and Culture'', 1974, Noyess Press</ref> In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire [[Roman Empire]] settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}}

Following the split of the Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. The region was conquered by the [[Ostrogoths]] in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between the [[Alans]] and the [[Huns]]. By the 6th century, Emperor [[Justinian I]] had reconquered the area for the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Slavs overwhelmed the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Illyrian cultural traits were adopted by the South Slavs, as evidenced in certain customs and traditions, placenames, etc.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ardian, Adzanela (Axhanela)|url=https://www.academia.edu/2490281|title=Illyrian Bosnia and Herzegovina-an overview of a cultural legacy|date=2004|publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, Online Balkan Centre|access-date=4 December 2017|archive-date=19 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819001829/https://www.academia.edu/2490281|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Middle Ages===
{{Main|Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Hvalov zbornik1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hval's Codex]], illustrated Slavic manuscript from medieval Bosnia]]

[[File:Ritratto di giovinetta (possibly Isabella d'Este).jpg|thumb|left|alt=|Depiction of [[Queen Catherine of Bosnia]], the last queen of the [[House of Kosača]].]]
The [[Early Slavs]] raided the Western Balkans, including Bosnia, in the 6th and early 7th century (amid the [[Migration Period]]), and were composed of small tribal units drawn from a single Slavic confederation known to the Byzantines as the ''[[Sclaveni]]'' (whilst the related ''[[Antes people|Antes]]'', roughly speaking, colonized the eastern portions of the Balkans).<ref name="Columbia University Press">{{cite book|title=Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed|author= Robert J. Donia |author2=John VA Fine|publisher=Columbia University Press|date=1994|pages=14–16}}</ref><ref>Hupchick, Dennis P. ''The Balkans from Constantinople to Communism'', pp. 28–30. Palgrave Macmillan (2004)</ref>
Tribes recorded by the ethnonyms of "Serb" and "Croat" are described as a second, latter, migration of different people during the second quarter of the 7th century who could or could not have been particularly numerous;<ref name="Columbia University Press"/>{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=53, 56}}<ref name="Heather"/> these early "Serb" and "Croat" tribes, whose exact identity is subject to scholarly debate,<ref name="Heather">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbUlnaHlHS0C&pg=PA404|title= Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe |author=Heather, Peter|date=2010 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820211955/https://books.google.com/books?id=gbUlnaHlHS0C&pg=PA404|archive-date=20 August 2016|url-status=live|pages=404–408, 424–425, 444|isbn= 9780199752720 }}</ref> came to predominate over the Slavs in the neighbouring regions. Croats "settled in area roughly corresponding to modern Croatia, and probably also including most of Bosnia proper, apart from the eastern strip of the Drina valley" while Serbs "corresponding to modern south-western Serbia (later known as [[Raška (region)|Raška]]), and gradually extended their rule into the territories of [[Duklja]] and [[Zachlumia|Hum]]".{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=53(I)|ps=:The Croats settled in Croatia, Dalmatia, and western Bosnia. The rest of Bosnia seems to have been territory between Serb and Croatian rule.}}{{sfn|Malcolm|2002|p=8|ps=:The Serbs settled in an area corresponding to modern south-western Serbia (a territory which later in the middle ages became known as Raška or Rascia), and gradually extended their rule into the territories of Duklje or Dioclea (Montenegro) and Hum or Zachumlje (Herzegovina). The Croats settled in areas roughly corresponding to modern Croatia, and probably also including most of Bosnia proper, apart from the eastern strip of the Drina valley.}}

Bosnia is also believed to be first mentioned ''as a land (horion Bosona)'' in Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus' ''De Administrando Imperio'' in the mid 10th century, at the end of a chapter entitled ''Of the Serbs and the country in which they now dwell''.{{sfn|Basic|2009|p=123}} This has been scholarly interpreted in several ways and used especially by the Serb national ideologists to prove Bosnia as originally a "Serb" land.{{sfn|Basic|2009|p=123}} Other scholars have asserted the inclusion of Bosnia in the chapter to merely be the result of Serbian Grand Duke [[Časlav of Serbia|Časlav]]'s temporary rule over Bosnia at the time, while also pointing out Porphyrogenitus does not say anywhere explicitly that Bosnia is a "Serb land".{{sfn|Basic|2009|p=123–28}} In fact, the very translation of the critical sentence where the word ''Bosona'' (Bosnia) appears is subject to varying interpretation.{{sfn|Basic|2009|p=123}} In time, Bosnia formed a unit under its own ruler, who called himself Bosnian.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=53}} Bosnia, along with other territories, became part of [[Duklja]] in the 11th century, although it retained its own nobility and institutions.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=223}}

[[File:Medieval Bosnian State Expansion-en.svg|thumb|Bosnia in the Middle Ages spanning the [[Banate of Bosnia]] and the succeeding [[Kingdom of Bosnia]]]]

In the [[High Middle Ages]], political circumstance led to the area being contested between the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as the [[Banate of Bosnia]] (under the rule of local ''[[Ban (title)|bans]]'').{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Paul Mojzes. Religion and the war in Bosnia. Oxford University Press, 2000, p 22; "Medieval Bosnia was founded as an independent state (Banate) by Ban Kulin (1180–1204).".}}</ref> The first Bosnian ban known by name was [[Ban Borić]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=288}} The second was [[Ban Kulin]], whose rule marked the start of a controversy involving the [[Bosnian Church]] – considered heretical by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. During this time, the population was called ''Dobri [[Bošnjani]]'' ("Good Bosnians").<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0rIGA0rluO0C&pg=PA71|title=''Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed''|author=Robert J. Donia, John V.A Fine|date=2005|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=9781850652120|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915082854/https://books.google.com/books?id=0rIGA0rluO0C&pg=PA71|archive-date=15 September 2015|url-status=live}}, p. 71; ''In the Middle Ages the Bosnians called themselves "Bosnians" or used even more local (county, regional) names''.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KQkXAQAAIAAJ&q=called+the+bosnjani|title=''Myths and boundaries in south-eastern Europe''|first=Pål|last=Kolstø|date=2005|publisher=Hurst & Co.|isbn=9781850657675|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805011503/https://books.google.com/books?id=KQkXAQAAIAAJ&q=called+the+bosnjani|url-status=live}}, p. 120; ''..medieval Bosnia was a country of one people, of the single Bosnian people called the Bošnjani, who belonged to three confessions''.</ref> The names Serb and Croat, though occasionally appearing in peripheral areas, were not used in Bosnia proper.<ref name="lrb.co.uk">{{cite journal|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v16/n08/john-fine/what-is-a-bosnian|title=What is a Bosnian?|author=[[John Van Antwerp Fine Jr.]]|journal=London Review of Books|date=28 April 1994|volume=16|issue=8|publisher=London Review of Books; Vol.16 No.8. 28 April 1994|pages=9–10|access-date=30 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203022855/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v16/n08/john-fine/what-is-a-bosnian|archive-date=3 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between the [[Šubić family|Šubić]] and [[Kotromanić dynasty|Kotromanić]] families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when [[Stephen II, Ban of Bosnia|Stephen II Kotromanić]] became ''Ban''. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his ambitious nephew [[Tvrtko I of Bosnia|Tvrtko]] who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. By the year 1377, Bosnia was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko as the first [[List of rulers of Bosnia|Bosnian King]] in Mile near [[Visoko during the Middle Ages|Visoko]] in the Bosnian heartland.<ref name="Mile">{{cite web|url=http://www.aneks8komisija.com.ba/main.php?id_struct=6&lang=1&action=view&id=1341|title=Declared as national monument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116053150/http://www.aneks8komisija.com.ba/main.php?id_struct=6&lang=1&action=view&id=1341 |archive-date=16 January 2009}}</ref><ref name=An>Anđelić Pavao, Krunidbena i grobna crkva bosanskih vladara u Milima (Arnautovićima) kod Visokog. Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja XXXIV/1979., Zemaljski muzej Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo, 1980,183–247</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Singleton |first=Frederick Bernard |title=A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1985 |isbn=0-521-27485-0 |page=496 |ref=Singleton_1985}}</ref>

Following his death in 1391, however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The [[Ottoman Empire]] had started its [[Ottoman wars in Europe|conquest of Europe]] and posed a major threat to the [[Balkans]] throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463 after its conquest by the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bosnia and Herzegovina – Ottoman Bosnia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina|access-date=2020-09-02|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=3 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403215257/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina|url-status=live}}</ref>

There was a general awareness in medieval Bosnia, at least amongst the nobles, that they shared a joint state with Serbia and that they belonged to the same ethnic group. That awareness diminished over time, due to differences in political and social development, but it was kept in Herzegovina and parts of Bosnia which were a part of Serbian state.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Isailovović|first=Neven|date=2018|title=Pomeni srpskog imena u srednjovjekovnim bosanskim ispravama|journal=Srpsko pisano nasljeđe i istorija srednjovjekovne Bosne i Huma|pages=276}}</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Bosnia Eyalet, Central europe 1683.png|thumb|The [[Bosnia Eyalet]] in 1683]]

The [[Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Ottoman conquest of Bosnia]] marked a new era in the country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans incorporated Bosnia as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Buzov |first1=Snježana |editor1-last=Koller |editor1-first=Markus |editor-first2=Kemal H. |editor-last2=Karpat |chapter=Ottoman Perceptions of Bosnia as Reflected in the Works of Ottoman Authors who Visited or Lived in Bosnia |date=2004 |title=Ottoman Bosnia: A History in Peril |pages=83–92 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-2992-0714-4}}</ref> Within Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}}

Following Ottoman occupation, there was a steady flow of people out of Bosnia and a large number of abandoned villages in Bosnia are mentioned in the Ottoman registers,<ref name="ReferenceA">Bosnia: A Short History , Chapter: Islamicization of Bosnia</ref> while those who stayed eventually became [[Muslims]]. Many Catholics in Bosnia fled to neighboring Catholic lands in the early Ottoman occupation.<ref>Bosnia: a short history p. 55</ref> The evidence indicates that the early Muslim conversions in Ottoman Bosnia in the 15th–16th century were among the locals who stayed rather than mass Muslim settlements from outside Bosnia.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In Herzegovina, many [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] people had also embraced Islam.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> By the late 16th and early 17th century, Muslims are considered to have become an absolute majority in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Albanian Catholic priest [[Pjetër Mazreku]] reported in 1624 that there were 450,000 Muslims, 150,000 Catholics and 75,000 Eastern Orthodox in Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

There was a lack of [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] activity in Bosnia proper in the pre-Ottoman period.<ref>Bosnia: A Short History p. 71</ref> An Orthodox Christian population in Bosnia was introduced as a direct result of Ottoman policy.<ref name="Bosnia: A Short History p. 55">Bosnia: A Short History p. 55</ref> From the 15th century and onwards, Orthodox Christians (Orthodox [[Vlachs]] and non-Vlach Orthodox Serbs) from Serbia and other regions settled in Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref>Bosnia: A Short History p. 71–73, p. 79–80</ref> Favored by the Ottomans over the Catholics, many Orthodox churches were allowed to be built in Bosnia by the Ottomans.<ref>Bosnia: A Short History p. 71–73</ref><ref name="Bosnia: A Short History p. 55"/> Quite a few Vlachs also became Islamized in Bosnia, and some (mainly in Croatia) became Catholics.<ref>Bosnia: A Short History, Chapter: Serbs and Vlachs</ref>

The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups due to a lack of strong Christian church organizations and continuous rivalry between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, while the indigenous [[Bosnian Church]] disappeared altogether (ostensibly by conversion of its members to Islam). The Ottomans referred to them as ''kristianlar'' while the Orthodox and Catholics were called ''gebir'' or ''kafir'', meaning "unbeliever".{{sfn|Velikonja|2003|pp=29–30}} The Bosnian [[Franciscans]] (and the Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decrees and in accordance and the full extent of Ottoman laws; however, in effect, these often merely affected arbitrary rule and behavior of powerful local elite.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}}

As the Ottoman Empire continued its rule in the Balkans ([[Rumelia]]), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as [[Sarajevo]] and [[Mostar]], were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler [[Evliya Çelebi]] in 1648. Within these cities, various Ottoman Sultans financed the construction of many works of [[Architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian architecture]] such as the country's first library in Sarajevo, [[Madrasa|madrassas]], a school of [[Sufi philosophy]], and a clock tower (''Sahat Kula''), bridges such as the [[Stari Most]], the [[Emperor's Mosque]] and the [[Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque]].<ref name="Syed Akhtar Usmani 2011 p. 473">{{cite book | last1=Syed | first1=M.H. | last2=Akhtar | first2=S.S. | last3=Usmani | first3=B.D. | title=Concise History of Islam | publisher=Vij Books India Private Limited | series=Na | year=2011 | isbn=978-93-82573-47-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eACqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA473 | access-date=2021-06-22 | page=473 | archive-date=14 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214150454/https://books.google.com/books?id=eACqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA473 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Furthermore, several Bosnian Muslims played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and [[political history]] during this time.<ref name="Riedlmayer">Riedlmayer, Andras (1993). [http://www.kakarigi.net/manu/briefhis.htm A Brief History of Bosnia–Herzegovina] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618040332/http://www.kakarigi.net/manu/briefhis.htm |date=18 June 2006 }}. The Bosnian Manuscript Ingathering Project.</ref> Bosnian recruits formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of [[Battle of Mohács|Mohács]] and [[Battle of Krbava Field|Krbava field]], while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals such as [[Matrakçı Nasuh]]; generals such as [[Isa Bey Ishaković|Isa-Beg Ishaković]], [[Gazi Husrev Bey|Gazi Husrev-beg]], [[Telli Hasan Pasha]] and [[Sarı Süleyman Pasha]]; administrators such as [[Ferhad Pasha Sokolović]] and [[Osman Gradaščević]]; and Grand [[Vizier]]s such as the influential [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha]] and [[Damat Ibrahim Pasha]]. Some Bosnians emerged as [[Sufism|Sufi]] mystics, scholars such as [[Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi Bosnevi]], [[Ali Džabić]]; and poets in the [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Arabic]], and [[Persian language]]s.<ref name="Imamović, Mustafa 1996">Imamović, Mustafa (1996). Historija Bošnjaka. Sarajevo: BZK Preporod; {{ISBN|9958-815-00-1}}</ref>

However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the end of the [[Great Turkish War]] with the [[treaty of Karlowitz]] in 1699 again made Bosnia the Empire's westernmost province. The 18th century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbreaks of plague.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Koller |first1=Markus |title=Bosnien an der Schwelle zur Neuzeit : eine Kulturgeschichte der Gewalt |date=2004 |publisher=Oldenbourg |location=Munich |isbn=978-3-486-57639-9}}</ref>

The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed [[Tanzimat]] reforms. This, combined with frustrations over territorial, political concessions in the north-east, and the plight of [[Slavs|Slavic]] [[Muslims|Muslim]] refugees arriving from the [[Sanjak of Smederevo]] into [[Bosnia Eyalet]], culminated in a partially unsuccessful revolt by [[Husein Gradaščević]], who endorsed a Bosnia Eyalet autonomous from the authoritarian rule of the Ottoman Sultan [[Mahmud II]], who persecuted, executed and abolished the [[Janissary|Janissaries]] and reduced the role of autonomous [[Pasha]]s in Rumelia. Mahmud II sent his [[Grand vizier]] to subdue Bosnia Eyalet and succeeded only with the reluctant assistance of [[Ali Pasha Rizvanbegović]].<ref name="Imamović, Mustafa 1996"/> Related rebellions were extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate.

New nationalist movements appeared in Bosnia by the middle of the 19th century. Shortly after Serbia's breakaway from the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, Serbian and Croatian nationalism rose up in Bosnia, and such nationalists made irredentist claims to Bosnia's territory. This trend continued to grow in the rest of the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hajdarpasic |first1=Edin |title=Whose Bosnia? Nationalism and Political Imagination in the Balkans, 1840–1914 |date=2015 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=9780801453717 |pages=6–13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZACnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |access-date=21 December 2020 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818212148/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZACnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Agrarian unrest eventually sparked the [[Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877)|Herzegovinian rebellion]], a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation that led to the [[Congress of Berlin]] and the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] in 1878.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}}

===Austria-Hungary===
{{Main|Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878|Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

At the Congress of [[Berlin]] in 1878, the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] Foreign Minister [[Gyula Andrássy]] obtained the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the [[Sanjak of Novi Pazar]], which would remain under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] administration until 1908, when the Austro-Hungarian troops withdrew from the Sanjak.

Although Austro-Hungarian officials quickly came to an agreement with the Bosnians, tensions remained and a mass emigration of Bosnians occurred.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}} However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms they intended would make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model" colony.

[[File:DC-1914-27-d-Sarajevo-cropped.jpg|thumb|The [[Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand|assassination]] of [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria]] and [[Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg]] by [[Gavrilo Princip]] in Sarajevo, 28 June 1914]]

[[Habsburg Monarchy|Habsburg rule]] had several key concerns in Bosnia. It tried to dissipate the South Slav nationalism by disputing the earlier Serb and Croat claims to Bosnia and encouraging identification of Bosnian or [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]] identity.{{sfn|Hajdarpasic|2015|p=161–165}} Habsburg rule also tried to provide for modernisation by codifying laws, introducing new political institutions, establishing and expanding industries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sugar |first1=Peter |title=Industrialization of Bosnia-Hercegovina : 1878–1918 |date=1963 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |isbn=0295738146}}</ref>

Austria–Hungary began to plan the annexation of Bosnia, but due to international disputes the issue was not resolved until the [[Bosnian Crisis|annexation crisis]] of 1908.{{sfn|Albertini|2005|p=94}} Several external matters affected the status of Bosnia and its relationship with Austria–Hungary. [[May Coup (Serbia)|A bloody coup]] occurred in Serbia in 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in [[Belgrade]].{{sfn|Albertini|2005|p=140}} Then in 1908, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire raised concerns that the [[Istanbul]] government might seek the outright return of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austro-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question sooner, rather than later.

Taking advantage of turmoil in the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian diplomacy tried to obtain provisional Russian approval for changes over the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina and published the annexation proclamation on 6 October 1908.{{sfn|Albertini|2005|p=227}} Despite international objections to the Austro-Hungarian annexation, Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1909.

In 1910, Habsburg Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph]] proclaimed the first constitution in Bosnia, which led to relaxation of earlier laws, elections and formation of the [[Diet of Bosnia|Bosnian parliament]] and growth of new political life.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Keil|first1=Soeren|title=Multinational Federalism in Bosnia and Herzegovina|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|pages=61–62}}</ref>

On 28 June 1914, [[Gavrilo Princip]], a [[Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Serb]] member of the revolutionary movement [[Young Bosnia]], [[Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand|assassinated]] the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Archduke Franz Ferdinand]], in Sarajevo—an event that was the spark that set off [[World War I]]. At the end of the war, the [[Bosniaks]] had lost more men per capita than any other ethnic group in the Habsburg Empire whilst serving in the [[Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry]] (known as ''Bosniaken'') of the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]].<ref name="Schachinger">{{cite book|first=Werner|last=Schachinger|title=Die Bosniaken kommen: Elitetruppe in der k.u.k. Armee, 1879–1918|date=1989|publisher=Leopold Stocker}}</ref> Nonetheless, Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed.<ref name="Riedlmayer"/>

The Austro-Hungarian authorities established an auxiliary militia known as the [[Schutzkorps]] with a moot role in the empire's policy of [[Anti-Serb sentiment|anti-Serb]] repression.<ref name="Banac1988">{{cite book|first=Ivo|last=Banac|author-link=Ivo Banac|title=The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KfqbujXqQBkC&pg=PA367|access-date=4 December 2013|date=1988|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-9493-2|page=367|quote=The role of the Schutzkorps, auxiliary militia raised by the Austro-Hungarians, in the policy of anti-Serb repression is moot|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104165337/http://books.google.com/books?id=KfqbujXqQBkC&pg=PA367|archive-date=4 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Schutzkorps, predominantly recruited among the Muslim (Bosniak) population, were tasked with hunting down rebel Serbs (the ''[[Chetniks]]'' and ''[[Komitadji]]''){{sfn|Velikonja|2003|p=141}} and became known for their persecution of [[Serbs]] particularly in Serb populated areas of eastern Bosnia, where they partly retaliated against Serbian Chetniks who in fall 1914 had carried out attacks against the Muslim population in the area.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ivo|last=Banac|author-link=Ivo Banac|title=The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KfqbujXqQBkC&pg=PA149|access-date=4 December 2013|date=1988|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-9493-2|page=149|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105063256/http://books.google.com/books?id=KfqbujXqQBkC&pg=PA149|archive-date=5 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tomasevich|2001|p=485}}{{blockquote|The Bosnian wartime militia (Schutzkorps), which became known for its persecution of Serbs, was overwhelmingly Muslim.}}</ref> The proceedings of the Austro-Hungarian authorities led to around 5,500 citizens of Serb ethnicity in Bosnia and Herzegovina being arrested, and between 700 and 2,200 died in prison while 460 were executed.{{sfn|Velikonja|2003|p=141}} Around 5,200 Serb families were forcibly expelled from Bosnia and Herzegovina.{{sfn|Velikonja|2003|p=141}}

===Kingdom of Yugoslavia===
{{Main|History of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–41)}}
[[File:Čuvajte Jugoslaviju.jpg|thumb|"Keep/Protect Yugoslavia" (Čuvajte Jugoslaviju), a variant of the alleged last words of [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia|King Alexander I]], in an illustration of Yugoslav peoples dancing the [[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]]]

Following World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South Slav [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia and Herzegovina at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over [[Distribution (economics)|property redistribution]] and the formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.<ref name="Riedlmayer"/>

The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia and Herzegovina's major [[ethnic group]]s and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}} The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosnian Muslims; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austria-Hungary, Muslims owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbs owned 6.0%, Croat Catholics owned 2.6% and others, 0.3% of the property. Following the reforms, Bosnian Muslims were dispossessed of a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land.<ref>{{cite web|author=Danijela Nadj|url=http://www.hic.hr/books/seeurope/010e-semiz.htm|title=An International Symposium "Southeastern Europe 1918–1995"|publisher=Hic.hr|access-date=14 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822164923/http://www.hic.hr/books/seeurope/010e-semiz.htm|archive-date=22 August 2006|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although the initial split of the country into 33 [[oblast]]s erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians, such as [[Mehmed Spaho]], ensured the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}}

The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia#Subdivisions|banates]] or ''[[Banovina (region)|banovinas]]'' that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}} Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration.

The [[Cvetković–Maček Agreement|Cvetković-Maček Agreement]] that created the [[Banovina of Croatia|Croatian banate]] in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a [[partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] between Croatia and Serbia.<ref name="Imamović, Mustafa 1996"/> However the rising threat of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany]] forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the signing of the [[Tripartite Pact|Tripartite Treaty]], and a [[Yugoslav coup d'état|coup d'état]], Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}}

===World War II (1941–45)===
{{Main|History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1941–1945)}}
[[File:Neretva most.jpg|thumb|left|The railway bridge over the [[Neretva]] River in [[Jablanica, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Jablanica]], twice destroyed during the 1943 [[Case White]] offensive]]

Once the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by German forces in [[World War II]], all of Bosnia and Herzegovina was ceded to the Nazi puppet regime, the [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH) led by the [[Ustaše]]. The NDH leaders embarked on a [[Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|campaign of extermination]] of Serbs, Jews, [[Romani people|Romani]] as well as dissident Croats, and, later, [[Josip Broz Tito]]'s [[Yugoslav Partisans|Partisans]] by setting up a number of [[Jasenovac concentration camp|death camps]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4479837.stm|title=Balkan 'Auschwitz' haunts Croatia|work=BBC News|date=25 April 2005|access-date=21 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809132401/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4479837.stm|archive-date=9 August 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> The regime systematically and brutally massacred Serbs in villages in the countryside, using a variety of tools.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yeomans |first1=Rory |title=Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxv4-iqVe2wC&pg=PA17 |date=2012 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0822977933 |page=17 |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414084801/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxv4-iqVe2wC&pg=PA17 |url-status=live }}</ref> The scale of the violence meant that approximately every sixth Serb living in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the victim of a massacre and virtually every Serb had a family member that was killed in the war, mostly by the Ustaše. The experience had a profound impact in the collective memory of Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pavković |first1=Aleksandar |title=The Fragmentation of Yugoslavia: Nationalism in a Multinational State |date=1996 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-23037-567-3 |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPaADAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922184137/https://books.google.com/books?id=YPaADAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |url-status=live }}</ref> An estimated 209,000 Serbs or 16.9% of its Bosnia population were killed on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogel |first1=Carole |title=The Breakup of Yugoslavia and the War in Bosnia |date=1998 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-3132-9918-6 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GPQKYuWisi0C&pg=PA48 |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135938/https://books.google.com/books?id=GPQKYuWisi0C&pg=PA48 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Ustaše recognized both Catholicism and Islam as the national religions, but held the position [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], as a symbol of Serb identity, was their greatest foe.<ref name="Ramet, p. 118">Ramet (2006), pgg. 118.</ref> Although Croats were by far the largest ethnic group to constitute the Ustaše, the Vice President of the NDH and leader of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization [[Džafer Kulenović]] was a Muslim, and Muslims in total constituted nearly 12% of the Ustaše military and civil service authority.{{sfn|Velikonja|2003|p=179}}

[[File:Vječna vatra in 2019.jpg|thumb|[[Eternal flame (Sarajevo)|Eternal flame]] memorial to military and civilian [[World War II]] victims in Sarajevo]]

Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks, a Serb nationalist movement with the aim of establishing an ethnically homogeneous '[[Greater Serbia]]n' state<ref>{{cite book|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina P.|date=2006|title=The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0-253-34656-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC|page=145|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331202813/http://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC&printsec=frontcover|archive-date=31 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> within the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The Chetniks, in turn, pursued a [[Chetnik war crimes in World War II|genocidal campaign]] against ethnic Muslims and Croats, as well as persecuting a large number of [[Communism|communist]] Serbs and other Communist sympathizers, with the Muslim populations of Bosnia, Herzegovina and [[Sandžak]] being a primary target.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tomasevich|first=Jozo|author-link=Jozo Tomasevich|date=1975|title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford|isbn=978-0-8047-0857-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoCaAAAAIAAJ|pages=256–261|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416041231/http://books.google.com/books?id=yoCaAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover|archive-date=16 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Once captured, Muslim villagers were systematically massacred by the Chetniks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hoare|first=Marko Attila|author-link=Marko Attila Hoare|date=2006|title=Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks 1941–1943|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-726380-8|page=13}}</ref> Of the 75,000 Muslims who died in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war,<ref name="Cohen">{{cite book|author=Philip J. Cohen|date=1996|title=Serbia's Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History|url=https://archive.org/details/serbiassecretwar0000cohe/page/109|url-access=registration|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station|isbn=978-0-89096-760-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/serbiassecretwar0000cohe/page/109 109–10]}}</ref> approximately 30,000 (mostly civilians) were killed by the Chetniks.<ref name="Geiger">{{cite journal|first=Vladimir|last=Geiger|publisher=Croatian Institute of History|title=Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherand) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators |journal=Review of Croatian History |volume=VIII |issue=1 |date=2012 |url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/103223?lang=en|pages=85–87|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117064114/http://hrcak.srce.hr/103223?lang=en|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Massacres against Croats were smaller in scale but similar in action.{{sfn|Tomasevich|1975|p=259}} Between 64,000 and 79,000 Bosnian Croats were killed between April 1941 to May 1945.<ref name="Cohen"/> Of these, about 18,000 were killed by the Chetniks.<ref name="Geiger"/>

A percentage of Muslims served in Nazi [[13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian)|''Waffen-SS'']] units.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPZmAAAAMAAJ&q=lepre+george|title=Himmler's Bosnian Division: The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943–1945|last=Lepre|first=George|publisher=Schiffer Publishing|date=1997|isbn=0-7643-0134-9|ref=Lepre_1997|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805011359/https://books.google.com/books?id=rPZmAAAAMAAJ&q=lepre+george|url-status=live}}</ref> These units were responsible for massacres of Serbs in northwest and eastern Bosnia, most notably in [[Vlasenica]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burg |first1=Steven L. |last2=Shoup |first2=Paul |title=The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention |date=1999 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-1-5632-4308-0 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SopQbK_nAxgC&pg=PA38 |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414085102/https://books.google.com/books?id=SopQbK_nAxgC&pg=PA38 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 12 October 1941, a group of 108 prominent Sarajevan Muslims signed the [[Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims]] by which they condemned the persecution of Serbs organized by the Ustaše, made distinction between Muslims who participated in such persecutions and the Muslim population as a whole, presented information about the persecutions of Muslims by Serbs, and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hadžijahić|first=Muhamed|title=Istorija Naroda Bosne i Hercegovine|date=1973|publisher=Institut za istoriju radničkog pokreta|location=Sarajevo|language=sh|page=277|chapter=Muslimanske rezolucije iz 1941 godine [Muslim resolutions of 1941]|chapter-url=https://www.scribd.com/document/47323922/Muhamed-Hadzijahic-Muslimanske-rezolucije-1941|access-date=2 January 2022|archive-date=2 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102160609/https://www.scribd.com/document/47323922/Muhamed-Hadzijahic-Muslimanske-rezolucije-1941|url-status=live}}</ref>

Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the Partisans, who fought against both [[Axis powers|Axis]] and Chetnik forces. On 29 November 1943, the [[Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia]] (AVNOJ) with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in [[Jajce]] where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Redžić |first1=Enver |title=Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War |date=2005 |publisher=Frank Cass |location=London |pages=225–227}}</ref> During the entire course of [[World War II in Yugoslavia]], 64.1% of all Bosnian Partisans were Serbs, 23% were Muslims and 8.8% Croats.<ref name="anubih.ba-Hoare">{{cite web |author1=Marko Attila Hoare |author1-link=Marko Attila Hoare |title=The Great Serbian threat, ZAVNOBiH and Muslim Bosniak entry into the People's Liberation Movement |url=https://publications.anubih.ba/bitstream/handle/123456789/52/Zbornik%20ZAVNOBiH%20sve%2015-04-2019-4-115-130.pdf?sequence=7&isAllowed=y |website=anubih.ba |publisher=Posebna izdanja ANUBiH |access-date=21 December 2020 |pages=123 |language=en |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201071114/https://publications.anubih.ba/bitstream/handle/123456789/52/Zbornik%20ZAVNOBiH%20sve%2015-04-2019-4-115-130.pdf?sequence=7&isAllowed=y |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Military success eventually prompted the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] to support the Partisans, resulting in the successful [[Maclean Mission]], but Tito declined their offer to help and relied on his own forces instead. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of the fighting. More than 300,000 people died in Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II, or more than 10% of the population.<ref>{{cite book|last=Žerjavić|first=Vladimir|title=Yugoslavia manipulations with the number Second World War victims|year=1993|publisher=Croatian Information Centre|isbn=0-919817-32-7|url=http://www.hic.hr/books/manipulations/index.htm|access-date=12 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230428/http://www.hic.hr/books/manipulations/index.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> At the end of the war, the establishment of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], with the [[1946 Yugoslav Constitution|constitution of 1946]], officially made Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}}

===Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1992)===
{{Main|Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Flag of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg|thumb|Bosnia and Herzegovina's flag while part of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]]]

Due to its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia; a significant factor in [[Bosnian War|the war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia]] in the 1990s.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}} However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was relatively peaceful and very prosperous, with high employment, a strong industrial and export oriented economy, a good education system and social and medical security for every citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Several international corporations operated in Bosnia—[[Volkswagen]] as part of TAS (car factory in Sarajevo, from 1972), [[Coca-Cola]] (from 1975), SKF Sweden (from 1967), [[Marlboro (cigarette)|Marlboro]] (a tobacco factory in Sarajevo), and [[Holiday Inn]] hotels. Sarajevo was the site of the [[1984 Winter Olympics]].

During the 1950s and 1960s, Bosnia was a political backwater of Yugoslavia. In the 1970s, a strong Bosnian political elite arose, fueled in part by Tito's leadership in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and Bosnians serving in Yugoslavia's diplomatic corps. While working within the Socialist system, politicians such as [[Džemal Bijedić]], [[Branko Mikulić]] and [[Hamdija Pozderac]] reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref name="Stojic">Stojic, Mile (2005). [http://www.bosnia.org.uk/bosrep/report_format.cfm?articleid=3058&reportid=170 Branko Mikulic&nbsp;– socialist emperor manqué] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060809231734/http://www.bosnia.org.uk/bosrep/report_format.cfm?articleid=3058&reportid=170 |date=9 August 2006 }}. [[Dani (magazine)|BH Dani]]</ref> Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards [[Independence Day (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Bosnian independence]]. However, the republic did not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time. With the fall of communism and the start of the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]], doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence.<ref name="Popovski 2017 p. 127">{{cite book | last=Popovski | first=I. | title=A Short History of South East Europe | publisher=Lulu.com | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-365-95394-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEIkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT127 | access-date=2021-06-22 | page=127 | archive-date=14 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214150456/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEIkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT127 | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Bosnian War (1992–1995)===
{{Main|Bosnian War}}
{{See also|Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Breakup of Yugoslavia.gif|thumb|upright=1.45|Dissolution of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]]]

On 18 November 1990, [[1990 Bosnian general election|multi-party parliamentary elections]] were held throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina. A second round followed on 25 November, resulting in a [[Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina|national assembly]] where communist power was replaced by a coalition of three ethnically based parties.<ref name="phron1">{{cite web|url=http://phron.org/Reference/Books/Balkans%20-%20post%20communist%20history.pdf |title=The Balkans: A post-Communist History|access-date=14 June 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701210204/http://phron.org/Reference/Books/Balkans%20-%20post%20communist%20history.pdf |archive-date=1 July 2014}}</ref> Following [[Slovenia]] and [[Croatia]]'s declarations of independence from Yugoslavia, a significant split developed among the residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the issue of whether to remain within Yugoslavia (overwhelmingly favored by Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored by Bosniaks and Croats).<ref name="The Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination 1995">{{cite web | title=Bosnia – Herzegovina | website=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination | date=1995-11-21 | url=https://pesd.princeton.edu/node/201 | access-date=2021-06-22 | archive-date=24 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624203925/https://pesd.princeton.edu/node/201 | url-status=live }}</ref>

The Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of the [[Serb Democratic Party (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Serb Democratic Party]] members, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed the [[National Assembly (Republika Srpska)|Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] on 24 October 1991, which marked the end of the three-ethnic coalition that governed after the elections in 1990. This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in part of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992. It was renamed [[Republika Srpska (1992–1995)|Republika Srpska]] in August 1992. On 18 November 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the [[Croatian Democratic Union]] (HDZ), proclaimed the existence of the [[Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia|Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia]] in a separate part of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the [[Croatian Defence Council]] (HVO) as its military branch.<ref name="ICTY: Prlić et al. (IT-04-74)">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/icty/indictment/english/prl-ii040304e.htm|title=ICTY: Prlić et al. (IT-04-74) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802021727/http://www.un.org/icty/indictment/english/prl-ii040304e.htm |archive-date=2 August 2009}}</ref> It went unrecognized by the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], which declared it illegal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://secnet069.un.org/x/cases/prlic/ind/en/prl-ii040304e.htm|title=Prlic et al. Initial Indictment|publisher=United Nations|access-date=3 February 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228191656/http://secnet069.un.org/x/cases/prlic/ind/en/prl-ii040304e.htm|archive-date=28 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/hadzihasanovic_kubura/ind/en/had-ai020111e.pdf |title=The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Case NO: IT-01-47-PT (Amended Indictment) |date=11 January 2002 |access-date=1 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131414/http://www.icty.org/x/cases/hadzihasanovic_kubura/ind/en/had-ai020111e.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Norsk Sisu fra NORLOGB.jpg|thumb|[[United Nations|UN]] troops in front of the [[Greece–Bosnia and Herzegovina Friendship Building|Executive Council Building]], burned after being struck by tank fire during the [[siege of Sarajevo]], 1995]]

A declaration of the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 15 October 1991 was followed by a [[1992 Bosnian independence referendum|referendum for independence]] on 29 February and 1 March 1992, which was boycotted by the great majority of Serbs. The turnout in the independence referendum was 63.4 percent and 99.7 percent of voters voted for independence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://csce.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=UserGroups.Home&ContentRecord_id=250&ContentType=G&ContentRecordType=G&UserGroup_id=5&Subaction=ByDate |title=The Referendum on Independence in Bosnia–Herzegovina: February 29&nbsp;– March 1, 1992 |date=1992 |publisher=Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe |page=19 |access-date=28 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522132353/http://csce.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=UserGroups.Home&ContentRecord_id=250&ContentType=G&ContentRecordType=G&UserGroup_id=5&Subaction=ByDate|archive-date=22 May 2011}}</ref> Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992 and received international recognition the following month on 6 April 1992.<ref>{{cite book|title=Contested lands: Israel-Palestine, Kashmir, Bosnia, Cyprus, and Sri Lanka|first=Sumantra|last=Bose|page=124|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KKZcgOJPjVkC&pg=PA124|publisher=Harvard University Press|date=2009|isbn=9780674028562|access-date=11 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111175731/https://books.google.com/books?id=KKZcgOJPjVkC&pg=PA124|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] was admitted as a member state of the [[United Nations]] on 22 May 1992.<ref>{{cite book|title=Admission to the United Nations: Charter Article 4 and the Rise of Universal Organization|first=Thomas|last=D. Grant|page=226|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Uuv0NLNdZQC&pg=PA226|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|date=2009|isbn=978-9004173637|access-date=11 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111175731/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Uuv0NLNdZQC&pg=PA226|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Serbian leader [[Slobodan Milošević]] and Croatian leader [[Franjo Tuđman]] are believed to have agreed on a [[partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in March 1991, with the aim of establishing [[Greater Serbia]] and [[Greater Croatia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina P.|title=The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2004|date=2006|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-271-01629-9|page=379}}</ref>

Following Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of independence, Bosnian Serb militias mobilized in different parts of the country. Government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war.<ref name="ICTY: Naletilić and Martinović verdict&nbsp;— A. Historical background">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/icty/naletilic/trialc/judgement/nal-tj030331-1.htm#IIA|title=ICTY: Naletilić and Martinović verdict&nbsp;– A. Historical background |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619013724/http://www.un.org/icty/naletilic/trialc/judgement/nal-tj030331-1.htm#IIA |archive-date=19 June 2009}}</ref> International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA) to withdraw from the republic's territory, which they officially did in June 1992. The Bosnian Serb members of the JNA simply changed insignia, formed the [[Army of Republika Srpska]] (VRS), and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the [[Serbia and Montenegro|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], [[Republika Srpska]]'s offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control.{{sfn|Malcolm|2002}} The Bosnian Serb advance was accompanied by the [[ethnic cleansing]] of Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats from VRS-controlled areas. Dozens of concentration camps were established in which inmates were subjected to violence and abuse, including rape.<ref name="ICTY: Kunarac, Kovač and Vuković judgement&nbsp;— Foča">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/icty/kunarac/trialc2/judgement/kun-tj010222e-5.htm#VC |title=ICTY: The attack against the civilian population and related requirements |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219012918/http://un.org/icty/kunarac/trialc2/judgement/kun-tj010222e-5.htm#VC |archive-date=19 February 2009}}</ref> The ethnic cleansing culminated in the [[Srebrenica massacre]] of more than 8,000 Bosniak men and boys in July 1995, which was ruled to have been a [[genocide]] by the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY).<ref>''The Geography of Genocide'', Allan D. Cooper, p. 178, University Press of America, 2008, {{ISBN|0-7618-4097-4}}</ref> Bosniak and Bosnian Croat forces also committed war crimes against civilians from different ethnic groups, though on a smaller scale.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/icty/celebici/trialc2/judgement/index.htm |title=Judgement |publisher=UN |date=5 March 2007 |access-date=13 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016042438/http://www.un.org/icty/celebici/trialc2/judgement/index.htm |archive-date=16 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/p561-e.htm |title=Press Release |publisher=UN |date=5 March 2007 |access-date=7 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324044908/http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/p561-e.htm |archive-date=24 March 2009}}</ref><ref name="haverford">{{cite web |url=http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/stolac/CrimesSt.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109091102/http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/stolac/CrimesSt.pdf |archive-date=9 January 2009 |title=Crimes in Stolac Municipality}}</ref><ref name="un">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/icty/indictment/english/prl-ii040304e.htm |title=Indictment |publisher=UN |date=5 March 2007 |access-date=7 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050212165106/http://www.un.org/icty/indictment/english/prl-ii040304e.htm |archive-date=12 February 2005}}</ref> Most of the Bosniak and Croat atrocities were committed during the [[Croat–Bosniak War]], a sub-conflict of the Bosnian War that pitted the [[Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (ARBiH) against the HVO. The Bosniak-Croat conflict ended in March 1994, with the signing of the [[Washington Agreement (1994)|Washington Agreement]], leading to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], which amalgamated HVO-held territory with that held by the [[Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (ARBiH).<ref name="Lumen Learning – Simple Book Production 2017">{{cite web | title=The Yugoslav War – Boundless World History | website=Lumen Learning – Simple Book Production | date=2017-05-31 | url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-yugoslav-war/ | access-date=2021-06-22 | archive-date=24 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624210903/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-yugoslav-war/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Recent history===
{{Main|2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Bosnian social protests Tuzla.jpg|thumb|[[Tuzla]] government building burning after [[2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina|anti-government clashes]] on 7 February 2014]]

On 4 February 2014, the [[2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina|protests]] against the [[Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], one of the country's two entities, dubbed the Bosnian Spring, the name being taken from the [[Arab Spring]], began in the northern town of [[Tuzla]]. Workers from several factories that had been privatised and gone bankrupt assembled to demand action over jobs, unpaid salaries and pensions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26093160|title=Bosnian protests: A Balkan Spring?|date=8 February 2014|work=BBC|access-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209034452/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26093160|archive-date=9 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Soon protests spread to the rest of the Federation, with violent clashes reported in close to 20 towns, the biggest of which were [[Sarajevo]], [[Zenica]], [[Mostar]], [[Bihać]], [[Brčko]] and Tuzla.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.klix.ba/gradjanski-bunt |title=Građanski bunt u BiH |date=8 February 2014 |work=klix.ba |access-date=8 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207102210/http://www.klix.ba/gradjanski-bunt |archive-date=7 February 2014}}</ref> The Bosnian news media reported that hundreds of people had been injured during the protests, including dozens of police officers, with bursts of violence in Sarajevo, in the northern city of Tuzla, in Mostar in the south, and in Zenica in central Bosnia. The same level of unrest or activism did not occur in Republika Srpska, but hundreds of people also gathered in support of protests in the city of [[Banja Luka]] against its separate government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/08/world/europe/protests-over-government-and-economy-roil-bosnia.html|title=Protests Over Government and Economy Roil Bosnia|date=8 February 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=8 February 2014|first=Dan|last=Bilefsky|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208020056/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/08/world/europe/protests-over-government-and-economy-roil-bosnia.html|archive-date=8 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/bosnia-demonstrations-tuzla-clashes/25256653.html|title=Bosnian Protesters Torch Government Buildings in Sarajevo, Tuzla|date=8 February 2014|work=rferl.org|access-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208020133/http://www.rferl.org/content/bosnia-demonstrations-tuzla-clashes/25256653.html|archive-date=8 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26086857|title=Bosnia–Hercegovina protests break out in violence|date=8 February 2014|work=BBC|access-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207234045/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26086857|archive-date=7 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

The protests marked the largest outbreak of public anger over high unemployment and two decades of political inertia in the country since the end of the Bosnian War in 1995.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/bosnian-protesters-storm-government-buildings-20140208-hvbn6.html|title=Bosnian protesters storm government buildings|date=8 February 2014|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140617202302/http://www.smh.com.au/world/bosnian-protesters-storm-government-buildings-20140208-hvbn6.html|archive-date=17 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to a report made by [[Christian Schmidt (politician)|Christian Schmidt]] of the [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|Office of High Representative]] in late 2021, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been experiencing intensified political and ethnic tensions, which could potentially break the country apart and slide it back into war once again.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-22|title=Bosnian Serb police drill seen as separatist 'provocation'|url=https://apnews.com/article/europe-race-and-ethnicity-racial-injustice-sarajevo-90c9d5a395026947ec7383bc2a49b649|access-date=2021-11-02|website=AP NEWS|language=en|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102152723/https://apnews.com/article/europe-race-and-ethnicity-racial-injustice-sarajevo-90c9d5a395026947ec7383bc2a49b649|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-02|title=Bosnia is in danger of breaking up, warns top international official|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/02/bosnia-is-in-danger-of-breaking-up-warns-eus-top-official-in-the-state|access-date=2021-11-02|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102053853/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/02/bosnia-is-in-danger-of-breaking-up-warns-eus-top-official-in-the-state|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[European Union]] fears this will lead to further [[Balkanization]] in the region.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-11-03|title=Bosnian leader stokes fears of Balkan breakup|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-59130945|access-date=2021-11-03|archive-date=3 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103053808/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-59130945|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
{{See also|List of mountains in Bosnia and Herzegovina|List of lakes of Bosnia and Herzegovina|List of rivers of Bosnia and Herzegovina|l1=List of mountains|l2=lakes|l3=rivers of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

{{Multiple image
| caption align = center
| align         = right
| direction     = vertical
| width         = 230
| image1        = NP001 nacionalni park sutjeska perucica.jpg
| caption1      = [[Sutjeska National Park]] contains [[Maglić (mountain)|Maglić]], the highest mountain in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as [[Perućica]], one of the last remaining [[Old-growth forest|primeval forests]] in Europe
| image2        = NP002 - 14.jpg
| caption2      = [[Kozara|Kozara Mountain]], [[Kozara National Park]]
| image3        = Štrbački buk 1.jpg
| caption3      = [[Štrbački buk]] waterfall on the [[Una (Sava)|Una]] River, [[Una National Park]]
| image4        = Drina Canyon.JPG
| caption4      = [[Drina]] river canyon, [[Drina National Park]]
}}

Bosnia and Herzegovina is in the western [[Balkans]], bordering [[Croatia]] ({{convert|932|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=on}}) to the north and west, [[Serbia]] ({{convert|302|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=on}}) to the east, and [[Montenegro]] ({{convert|225|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=on}}) to the southeast. It has a coastline about {{convert|20|km|abbr=off}} long surrounding the town of [[Neum]].<ref name="coastline">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html Field Listing&nbsp;– Coastline] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716042040/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |date=16 July 2017 }}, ''[[The World Factbook]]'', 22 August 2006</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563626/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.html |title=Bosnia and Herzegovina: I: Introduction |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]] |date=2006 |access-date=12 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029080505/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563626/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.html |archive-date=29 October 2009}}</ref> It lies between latitudes [[42nd parallel north|42°]] and [[46th parallel north|46° N]], and longitudes [[15th meridian east|15°]] and [[20th meridian east|20° E]].

The country's name comes from the two alleged regions [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] and [[Herzegovina]], whose border was never defined. Historically, Bosnia's official name never included any of its many regions until the Austro-Hungarian occupation.

The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central [[Dinaric Alps]]. The northeastern parts reach into the [[Pannonian Basin]], while in the south it borders the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]]. The Dinaric Alps generally run in a southeast–northwest direction, and get higher towards the south. The highest point of the country is the peak of [[Maglić (mountain)|Maglić]] at {{convert|2386|m|ft|1|abbr=off}}, on the Montenegrin border. Other major mountains include [[Volujak (mountain)|Volujak]], [[Zelengora]], [[Lelija]], [[Lebršnik]], [[Orjen]], [[Kozara]], [[Grmeč]], [[Čvrsnica]], [[Prenj]], [[Vran]], [[Vranica]], [[Velež (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Velež]], [[Vlašić (Bosnian mountain)|Vlašić]], [[Cincar]], [[Romanija]], [[Jahorina]], [[Bjelašnica]], [[Treskavica]] and [[Trebević]]. The geological composition of the Dinaric chain of mountains in Bosnia consists primarily of [[limestone]] (including [[Mesozoic]] limestone), with deposits of [[iron]], [[coal]], [[zinc]], [[manganese]], [[bauxite]], [[lead]], and [[salt]] present in some areas, especially in central and northern Bosnia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cuvalo|first1=Ante|title=The A to Z of Bosnia and Herzegovina|date=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Plymouth, UK|isbn=978-0810876477|page=lxxi, 154–155}}</ref>

Overall, nearly 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in the centre, east and west parts of Bosnia. Herzegovina has a drier Mediterranean climate, with dominant [[karst]] topography. Northern Bosnia ([[Posavina]]) contains very fertile agricultural land along the [[Sava]] river and the corresponding area is heavily farmed. This farmland is a part of the Pannonian Plain stretching into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. The country has only {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=off}} of coastline,<ref name="coastline"/><ref name="Neum coastline">[https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina Bosnia-and-Herzegovina Neum britannica.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905090118/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina |date=5 September 2015 }}, ''britannica.com'', 9 September 2015</ref> around the town of Neum in the [[Herzegovina-Neretva Canton]]. Although the city is surrounded by Croatian peninsulas, by international law, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a [[right of passage]] to the outer sea.

[[Sarajevo]] is the capital<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.ccbh.ba/public/down/USTAV_BOSNE_I_HERCEGOVINE_engl.pdf|title=Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina|access-date=6 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028162530/http://www.ccbh.ba/public/down/USTAV_BOSNE_I_HERCEGOVINE_engl.pdf|archive-date=28 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and largest city.{{sfn|CIA|2019}} Other major cities include [[Banja Luka]] and [[Prijedor]] in the northwest region known as [[Bosanska Krajina]], [[Tuzla]], [[Bijeljina]], [[Doboj]] and [[Brčko]] in the northeast, [[Zenica]] in the central part of the country, and [[Mostar]], the largest city in the southern region of [[Herzegovina]].

There are seven major rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina:<ref name="fao">{{cite web |title=Watershed Management in Mountain Regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina |url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0269e/A0269E05.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014093452/ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0269e/A0269E05.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2017-10-14 |publisher=FAO |page=113 |author=Izet Čengić, Azra Čabaravdić |access-date=16 June 2011 }}</ref>

{{Flowlist|
*The [[Sava]] is the largest river of the country, and forms its northern [[natural border]] with Croatia. It drains 76%<ref name=fao/> of the country's territory into the [[Danube]] and then the [[Black Sea]]. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the [[International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River]] (ICPDR).
*The [[Una (Sava)|Una]], [[Sana (river)|Sana]] and [[Vrbas (river)|Vrbas]] are right tributaries of the Sava. They are in the northwestern region of [[Bosanska Krajina]].
*The [[Bosna (river)|Bosna]] river gave its name to the country, and is the longest river fully contained within it. It stretches through central Bosnia, from its source near [[Sarajevo]] to Sava in the north.
*The [[Drina]] flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, and for the most part it forms a natural border with Serbia.
*The [[Neretva]] is the major river of Herzegovina and the only major river that flows south, into the Adriatic Sea.
}}

===Biodiversity===
{{Main|Environment of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Biodiversity}}

[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the [[Boreal Kingdom]] and is shared between the Illyrian province of the [[Circumboreal Region]] and Adriatic province of the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Region]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF), the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into four [[ecoregion]]s: [[Balkan mixed forests]], [[Dinaric Mountains mixed forests]], [[Pannonian mixed forests]] and [[Illyrian deciduous forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287}}</ref> The country had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 5.99/10, ranking it 89th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |s2cid=228082162|doi-access=free}}</ref> In Bosnia and Herzegovina [[forest cover]] is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 2,187,910 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 2,210,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. For the year 2015, 74% of the forest area was reported to be under [[State ownership|public ownership]] and 26% [[Private property|private ownership]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/enwiki/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Bosnia and Herzegovina |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/BIH/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

===Government===
{{Main|Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Map Bih entities.png|thumb|Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (FBiH), [[Republika Srpska]] (RS) and [[Brčko District]] (BD)]]

As a result of the [[Dayton Agreement]], the civilian peace implementation is supervised by the [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina]] selected by the [[Peace Implementation Council]] (PIC). The High Representative is the highest political authority in the country. The High Representative has many governmental and legislative powers, including the dismissal of elected and non-elected officials. Due to the vast powers of the High Representative over [[Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian politics]] and essential [[veto]] powers, the position has also been compared to that of a [[viceroy]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Two visions for Bosnia |url=https://www.economist.com/eastern-approaches/2011/04/13/two-visions-for-bosnia |newspaper=The Economist |date=13 April 2011 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712152241/https://www.economist.com/eastern-approaches/2011/04/13/two-visions-for-bosnia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Carlos Westendorp, Bosnia's Euro-Spanish viceroy |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/1998/09/03/carlos-westendorp-bosnias-euro-spanish-viceroy |newspaper=The Economist |date=3 September 1998 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=13 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713162742/https://www.economist.com/europe/1998/09/03/carlos-westendorp-bosnias-euro-spanish-viceroy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Interview: Christian Schwarz-Schilling, High Representative for BiH: "The Last Bosnian Viceroy" |url=http://www.ohr.int/interview-christian-schwarz-schilling-high-representative-for-bih-the-last-bosnian-viceroy-4/ |website=Office of the High Representative |language=sr-RS |date=31 March 2006 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=14 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714005227/http://www.ohr.int/interview-christian-schwarz-schilling-high-representative-for-bih-the-last-bosnian-viceroy-4/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Google books|55NPpA6EvyMC|A Biographical Encyclopedia of Contemporary Genocide: Portraits of Evil and Good|page=25|keywords=Viceroy|text=|plainurl=}}</ref>

Politics take place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy]], whereby [[Executive (government)|executive power]] is exercised by the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. [[Legislature|Legislative power]] is vested in both the Council of Ministers and the [[Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. Members of the Parliamentary Assembly are chosen according to a [[proportional representation]] (PR) system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.parlament.ba/Content/Read/182?title=ParlamentarizamuBosniiHercegoviniuperiodu1945.%E2%80%931990.&lang=en|title=Parliamentarism in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the period 1945 – 1990|website=parlament.ba|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913174033/http://parlament.ba/Content/Read/182?title=ParlamentarizamuBosniiHercegoviniuperiodu1945.%E2%80%931990.&lang=en|archive-date=13 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccbh.ba/public/down/USTAV_BOSNE_I_HERCEGOVINE_engl.pdf|title=Open and transparent budget process in Western Balkan countries|author=Marjan Nikolov and Borce Trenovski and Gabriela Dimovska|publisher=MPRA Paper No. 76299|year=2015|access-date=1 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028162530/http://www.ccbh.ba/public/down/USTAV_BOSNE_I_HERCEGOVINE_engl.pdf|archive-date=28 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a [[liberal democracy]].{{clarify|date=January 2023}} It has several levels of political structuring, according to the [[Dayton Agreement]]. The most important of these levels is the division of the country into two entities: the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Republika Srpska]]. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total area, while Republika Srpska covers 49%. The entities, based largely on the territories held by the two warring sides at the time, were formally established by the Dayton Agreement in 1995 because of the tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina's ethnic structure. At the national level, there exists only a finite set of exclusive or joint competencies, whereas the majority of authority rests within the entities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kapidžić |first=Damir |chapter=Subnational competitive authoritarianism and power-sharing in Bosnia and Herzegovina |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003208327-5/subnational-competitive-authoritarianism-power-sharing-bosnia-herzegovina-damir-kapid%C5%BEi%C4%87 |title=Illiberal Politics in Southeast Europe |year=2021 |pages=79–99 |access-date=2023-03-29 |doi=10.4324/9781003208327-5|isbn=9781003208327 }}</ref> [[Sumantra Bose]] describes Bosnia and Herzegovina as a consociational [[confederation]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bose |first=Sumantra |author-link=Sumantra Bose |date=2003 |title=Bosnia after Dayton. Nationalist Partition and International Intervention |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=21 |isbn=9781850656456}}</ref>

The [[Brčko District]] in the north of the country was created in 2000, out of land from both entities. It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. For election purposes, Brčko District voters can choose to participate in either the Federation or Republika Srpska elections. The Brčko District has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a level of prosperity significantly above the national average.<ref name="OHR">OHR Bulletin 66 (3 February 1998). [http://www.ohr.int/ohr-dept/presso/chronology/bulletins/default.asp?content_id=4991#8&nbsp;– Final hearing of the Arbitration Tribunal in Vienna] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605052623/http://www.ohr.int/ohr-dept/presso/chronology/bulletins/default.asp?content_id=4991#8&nbsp; |date=5 June 2015 }}. OHR.</ref>

{{Multiple image
| align     = right
| direction = vertical
| width     = 220
| image1 = Parliament (6042784223).jpg
| caption1 = Bosnia and Herzegovina's [[Greece–Bosnia and Herzegovina Friendship Building|government building]] in [[Sarajevo]]
| image2    = Hipotekarna banka palata predsjednika.JPG
| caption2  = [[Palace of the Republic, Banja Luka|Palace of the Republic]] in [[Banja Luka]]
}}

The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivision is manifested in [[Cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|cantons]]. They are unique to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, which consists of ten of them. Each has a cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special laws to ensure the equality of all constituent people.<ref name="Mansfield 2003 pp. 2052–2093">{{cite journal|last=Morawiec Mansfield|first=Anna|title=Ethnic but Equal: The Quest for a New Democratic Order in Bosnia and Herzegovina|journal=Columbia Law Review|publisher=Columbia Law Review Association, Inc.|volume=103|issue=8|year=2003|issn=0010-1958|pages=2052–2093|doi=10.2307/3593383|jstor=3593383|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3593383|access-date=2021-06-22|archive-date=2 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102161309/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3593383|url-status=live}}</ref>

The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina are the [[Municipalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina|municipalities]]. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into 79 municipalities, and Republika Srpska into 64. Municipalities also have their own local government, and are typically based on the most significant city or place in their territory. As such, many municipalities have a long tradition and history with their present boundaries. Some others, however, were only created following the recent war after traditional municipalities were split by the [[Inter-Entity Boundary Line]]. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, which are divided into local communities.<ref name="CoR">{{cite web | title=Division of Powers – Bosnia-Herzegovina | website=CoR | url=https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/Bosnia-Herzegovina.aspx | access-date=2021-06-22 | archive-date=24 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624203658/https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/Bosnia-Herzegovina.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref>

Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four "official" cities. These are: [[Banja Luka]], [[Mostar]], [[Sarajevo]] and [[Istočno Sarajevo|East Sarajevo]]. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities. Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or the entity, in the case of Republika Srpska).

More recently, several central institutions have been established (such as a [[defence minister|defense ministry]], security ministry, state court, [[indirect tax]]ation service and so on) in the process of transferring part of the jurisdiction from the entities to the state. The representation of the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina is by elites who represent the country's three major groups, with each having a guaranteed share of power.

The [[Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Chair]] of the [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] rotates among three members ([[Bosniaks|Bosniak]], [[Serbs|Serb]], [[Croats|Croat]]), each elected as the chair for an eight-month term within their four-year term as a member. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people, with Federation voters voting for the Bosniak and the Croat and the Republika Srpska voters voting for the Serb.

The [[Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Chair of the Council of Ministers]] is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the parliamentary [[House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina|House of Representatives]]. The Chair of the Council of Ministers is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade and others as appropriate.

The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the [[House of Peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina|House of Peoples]] and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples has 15 delegates chosen by parliaments of the entities, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Bosniaks and 5 Croats) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members elected by the people under a form of proportional representation, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from Republika Srpska.<ref name="Heath-Brown 2017 p. 221">{{cite book | last=Heath-Brown | first=N. | title=The Statesman's Yearbook 2016: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the World | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-349-57823-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDkUDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA221 | access-date=2021-06-22 | page=221 | archive-date=14 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214150504/https://books.google.com/books?id=lDkUDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA221 | url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] is the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the [[House of Representatives of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Federal House of Representatives]], two by the [[National Assembly (Republika Srpska)|National Assembly of Republika Srpska]] and three by the President of the [[European Court of Human Rights]] after consultation with the Presidency, who cannot be Bosnian citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccbh.ba/o-sudu/?title=ustrojstvo |title='Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Organization'|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224192030/http://www.ccbh.ba/o-sudu/?title=ustrojstvo|archive-date=24 February 2021}}</ref>

However, the highest political authority in the country is the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chief [[executive officer]] for the international civilian presence in the country and is selected by the [[European Union]]. Since 1995, the High Representative has been able to bypass the elected parliamentary assembly, and since 1997 has been able to remove elected officials. The methods selected by the High Representative have been criticized as undemocratic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.law.nyu.edu/eecr/vol7num2/special/bosnia.html |title='The Contradictions of "Democracy" without Consent', East European Constitutional Review, New York University Law School, 1998 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517144513/http://www.law.nyu.edu/eecr/vol7num2/special/bosnia.html |archive-date=17 May 2013}}</ref> International supervision [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina#Conditions for closure of the Office of the High Representative|is to end when the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustaining]].

[[Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina]] is a severe problem.

===Military===
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; border:1px #ddd solid;"
|+ '''Branches of the Bosnian-Herzegovian Armed Forces'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="width:200px;"|[[File:Combined Resolve XV AFBiH2 RPG Dismount.jpg|border|x120px]]<br><small>[[Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Ground Forces]]<br>Combined Resolve XV</small>
| style="width:200px;"|[[File:Bell Huey II Bosnian Air Force.jpg|border|x120px]]<br><small>[[Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Air Force]]<br>[[Bell UH-1 Iroquois|TH-1H Huey]] [[Military transport aircraft|main transport aircraft]]</small>
|}

The [[Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (OSBiH) were unified into a single entity in 2005, with the merger of the [[Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and the [[Army of Republika Srpska]], which had defended their respective regions.<ref name="Lobjakas 2005">{{cite web | last=Lobjakas | first=Ahto | title=Bosnia-Herzegovina: NATO Aims To Merge Rival Armies Into Single Bosnian Force | website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty | date=2005-08-18 | url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1060755.html | access-date=2021-06-22 | archive-date=24 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204940/https://www.rferl.org/a/1060755.html | url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Ministry of Defence (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Ministry of Defence]] was formed in 2004.<ref name="NATO 2004">{{cite web | title=Opinion: Nikola Radovanović: Bosnian Defence Minister, 01-Oct.-2004 | website=NATO | date=2004-03-15 | url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_21117.htm | access-date=2021-06-22 | archive-date=29 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629033915/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_21117.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

The Bosnian military consists of the [[Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Ground Forces]] and [[Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Air Force and Air Defense]].<ref name="European Western Balkans 2017">{{cite web | title=The Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Role of NATO | website=European Western Balkans | date=2017-01-20 | url=https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2017/01/20/the-armed-forces-of-bosnia-and-herzegovina-and-the-role-of-nato/ | access-date=2021-06-23 | archive-date=16 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816222528/https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2017/01/20/the-armed-forces-of-bosnia-and-herzegovina-and-the-role-of-nato/ | url-status=live }}</ref> The Ground Forces number 7,200 active and 5,000 reserve personnel.<ref name="mod.gov.ba 2016">{{cite web | title=MINISTARSTVO ODBRANE I ORUŽANE SNAGE BOSNE I HERCEGOVINE MINISTARSTVO ODB | website=mod.gov.ba | date=2016-03-04 | url=http://www.mod.gov.ba/files/file/brosure/Brosura_MO_mart_2013_bs.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032832/http://www.mod.gov.ba/files/file/brosure/Brosura_MO_mart_2013_bs.pdf | archive-date=2016-03-04 | url-status=dead | access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> They are armed with a mix of American, Yugoslavian, Soviet, and European-made weaponry, vehicles, and military equipment. The Air Force and Air Defense Forces have 1,500 personnel and about 62 aircraft. The Air Defense Forces operate [[Man-portable air-defense system|MANPADS]] hand-held missiles, [[surface-to-air missile]] (SAM) batteries, anti-aircraft cannons, and radar. The Army has recently adopted remodeled [[MARPAT]] uniforms, used by Bosnian soldiers serving with the [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) in [[Afghanistan]]. A domestic production program is now underway to ensure that army units are equipped with the correct ammunition.<ref name="Global Firepower">{{cite web | title=2021 Bosnia and Herzegovina Military Strength | website=Global Firepower | url=https://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.php?country_id=bosnia-and-herzegovina | access-date=2021-06-23 | archive-date=24 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624212133/https://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.php?country_id=bosnia-and-herzegovina | url-status=live }}</ref>

Beginning in 2007, the Ministry of Defence undertook the army's first ever international assistance mission, enlisting the military to serve with ISAF peace missions to Afghanistan, [[Iraq]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] in 2007. Five officers, acting as officers/advisors, served in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 45 soldiers, mostly acting as base security and medical assistants, served in Afghanistan. 85 Bosnian soldiers served as base security in Iraq, occasionally conducting infantry patrols there as well. All three deployed groups have been commended by their respective international forces as well as the Ministry of Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The international assistance operations are still ongoing.<ref name="NATO 2015">{{cite web | title=Topic: Relations with Bosnia and Herzegovina | website=NATO | date=2015-06-23 | url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49127.htm | access-date=2021-06-23 | archive-date=6 July 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706153434/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49127.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

The Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed when elements of the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the [[Republika Srpska Air Force]] were merged in 2006. The Air Force has seen improvements in the last few years with added funds for aircraft repairs and improved cooperation with the [[Army|Ground Forces]] as well as to the citizens of the country. The Ministry of Defence is pursuing the acquisition of new aircraft including helicopters and perhaps even fighter jets.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.stripes.com/news/bosnia-breaks-through-ethnic-divide-by-merging-serb-muslim-croat-forces-1.43446|title=Bosnia breaks through ethnic divide by merging Serb, Muslim-Croat forces|newspaper=Stars and Stripes|date=11 January 2006|access-date=13 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002064503/https://www.stripes.com/news/bosnia-breaks-through-ethnic-divide-by-merging-serb-muslim-croat-forces-1.43446|archive-date=2 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
{{See also|Accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the European Union}}

[[File:Secretary Clinton Meets With President of Bosnia and Herzegovina Zeljko Komsic (6507403825).jpg|thumb|[[Željko Komšić]], Croat member of the [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Presidency]], and [[Hillary Clinton]], U.S. Secretary of State, 13 December 2011]]

[[Accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the European Union|European Union integration]] is one of the main political objectives of Bosnia and Herzegovina; it initiated the [[Stabilisation and Association Process]] in 2007. Countries participating in the SAP have been offered the possibility to become, once they fulfill the necessary conditions, Member States of the EU. Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore a potential candidate country for EU accession.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/potential-candidate-countries/bosnia_and_herzegovina/eu_bosnia_and_herzegovina_relations_en.htm|title=European Commission&nbsp;– Enlargement&nbsp;– Bosnia and Herzegovina&nbsp;– Relations with the EU|work=Europa (web portal)|access-date=3 January 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126024355/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/potential-candidate-countries/bosnia_and_herzegovina/eu_bosnia_and_herzegovina_relations_en.htm|archive-date=26 January 2009}}</ref>

The implementation of the [[Dayton Agreement]] in 1995 has focused the efforts of policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the countries-successors of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Usa 2012 p. 269">{{cite book | last=Usa | first=Ibp | title=Bosnia and Herzegovina Doing Business for Everyone Guide – Practical Information and Contacts | publisher=International Business Publications USA | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-4387-7171-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6KiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA269 | access-date=2021-06-22 | page=269 | archive-date=14 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214150459/https://books.google.com/books?id=D6KiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA269 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors of [[Croatia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] have been fairly stable since the signing of the Dayton Agreement. On 23 April 2010, Bosnia and Herzegovina received the [[Enlargement of NATO#Membership Action Plan|Membership Action Plan]] from [[NATO]], which is the last step before full membership in the alliance. Full membership was initially expected in 2014 or 2015, depending on the progress of reforms.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8638794.stm|title=Bosnia gets Nato membership plan|date=22 April 2010|access-date=9 March 2019|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328045001/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8638794.stm|archive-date=28 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2018, NATO approved a Bosnian Membership Action Plan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2018/12/05/nato-approves-membership-action-plan-with-bosnia-12-05-2018/|title=NATO Approves Membership Action Plan for Bosnia|date=5 December 2018|website=Balkan Insight|language=en-US|access-date=9 March 2019|archive-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809205751/https://balkaninsight.com/2018/12/05/nato-approves-membership-action-plan-with-bosnia-12-05-2018/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Bosnia and Herzegovina is the 61st most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [[Global Peace Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 Global Peace Index |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf}}</ref>

==Demography==
{{Main|Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina|l1=Demography of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnians}}
{{See also|Demographic history of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
According to the [[1991 population census in Bosnia and Herzegovina|1991 census]], Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,369,319, while the 1996 World Bank Group census showed a decrease to 3,764,425.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1996&locations=BA&name_desc=false&start=1991|title=Population, total {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=2 August 2019|archive-date=25 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225121727/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1996&locations=BA&name_desc=false&start=1991|url-status=live}}</ref> Large population migrations during the [[Yugoslav Wars]] in the 1990s have caused demographic shifts in the country. Between 1991 and 2013, political disagreements made it impossible to organize a census. A census had been planned for 2011,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/census-in-bosnia-still-uncertain|title=Hopes Fade For Census in Bosnia in 2011|first=Zdravko|last=Ljubas|work=Balkan Insight|date=3 February 2011|access-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816014819/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/census-in-bosnia-still-uncertain|archive-date=16 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and then for 2012,<ref>{{cite web |first=Senka |last=Kurt |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bosnia-edges-closer-to-census |title=Bosnia Edges Closer To Population Census |work=Balkan Insight |date=1 August 2011 |access-date=26 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729045100/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bosnia-edges-closer-to-census |archive-date=29 July 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> but was delayed until October 2013. The [[2013 population census in Bosnia and Herzegovina|2013 census]] found a total population of 3,531,159 people,<ref name="Popis2013"/> a drop of approximately 20% since 1991.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/bosnia-census-results-spark-feuding/27831183.html|title=Bosnia Erupts In Feuding Over New Census Data|first=Charles|last=Recknagel|publisher=Radio Free Europe|date=30 June 2016|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=10 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110224944/https://www.rferl.org/a/bosnia-census-results-spark-feuding/27831183.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The 2013 census figures include non-permanent Bosnian residents and for this reason are contested by Republika Srpska officials and Serb politicians (see Ethnic groups below).<ref name="WithoutSerbAgreement" />

===Largest cities===
{{Largest cities of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

===Ethnic groups===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Ethnic composition in Bosnia and Herzegovina as of 2013:<ref name="Popis2013"/>
|label1 = [[Bosniaks]]
|value1 = 50.1
|color1 = Green
|label2 = [[Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Serbs]]
|value2 = 30.8
|color2 = Red
|label3 = [[Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Croats]]
|value3 = 15.4
|color3 = Blue
|label4 = Others
|value4 = 2.7
|color4 = Orange
|label5 = Not declared
|value5 = 0.8
|color5 = Pink
|label6 = No answer
|value6 = 0.2
|color6 = Black
}}

Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to three ethnic "[[Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina|constituent peoples]]", namely [[Bosniaks]], [[Serbs]] and [[Croats]], plus a number of smaller groups including [[History of the Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Jews]] and [[Romani people in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Roma]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/04/04/second-class-citizens/discrimination-against-roma-jews-and-other-national|title=Second Class Citizens: Discrimination against Roma, Jews, and Other National Minorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=4 April 2012|access-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816032906/https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/04/04/second-class-citizens/discrimination-against-roma-jews-and-other-national|archive-date=16 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> According to data from the 2013 census published by the [[Statistical system of Bosnia and Herzegovina#The Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BHAS)|Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], Bosniaks constitute 50.1% of the population, Serbs 30.8%, Croats 15.5% and others 2.7%, with the remaining respondents not declaring their ethnicity or not answering.<ref name="Popis2013"/> The census results are contested by the [[Republika Srpska]] statistical office and by [[Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Serb]] politicians.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/new-demographic-picture-of-bosnia-finally-revealed-06-30-2016|title=Census Reveals Bosnia's Changed Demography|first=Rodolfo|last=Toe|work=Balkan Insight|date=30 June 2016|access-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630235018/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/new-demographic-picture-of-bosnia-finally-revealed-06-30-2016|archive-date=30 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The dispute over the census concerns the inclusion of non-permanent Bosnian residents in the figures, which Republika Srpska officials oppose.<ref name="WithoutSerbAgreement">{{cite news|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bosnia-to-release-long-awaited-census-results-on-thursday-06-29-2016|title=Bosnia to Publish Census Without Serb Agreement|first=Rodolfo|last=Toe|work=Balkan Insight|date=30 June 2016|access-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630235348/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bosnia-to-release-long-awaited-census-results-on-thursday-06-29-2016|archive-date=30 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[European Union]]'s statistics office, [[Eurostat]], concluded in May 2016 that the census methodology used by the Bosnian statistical agency is in line with international recommendations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bosnia–Herzegovina has lost a fifth of its pre-war population|date=2016|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/01/bosnia-herzegovina-has-lost-a-fifth-of-its-pre-war-population-census-shows|work=The Guardian|access-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707214817/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/01/bosnia-herzegovina-has-lost-a-fifth-of-its-pre-war-population-census-shows|archive-date=7 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Languages===
Bosnia's constitution does not specify any official languages.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Language rights and language justice in the constitutions of the world|journal=Language Problems & Language Planning|volume=28|issue=1|pages=11–24|first=Eduardo D.|last=Faingold|doi=10.1075/lplp.28.1.03fai|date=2004|s2cid=144311672|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4520/3d23862ea794af0a9dd4dde606b76c02a47d.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213004700/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4520/3d23862ea794af0a9dd4dde606b76c02a47d.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-13| issn = 0272-2690 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Rights Before Courts: A Study of Constitutional Courts in Postcommunist States of Central and Eastern Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/rightsbeforecour00sadu|url-access=limited|first=Wojciech|last=Sadurski|author-link=Wojciech Sadurski|date=2005|publisher=Springer|page=[https://archive.org/details/rightsbeforecour00sadu/page/n357 342]|isbn=1402030061}}</ref><ref name="Footitt">{{cite book|title=Languages at War: Policies and Practices of Language Contacts in Conflict|first1=Hilary|last1=Footitt|first2=Michael|last2=Kelly|date=2012|location=Basingstoke|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=111–120|isbn=978-0230368774}}</ref> However, academics Hilary Footitt and Michael Kelly note the [[Dayton Agreement]] states it {{clarify|the Dayton agreement, government, official communication, communication between groups???|date=January 2024}} is "done in [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], English and [[Serbian language|Serbian]]", and they describe this as the "de facto recognition of three official languages" at the state level. The equal status of Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian was verified by the [[Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Constitutional Court]] in 2000.<ref name=Footitt/> It ruled the provisions of the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Federation]] and Republika Srpska constitutions on language were incompatible with the state constitution, since they only recognised Bosnian and Croatian (in the case of the Federation) and Serbian (in the case of Republika Srpska) as official languages at the entity level. As a result, the wording of the entity constitutions was changed and all three languages were made official in both entities.<ref name=Footitt/> The three [[standard language]]s are fully [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] and are known collectively under the appellation of [[Serbo-Croatian]], despite this term not being formally recognized in the country. Use of one of the three languages has become a marker of ethnic identity.<ref>{{cite book|title=Language and Identity in the Balkans: Serbo-Croatian and its Disintegration|last=Greenberg|first=Robert David|date=2004|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-925815-4}}</ref> Michael Kelly and Catherine Baker argue: "The three official languages of today's Bosnian state...represent the symbolic assertion of national identity over the pragmatism of mutual intelligibility".<ref>{{cite book|title=Interpreting the Peace: Peace Operations, Conflict and Language in Bosnia–Herzegovina|first1=Michael|last1=Kelly|first2=Catherine|last2=Baker|location=Basingstoke|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|date=2013|page=10|isbn=978-1137029836}}</ref>

According to the 1992 [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] (ECRML), Bosnia and Herzegovina recognizes the following minority languages: [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[German language|German]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Romani language|Romani]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and Jewish ([[Yiddish]] and [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]).<ref name="charter-ratifications">{{cite web|title=Reservations and Declarations for Treaty No.148 – European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|url=http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth=63PpH3zN|website=Council of Europe|access-date=25 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208122308/http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth=63PpH3zN|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The German minority in Bosnia and Herzegovina are mostly remnants of [[Danube Swabians|Donauschwaben]] (Danube Swabians), who settled in the area after the [[Austrian Empire|Habsburg monarchy]] claimed the Balkans from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Due to [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsions]] and [[Persecution of Germans|(forced) assimilation]] after the two [[World war]]s, the number of ethnic Germans in Bosnia and Herzegovina was drastically diminished.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agdm.fuen.org/mitglied-102/bosnia-and-herzegovina/ |title=Deutsche Minderheit in Bosnien-Herzegowina – German minority in Bosnia and Herzegovina |author=Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Minderheiten |work=fuen.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925092959/http://agdm.fuen.org/mitglied-102/bosnia-and-herzegovina/ |archive-date=25 September 2015}}</ref>

In the 2013 census, 52.86% of the population consider their mother tongue Bosnian, 30.76% Serbian, 14.6% Croatian and 1.57% another language, with 0.21% not giving an answer.<ref name=Popis2013/>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
{{bar box
|title = Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2013 census)<ref name="Popis2013"/>
|titlebar=#ddd |left1=Religion |right1=Percent |float=right
|bars =
{{bar percent|[[Muslims|Muslim]]|Green|50.7}}
{{bar percent|[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christian]]|Red|30.7}}
{{bar percent|[[Catholic Church|Catholic Christian]]|Blue|15.2}}
{{bar percent|Other|Orange|1.2}}
{{bar percent|[[Atheism|Atheist]]|Black|0.7}}
{{bar percent|[[Agnosticism|Agnostic]]|Pink|0.3}}
{{bar percent|Not declared|Gray|0.9}}
{{bar percent|No answer|Purple|0.2}}
}}

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a religiously diverse country. According to the 2013 census, [[Muslims]] comprised 50.7% of the population, while [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] made 30.7%, [[Catholic Church|Catholic Christians]] 15.2%, 1.2% other and 1.1% [[Atheism|atheist]] or [[Agnosticism|agnostic]], with the remainder not declaring or not answering the question.<ref name="Popis2013"/> A 2012 survey found 54% of Bosnia's Muslims were [[non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]], while 38% followed [[Sunni Islam|Sunnism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/08/the-worlds-muslims-full-report.pdf|title=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=2012|page=30|access-date=7 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126060051/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/08/the-worlds-muslims-full-report.pdf|archive-date=26 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Urban areas===
{{Main|List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

[[Sarajevo]] is home to 419,957 inhabitants in its urban area which comprises the [[Sarajevo#Municipalities and city government|City of Sarajevo]] as well as the municipalities of [[Ilidža]], [[Vogošća]], [[Istočna Ilidža]], [[Istočno Novo Sarajevo]] and [[Istočni Stari Grad]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/doc/RezultatiPopisa_BS.pdf |title=Final results |publisher=Popis 2013 BiH |year=2016 |access-date=19 December 2017 |type=pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014093505/http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/doc/RezultatiPopisa_BS.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Sarajevo metropolitan area|metro area]] has a population of 555,210 and includes [[Sarajevo Canton]], [[Istočno Sarajevo|East Sarajevo]] and the municipalities of [[Breza, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Breza]], [[Kiseljak]], [[Kreševo]] and [[Visoko]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/doc/RezultatiPopisa_BS.pdf |title=Census results |date=2013 |website=popis.gov.ba |access-date=2021-06-22 |archive-date=14 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014093505/http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/doc/RezultatiPopisa_BS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
{{See also|List of companies of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:GDP per capita development of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg|thumb|Estimated development of real GDP per capita of Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 1952]]

During the [[Bosnian War]], the economy suffered €200&nbsp;billion in material damages, roughly €326.38&nbsp;billion in 2022 (inflation adjusted).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://balkans.aljazeera.net/video/presuda-karadzicu-materijalna-steta-u-ratu-u-bih-200-milijardi-eura |title=Presuda Karadžiću: Materijalna šteta u ratu u BiH 200 milijardi eura |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322025732/http://balkans.aljazeera.net/video/presuda-karadzicu-materijalna-steta-u-ratu-u-bih-200-milijardi-eura |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.in2013dollars.com/Euro-inflation |title=Euro Inflation Calculator |website=in2013dollars.com}}</ref> Bosnia and Herzegovina faces the dual-problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing transitional liberal market reforms to its formerly mixed economy. One legacy of the previous era is a strong industry; under former republic president [[Džemal Bijedić]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] President [[Josip Broz Tito]], metal industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia's plants; [[Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina|SR Bosnia and Herzegovina]] had a very strong industrial export oriented economy in the 1970s and 1980s, with large scale exports worth millions of [[USD|US$]].

For most of Bosnia's history, agriculture has been conducted on privately owned farms; Fresh food has traditionally been exported from the republic.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scc.rutgers.edu/serbian_digest/225/t225-4.htm |title=A Divided Bosnia, January 29, 1996 |first=Aleksandar |last=Ciric |access-date=12 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905174221/http://www.scc.rutgers.edu/serbian_digest/225/t225-4.htm |archive-date=5 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The war in the 1990s, caused a dramatic change in the Bosnian economy.<ref>Daclon, Corrado Maria (1997). Bosnia. Maggioli. Italy</ref> GDP fell by 60% and the destruction of physical infrastructure devastated the economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/skills/training/publ/pub12.htm |title=Post-conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina&nbsp;– Martha Walsh&nbsp;– Employment Sector |publisher=ILO |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907062005/http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/skills/training/publ/pub12.htm |archive-date=7 September 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> With much of the production capacity unrestored, the Bosnian economy still faces considerable difficulties. Figures show GDP and per capita income increased 10% from 2003 to 2004; this and Bosnia's shrinking [[Government debt|national debt]] being negative trends, and high unemployment 38.7% and a large [[Balance of trade|trade deficit]] remain cause for concern.

The national currency is the (Euro-pegged) [[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark|convertible mark]] (KM), controlled by the [[currency board]]. Annual inflation is the lowest relative to other countries in the region at 1.9% in 2004.<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Bosnia and Herzegovina|year=2004}}</ref> The international debt was $5.1&nbsp;billion (as of 31 December 2014). [[Gross domestic product|Real GDP]] growth rate was 5% for 2004 according to the [[Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Bosnia and Herzegovina has displayed positive progress in the previous years, which decisively moved its place from the lowest income equality rank of [[List of countries by income equality|income equality rankings]] fourteen out of 193 nations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/pdfs/report/HDR06-complete.pdf#page=335 |title=Table 15: Inequality in income or expenditure |access-date=9 January 2007 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |date=2006|work=Human Development Report 2006|page=335 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206223646/http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/pdfs/report/HDR06-complete.pdf#page=335 |archive-date=6 December 2006}}</ref>

According to [[Eurostat]] data, Bosnia and Herzegovina's PPS GDP per capita stood at 29 per cent of the EU average in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&plugin=1&language=en&pcode=tec00114 |title=GDP per capita in PPS |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=1 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108051648/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&plugin=1&language=en&pcode=tec00114 |archive-date=8 January 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) announced a loan to Bosnia worth US$500&nbsp;million to be delivered by [[IMF Stand-By Arrangement|Stand-By Arrangement]]. This was scheduled to be approved in September 2012.<ref>{{cite web |author=Elvira M. Jukic |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/imf-to-give-bosnia-500-million-credit |title=IMF To Loan Bosnia $500 Million |date=23 July 2012 |publisher=Balkan Insight |access-date=26 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509051650/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/imf-to-give-bosnia-500-million-credit |archive-date=9 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Embassy of the United States, Sarajevo|United States Embassy]] in [[Sarajevo]] produces the Country Commercial Guide – an annual report that delivers a comprehensive look at Bosnia and Herzegovina's commercial and economic environment, using economic, political, and market analysis.

By some estimates, [[Informal economy|grey economy]] is 25.5% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ba.n1info.com/a223736/Vijesti/Vijesti/Siva-ekonomija-cini-25-posto-BDP-a-BiH.html|title=Siva ekonomija čini 25 posto BDP-a BiH|access-date=24 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601180835/http://ba.n1info.com/a223736/Vijesti/Vijesti/Siva-ekonomija-cini-25-posto-BDP-a-BiH.html|archive-date=1 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2017, exports grew by 17% when compared to the previous year, totaling €5.65&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://radiokameleon.ba/2018/01/02/bih-povecala-izvoz-2017-godini-evo-koje-drzave-najvise-uvoze-nase-proizvode/|title=BiH povećala izvoz u 2017. godini: Evo koje države najviše uvoze naše proizvode – Kameleon M&M|website=radiokameleon.ba|date=2 January 2018|access-date=17 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217142005/https://radiokameleon.ba/2018/01/02/bih-povecala-izvoz-2017-godini-evo-koje-drzave-najvise-uvoze-nase-proizvode/|archive-date=17 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The total volume of [[International trade|foreign trade]] in 2017 amounted to €14.97&nbsp;billion and increased by 14% compared to the previous year. Imports of goods increased by 12% and amounted to €9.32&nbsp;billion. The [[balance of trade|coverage of imports by exports]] increased by 3% compared to the previous year and now it is 61 percent. In 2017, Bosnia and Herzegovina mostly exported [[car seat]]s, [[electricity]], [[wood processing|processed wood]], [[aluminium]] and [[furniture]]. In the same year, it mostly imported [[Petroleum|crude oil]], [[Car|automobiles]], [[motor oil]], [[coal]] and [[briquette]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/privreda/izvoz-u-prosloj-godini-premasio-11-milijardi-km-i-povecan-za-17-posto/180328118|title=Izvoz u prošloj godini premašio 11 milijardi KM i povećan za 17 posto|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331173241/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/privreda/izvoz-u-prosloj-godini-premasio-11-milijardi-km-i-povecan-za-17-posto/180328118|archive-date=31 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

The unemployment rate in 2017 was 20.5%, but [[The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies]] is predicting falling unemployment rate for the next few years. In 2018, the unemployment should be 19.4% and it should further fall to 18.8% in 2019. In 2020, the unemployment rate should go down to 18.3%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biznisinfo.ba/nezaposlenost-prvi-put-ide-ispod-20-posto/|title=Nezaposlenost prvi put ide ispod 20 posto – Biznis Info|date=15 March 2018|access-date=16 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317102119/http://www.biznisinfo.ba/nezaposlenost-prvi-put-ide-ispod-20-posto/|archive-date=17 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Sarajevo Twist Tower.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Avaz Twist Tower]] in [[Sarajevo]], the tallest building in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

On 31 December 2017, the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] issued the report on public debt of Bosnia and Herzegovina, stating the public debt was reduced by €389.97&nbsp;million, or by more than 6% when compared to 31 December 2016. By the end of 2017, public debt was €5.92&nbsp;billion, which amounted to 35.6 percent of GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/finansije/javni-dug-bih-prosle-godine-smanjen-za-744-59-miliona-km/180504091|title=Javni dug BiH prošle godine smanjen za 744,59 miliona KM|access-date=5 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180505134903/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/finansije/javni-dug-bih-prosle-godine-smanjen-za-744-59-miliona-km/180504091|archive-date=5 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{as of|2017|December|31}}, there were 32,292 registered companies in the country, which together had revenues of €33.572&nbsp;billion that same year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/vise-od-30-000-bh-kompanija-ostvarilo-ukupni-prihod-od-65-milijardi-km/180627065|title=Više od 30.000 bh. kompanija ostvarilo ukupni prihod od 65 milijardi KM|access-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702093313/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/vise-od-30-000-bh-kompanija-ostvarilo-ukupni-prihod-od-65-milijardi-km/180627065|archive-date=2 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2017, the country received €397.35&nbsp;million in [[foreign direct investment]], which equals to 2.5% of the GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biznisinfo.ba/u-2017-u-bih-investirano-7777-miliona-km/|title=U 2017. u BiH investirano 777,7 miliona KM – Biznis Info|date=9 August 2018|access-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810105051/https://www.biznisinfo.ba/u-2017-u-bih-investirano-7777-miliona-km/|archive-date=10 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2017, Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked third in the world in terms of the number of new jobs created by foreign investment, relative to the number of inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://public.dhe.ibm.com/common/ssi/ecm/93/en/93017793usen/93017793usen-00_93017793USEN.pdf |title=Global Location Trends |access-date=11 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410223308/https://public.dhe.ibm.com/common/ssi/ecm/93/en/93017793usen/93017793usen-00_93017793USEN.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biznisinfo.ba/americki-ibm-bih-treca-u-svijetu-po-stranim-investicijama-prema-broju-stanovnika/|title=Američki IBM: BiH treća u svijetu po stranim investicijama, prema broju stanovnika – Biznis Info|date=6 September 2018|access-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911114315/https://www.biznisinfo.ba/americki-ibm-bih-treca-u-svijetu-po-stranim-investicijama-prema-broju-stanovnika/|archive-date=11 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2018, Bosnia and Herzegovina exported goods worth 11.9&nbsp;billion KM (€6.07&nbsp;billion), which is 7.43% higher than in the same period in 2017, while imports amounted to 19.27&nbsp;billion KM (€9.83&nbsp;billion), which is 5.47% higher.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.biznisinfo.ba/izvoz-iz-bih-u-eu-povecan-za-vise-od-deset-posto/ |title=Izvoz iz BiH u EU povećan za više od deset posto |date=11 March 2019 |access-date=23 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323040905/https://www.biznisinfo.ba/izvoz-iz-bih-u-eu-povecan-za-vise-od-deset-posto/ |archive-date=23 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The average price of new apartments sold in the country in the first six months of 2018 is 1,639&nbsp;km (€886.31) per square metre. This represents a jump of 3.5% from the previous year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/prosjecna-cijena-prodatih-novih-stanova-u-bih-1-639-km/180822032|title=Prosječna cijena prodatih novih stanova u BiH 1.639 KM|access-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823105442/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/prosjecna-cijena-prodatih-novih-stanova-u-bih-1-639-km/180822032|archive-date=23 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 30 June 2018, public debt of Bosnia and Herzegovina amounted to about €6.04&nbsp;billion, of which external debt is 70.56 percent, while the internal debt is 29.4 percent of total public indebtedness. The share of public debt in gross domestic product is 34.92 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.6yka.com/novosti/javni-dug-bih-oko-118-milijardi-km|title=Javni dug BiH oko 11,8 milijardi KM|website=6yka.com|date=5 November 2018 |access-date=6 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106132331/http://www.6yka.com/novosti/javni-dug-bih-oko-118-milijardi-km|archive-date=6 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the first 7 months of 2018, 811,660 tourists visited the country, a 12.2% jump when compared to the first 7 months of 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biznisinfo.ba/u-sedam-mjeseci-bih-posjetilo-vise-od-800-000-turista/|title=U sedam mjeseci BiH posjetilo više od 800.000 turista – Biznis Info|date=10 September 2018|access-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911081924/https://www.biznisinfo.ba/u-sedam-mjeseci-bih-posjetilo-vise-od-800-000-turista/|archive-date=11 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In the first 11 months of 2018, 1,378,542 tourists visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, an increase of 12.6%, and had 2,871,004 overnight hotel stays, a 13.8% increase from the previous year. Also, 71.8% of the tourists came from foreign countries.<ref name="klix.ba">{{Cite web |url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/privreda/za-10-godina-broj-turista-u-bih-porastao-za-810-hiljada-a-nocenja-za-1-56-miliona/190116027 |title=Za 10 godina broj turista u BiH porastao za 810 hiljada, a noćenja za 1,56 miliona |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121353/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/privreda/za-10-godina-broj-turista-u-bih-porastao-za-810-hiljada-a-nocenja-za-1-56-miliona/190116027 |archive-date=19 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> In the first seven months of 2019, 906,788 tourists visited the country, an 11.7% jump from the previous year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Za sedam mjeseci u BiH više od 900 hiljada turista, ostvareno 1,8 miliona noćenja |url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/privreda/za-sedam-mjeseci-u-bih-vise-od-900-hiljada-turista-ostvareno-1-8-miliona-nocenja/190916052 |website=Klix.ba |language=bs-BA |access-date=17 September 2019 |archive-date=21 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921050510/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/privreda/za-sedam-mjeseci-u-bih-vise-od-900-hiljada-turista-ostvareno-1-8-miliona-nocenja/190916052 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018, the total value of [[mergers and acquisitions]] in Bosnia and Herzegovina amounted to €404.6&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.biznisinfo.ba/ovo-su-najvece-akvizicije-u-bih-sa-cijenama/ |title=Ovo su najveće akvizicije u BiH (Sa cijenama) |date=30 January 2019 |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131093201/https://www.biznisinfo.ba/ovo-su-najvece-akvizicije-u-bih-sa-cijenama/ |archive-date=31 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2018, 99.5 percent of enterprises in Bosnia and Herzegovina used computers in their business, while 99.3 percent had internet connections, according to a survey conducted by the Bosnia and Herzegovina Statistics Agency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/racunar-u-poslovanju-koristi-99-5-posto-firmi-u-bih-a-internet-99-3-posto/190308135|title=Računar u poslovanju koristi 99,5 posto firmi u BiH, a internet 99,3 posto|website=Klix.ba|access-date=9 March 2019|archive-date=31 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131213424/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/racunar-u-poslovanju-koristi-99-5-posto-firmi-u-bih-a-internet-99-3-posto/190308135|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2018, Bosnia and Herzegovina received 783.4&nbsp;million KM (€400.64&nbsp;million) in [[direct foreign investment]], which was equivalent to 2.3% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web |title=CBBiH: Priliv direktnih stranih investicija u 2018. godini 783,4 miliona KM |url=http://biznis.ba/cbbih-priliv-direktnih-stranih-investicija-u-2018-godini-7834-miliona-km/ |website=Biznis.ba |language=bs-BA |date=12 August 2019 |access-date=19 August 2019 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819010703/http://biznis.ba/cbbih-priliv-direktnih-stranih-investicija-u-2018-godini-7834-miliona-km/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Sarajevo Tram-Stop Banka 2011-10-28 (2).jpg|thumb|The [[Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in Sarajevo]]

In 2018, the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina made a profit of 8,430,875&nbsp;km (€4,306,347).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/proslogodisnja-dobit-centralne-banke-bih-8-4-miliona-km/190408089 |title=Prošlogodišnja dobit Centralne banke BiH 8,4 miliona KM |access-date=9 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408213601/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/proslogodisnja-dobit-centralne-banke-bih-8-4-miliona-km/190408089 |archive-date=8 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[World Bank]] predicted that the economy would grow 3.4% in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/svjetska-banka-potvrdila-prognozu-rasta-bih-od-3-4-posto-u-ovoj-godini/190109062#komentari |title=Svjetska banka potvrdila prognozu rasta BiH od 3,4 posto u ovoj godini |access-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110183510/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/svjetska-banka-potvrdila-prognozu-rasta-bih-od-3-4-posto-u-ovoj-godini/190109062#komentari |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Bosnia and Herzegovina was placed 83rd on the [[Index of Economic Freedom]] for 2019. The total rating for Bosnia and Herzegovina is 61.9. This position represents some progress relative to the 91st place in 2018. This result is below the regional level, but still above the global average, making Bosnia and Herzegovina a "moderately free" country.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/privreda/objavljen-indeks-ekonomskih-sloboda-blagi-napredak-bosne-i-hercegovine/190129157 |title=Objavljen indeks ekonomskih sloboda: Blagi napredak Bosne i Hercegovine |access-date=30 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130161858/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/privreda/objavljen-indeks-ekonomskih-sloboda-blagi-napredak-bosne-i-hercegovine/190129157 |archive-date=30 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

On 31 January 2019, total deposits in Bosnian banks were KM 21.9&nbsp;billion (€11.20&nbsp;billion), which represents 61.15% of nominal GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.biznisinfo.ba/gradjani-ustedjeli-milijardu-km-za-12-mjeseci/ |title=Građani uštedjeli milijardu KM za 12 mjeseci |date=24 March 2019 |access-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326033014/https://www.biznisinfo.ba/gradjani-ustedjeli-milijardu-km-za-12-mjeseci/ |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the second quarter of 2019, the average price of new apartments sold in Bosnia and Herzegovina was 1,606&nbsp;km (€821.47) per square metre.<ref>{{cite web |title=Prosječna cijena prodatih novih stanova 1.606 KM po kvadratu |url=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/prosjecna-cijena-prodatih-novih-stanova-1-606-km-po-kvadratu/190820100 |website=Klix.ba |language=bs-BA |access-date=21 August 2019 |archive-date=21 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821053152/https://www.klix.ba/biznis/prosjecna-cijena-prodatih-novih-stanova-1-606-km-po-kvadratu/190820100 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the first six months of 2019, exports amounted to 5.829&nbsp;billion KM (€2.98&nbsp;billion), which is 0.1% less than in the same period of 2018, while imports amounted to 9.779&nbsp;billion KM (€5.00&nbsp;billion), which is by 4.5% more than in the same period of the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biznisinfo.ba/smanjen-izvoz-iz-bih-u-prvoj-polovini-2019/|title=Smanjen izvoz iz BiH u prvoj polovini 2019.|date=22 July 2019|access-date=23 July 2019|archive-date=23 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723012926/https://www.biznisinfo.ba/smanjen-izvoz-iz-bih-u-prvoj-polovini-2019/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the first six months of 2019, foreign direct investment amounted to 650.1&nbsp;million KM (€332.34&nbsp;million).<ref>{{cite web |title=Pojačan priliv direktnih stranih investicija |url=https://www.biznisinfo.ba/pojacan-priliv-direktnih-stranih-investicija/ |website=Biznis Info |language=bs-BA |date=3 October 2019 |access-date=8 October 2019 |archive-date=8 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008015115/https://www.biznisinfo.ba/pojacan-priliv-direktnih-stranih-investicija/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Bosnia and Herzegovina was ranked 80th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |author=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=www.wipo.int |page=18 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2}}</ref>

As of 30 November 2023, Bosnia and Herzegovina had 1.3 million registered motor vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.klix.ba/auto/na-bh-cestama-vise-od-1-3-miliona-registrovanih-motornih-vozila/231215100|title=Na bh. cestama više od 1,3 miliona registrovanih motornih vozila|website=www.klix.ba}}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
{{See also|List of tourist attractions in Sarajevo}}
{{Multiple image
| align     = right
| direction = vertical
| width     = 220
| image1    = Вишеградска ћуприја са Андрићградом 2.jpg
| caption1  = [[Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge]] in [[Višegrad]], a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]] and [[Andrićgrad]]
| image2    = Mostar Old Town Panorama 2007.jpg
| caption2  = [[Stari Most]] in [[Mostar]], a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
| image3    = Saint James Church (St. Jakov) Medjugorje - Hotel Pansion Porta - Bosnia Herzegovina - Creative Commons by gnuckx (4695237966).jpg
| caption3  = [[Medjugorje|Međugorje]], a popular [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimage]] site for [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] from around the world
}}

According to projections by the [[World Tourism Organization]], Bosnia and Herzegovina had the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020.<ref name="Traveloholic Tours">{{cite web|title=Traveloholic Tours|website=Traveloholic Tours|url=http://traveloholic.ba/|access-date=2021-08-02|archive-date=4 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504044255/http://traveloholic.ba/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Travel Talk Tours 2017">{{cite web | title=20 Facts About Bosnia And Herzegovina | website=Travel Talk Tours | date=2017-10-19 | url=https://www.traveltalktours.com/20-facts-bosnia-herzegovina/ | access-date=2021-08-02 | archive-date=2 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802172326/https://www.traveltalktours.com/20-facts-bosnia-herzegovina/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2017, 1,307,319 tourists visited Bosnia and Herzegovina, an increase of 13.7%, and had 2,677,125 overnight hotel stays, a 12.3% increase from the previous year. 71.5% of the tourists came from foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ba.n1info.com/a241980/Vijesti/Vijesti/U-BiH-u-2017.-godini-ostvareno-2-6-miliona-nocenja.html|title=BiH: U 2017. ostvareno 1,3 miliona turističkih posjeta i 2,6 miliona noćenja|access-date=17 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217141950/http://ba.n1info.com/a241980/Vijesti/Vijesti/U-BiH-u-2017.-godini-ostvareno-2-6-miliona-nocenja.html|archive-date=17 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2018, 1.883.772 tourists visited Bosnia and Herzegovina, an increase of 44,1%, and had 3.843.484 overnight hotel stays, a 43.5% increase from the previous year. Also, 71.2% of the tourists came from foreign countries.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ba.n1info.com/Vijesti/a314652/U-2018.-godini-BiH-posjetilo-vise-od-1-4-miliona-turista.html |title=U 2018. Godini BiH posjetilo više od 1,4 miliona turista &#124; N1 BA |access-date=23 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323035826/http://ba.n1info.com/Vijesti/a314652/U-2018.-godini-BiH-posjetilo-vise-od-1-4-miliona-turista.html |archive-date=23 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2006, when ranking the best cities in the world, [[Lonely Planet]] placed [[Sarajevo]], the [[Capital city|national capital]]<ref name=Constitution/> and host of the [[1984 Winter Olympics]], as #43 on the list.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bosniatravel.net/news/2006/lonely-planet-on-sarajevo.html |publisher=Bosnia Travel |title=Lonely Planet: Sarajevo {{sic|43|th|nolink=yes}} Best City in the World |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223094909/http://www.bosniatravel.net/news/2006/lonely-planet-on-sarajevo.html |archive-date=23 February 2007}}</ref> Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural aspects. In 2010, Lonely Planet's "Best in Travel" nominated it as one of the top ten cities to visit that year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/press-centre/press-release.cfm?press_release_id=444 |title=Press Centre & Lonely Planet Reveals Its Best Destinations, Journeys & Experiences for 2010 |publisher=Lonely Planet |date=2 November 2009 |access-date=4 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101106185953/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/press-centre/press-release.cfm?press_release_id=444 |archive-date=6 November 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Sarajevo also won travel blog Foxnomad's "Best City to Visit" competition in 2012, beating more than one hundred other cities around the entire world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://foxnomad.com/2012/03/27/the-best-city-to-visit-travel-tournament-2012-championship/ |title=The Best City To Visit Travel Tournament 2012: Championship |first=Anil |last=Polat |publisher=Foxnomad |date=27 March 2012 |access-date=30 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330011052/http://foxnomad.com/2012/03/27/the-best-city-to-visit-travel-tournament-2012-championship/ |archive-date=30 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Medjugorje|Međugorje]] has become one of the most popular pilgrimage sites for [[Catholics]] from around the world and has turned into Europe's third most important religious place, where each year more than 1&nbsp;million people visit.<ref>[http://www.romereports.com/palio/Visionaries-of-Medjugorje-may-appear-before-the-Vatican-english-2441.html RomeReports: Visionaries of Medjugorje may appear before the Vatican] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505053250/http://www.romereports.com/palio/Visionaries-of-Medjugorje-may-appear-before-the-Vatican-english-2441.html|date=5 May 2013}}; retrieved 26 February 2011.</ref> It has been estimated that 30&nbsp;million pilgrims have come to Međugorje since the reputed apparitions began in 1981.<ref name="reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE62G3OR20100317 Vatican Probes Claims of Apparitions at Medugorje] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425025020/http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE62G3OR20100317 |date=25 April 2010 }}, Reuters.com; retrieved 17 March 2010.</ref> Since 2019, pilgrimages to Međugorje have been officially authorized and organized by the [[Holy See|Vatican]].<ref name="Vatican News 2019">{{cite web | title=Pope authorizes pilgrimages to Medjugorje | website=Vatican News | date=2019-05-12 | url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2019-05/pope-authorizes-pilgrimages-to-medjugorje.html | language=la | access-date=2021-08-02 | archive-date=3 November 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103141500/https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2019-05/pope-authorizes-pilgrimages-to-medjugorje.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

Bosnia has also become an increasingly popular skiing and [[Ecotourism]] destination. The mountains that hosted the winter olympic games of [[Bjelašnica]], [[Jahorina]] and [[Igman]] are the most visited skiing mountains in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina remains one of the last undiscovered natural regions of the southern area of the [[Alps]], with vast tracts of wild and untouched nature attracting adventurers and nature lovers. ''[[National Geographic]]'' named Bosnia and Herzegovina as the best mountain biking adventure destination for 2012.<ref name="test">[http://adventure.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/trips/best-adventure-destinations-2012/#/bike-bosnia-herzegovina_45406_600x450.jpg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424113854/http://adventure.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/trips/best-adventure-destinations-2012#/bike-bosnia-herzegovina_45406_600x450.jpg|date=24 April 2012}},</ref> The central [[Dinaric Alps|Bosnian Dinaric Alps]] are favored by hikers and mountaineers, as they contain both [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] and [[Alpine climate|Alpine]] climates. [[Rafting|Whitewater rafting]] has become somewhat of a [[national sport|national pastime]] in Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref name="Zuvela 2007">{{cite web | last=Zuvela | first=Maja | title=Bosnia's newfound tourism – Travel – Reuters | website=features.us.reuters.com | date=2007-12-24 | url=http://features.us.reuters.com/destinations/news/L20239376.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224155630/http://features.us.reuters.com/destinations/news/L20239376.html | archive-date=2007-12-24 | url-status=dead | access-date=2021-08-11}}</ref> The primary rivers used for whitewater rafting in the country include the [[Vrbas (river)|Vrbas]], [[Tara (Drina)|Tara]], [[Drina]], [[Neretva]] and [[Una (Sava)|Una]].<ref name="All about buses 2018">{{cite web | title=top 6 rivers for rafting | website=All about buses | date=2018-06-28 | url=https://getbybus.com/en/blog/best-rafting-places-on-the-balkans/ | access-date=2021-08-11 | archive-date=11 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811202224/https://getbybus.com/en/blog/best-rafting-places-on-the-balkans/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, the most prominent rivers are the Vrbas and Tara, as they both hosted [[International Rafting Federation|The 2009 World Rafting Championship]].<ref name="IRF admin 2010">{{cite web | author=IRF admin | title=World Rafting Championship History | website=International Rafting Federation | date=2010-02-17 | url=https://www.internationalrafting.com/racing/wrchistory/ | access-date=2021-08-11 | archive-date=15 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815054058/https://www.internationalrafting.com/racing/wrchistory/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sito-Sucic 2009">{{cite web | last=Sito-Sucic | first=Daria | title=Can sport help Bosnia forget the past? | website=U.S. | date=2009-05-19 | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bosnia-rafting-champoinship-idINTRE54I1F120090519 | access-date=2021-08-11 | archive-date=11 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811202936/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bosnia-rafting-champoinship-idINTRE54I1F120090519 | url-status=live }}</ref> The reason the Tara river is immensely popular for whitewater rafting is because it contains the deepest [[canyon|river canyon]] in Europe, the [[Tara River Canyon]].<ref name="Tara Sport 2019">{{cite web | title=The Magnificent Tara River Canyon | website=Tara Sport | date=2019-01-20 | url=https://www.tarasportrafting.com/blog/tara-river-canyon | access-date=2021-08-11 | archive-date=11 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811202233/https://www.tarasportrafting.com/blog/tara-river-canyon | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="The Telegraph 2016">{{cite web | title=The grand canyons of Europe | website=The Telegraph | date=2016-02-04 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/italy/sardinia/articles/Italy-Sardinia-and-the-grand-canyons-of-Europe/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/italy/sardinia/articles/Italy-Sardinia-and-the-grand-canyons-of-Europe/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | access-date=2021-08-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Most recently, the ''[[HuffPost|Huffington Post]]'' named Bosnia and Herzegovina the "9th Greatest Adventure in the World for 2013", adding that the country boasts "the cleanest water and air in Europe; the greatest untouched forests; and the most wildlife. The best way to experience is the three rivers trip, which purls through the best the Balkans have to offer."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/richard-bangs/13-greatest-adventures-for-2013-photos_b_2446637.html|title=13 Greatest Adventures For 2013|first=Richard|last=Bangs|work=The Huffington Post|date=10 January 2013|access-date=11 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111084536/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/richard-bangs/13-greatest-adventures-for-2013-photos_b_2446637.html|archive-date=11 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Infrastructure==
===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Sarajevo Airport 1 2024.jpg|thumb|[[Sarajevo International Airport]]]]

[[Sarajevo International Airport]], also known as Butmir Airport, is the main [[international airport]] in Bosnia and Herzegovina, located {{convert|3.3|NM|abbr=on|lk=in}} southwest of the [[Sarajevo main railway station]]<ref name="AIP">{{cite web|url=http://www.ead.eurocontrol.int/publicuser/protect/pu/main.jsp|title=EAD Basic – Error Page|work=eurocontrol.int|access-date=12 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823135326/http://www.ead.eurocontrol.int/publicuser/protect/pu/main.jsp|archive-date=23 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> in the city of [[Sarajevo]] in the suburb of [[Butmir]].

Railway operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina are successors of the [[Yugoslav Railways]] within the country boundaries following independence from the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]] in 1992. Today, they are operated by the [[Railways of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (ŽFBiH) in the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and by [[Republika Srpska Railways]] (ŽRS) in [[Republika Srpska]].

===Telecommunications===
{{Main|Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

The Bosnian communications market was fully [[Economic liberalization|liberalised]] in January 2006. The three [[landline]] telephone operators predominantly provide services in their operating areas but have nationwide licenses for domestic and international calls. Mobile data services are also available, including high-speed [[Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]], [[3G]] and [[4G]] services.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20081008005553&newsLang=en |title=Bosnia–Herzegovina&nbsp;– Telecoms Market Overview & Statistics Report Covers the Regulatory Environment, Major Players and Market Developments |publisher=Businesswire.com |date=8 October 2008 |access-date=3 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504100531/http://www.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20081008005553&newsLang=en |archive-date=4 May 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>

''[[Oslobođenje]]'' (Liberation), founded in 1943, is one of the country's longest running continuously circulating newspapers. There are many national publications, including the ''[[Dnevni avaz]]'' (Daily Voice), founded in 1995, and ''Jutarnje Novine'' (Morning News), to name but a few in circulation in Sarajevo.<ref>Udovicic, Radenko (3 May 2002). [http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=211 What is Happening with the Oldest Bosnian-Herzegovinian Daily: Oslobođenje to be sold for 4.7 Million Marks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227181119/http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=211 |date=27 February 2012 }} Mediaonline.ba: Southeast European Media Journal.</ref> Other local periodicals include the Croatian ''[[Hrvatska riječ]]'' newspaper and Bosnian ''[[Start (Bosnian magazine)|Start]]'' magazine, as well as ''Slobodna Bosna'' (''Free Bosnia'') and ''BH Dani'' (''BH Days'') weekly newspapers. ''[[Novi Plamen]]'', a monthly magazine, was the most left-wing publication. International news station [[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] maintains a [[sister channel]] catering to the [[Balkans|Balkan]] region, [[Al Jazeera Balkans]], broadcasting out of and based in Sarajevo.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2011/nov/11/al-jazeera-launches-balkans-broadcast |title=Al Jazeera Launches Its Balkans Broadcast Centre |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |date=11 November 2011 |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126071520/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2011/nov/11/al-jazeera-launches-balkans-broadcast |archive-date=26 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2014, the [[N1 (TV channel)|N1 platform]] has broadcast as an affiliate of [[CNN International]], with offices in Sarajevo, [[Zagreb]] and [[Belgrade]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Vučićević|first1=Bojan|title=Growing Influence of Global Media in Balkans|url=http://www.media.ba/en/mediametar/growing-influence-global-media-balkans|website=Media Center Sarajevo|date=14 July 2016|access-date=22 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423033253/http://www.media.ba/en/mediametar/growing-influence-global-media-balkans|archive-date=23 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

As of 2021, Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked second highest in [[freedom of the press|press freedom]] in the region, after [[Croatia]], and is placed 58th internationally.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2021 |title=2021 Press Freedom Index |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |access-date=8 June 2021 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220051930/https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{as of|2021|December}}, there are 3,374,094 internet users in the country, or 95.55% of the entire population.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://bljesak.info/sci-tech/internet/stopa-koristenosti-interneta-u-bih-za-2021-godinu-9555/389512 | title=Stopa korištenosti interneta u BiH za 2021. Godinu 95,55% }}</ref>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Sarajevo University building.JPG|thumb|The [[University of Sarajevo]]'s [[Faculty of Law, University of Sarajevo|Faculty of Law]]]]
[[File:Mostar gimnasium.jpg|thumb|[[Gimnazija Mostar]] in [[Mostar]] ]]

[[Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Higher education]] has a long and rich tradition in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first bespoke higher-education institution was a school of [[Sufism|Sufi]] philosophy established by [[Gazi Husrev Bey|Gazi Husrev-beg]] in 1531. Numerous other religious schools then followed. In 1887, under the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], a [[Sharia]] law school began a five-year program.<ref>[http://www.sarajevo.ba/en/stream.php?kat=145 University of Sarajevo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910081056/http://www.sarajevo.ba/en/stream.php?kat=145 |date=10 September 2015 }} on Sarajevo official web site</ref> In the 1940s, the [[University of Sarajevo]] became the city's first secular higher education institute. In the 1950s, post-bachelaurate graduate degrees became available.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unsa.ba/eng/ouni.php |publisher=University of Sarajevo |title=About University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204110445/http://www.unsa.ba/eng/ouni.php |archive-date=4 December 2008}}</ref> Severely damaged during the [[Bosnian War|war]], it was recently rebuilt in partnership with more than 40 other universities. There are various other institutions of higher education, including: [[University Džemal Bijedić of Mostar]], [[University of Banja Luka]], [[University of Mostar]], [[University of East Sarajevo]], [[University of Tuzla]], [[American University in Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and the [[Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], which is held in high regard as one of the most prestigious creative arts academies in the region.

Also, Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to several private and international higher education institutions, some of which are:
*[[Sarajevo School of Science and Technology]]
*[[International University of Sarajevo]]
*[[American University in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Sarajevo Graduate School of Business]]
*[[International Burch University]]
*[[United World College in Mostar]]

Primary schooling lasts for nine years. Secondary education is provided by general and technical secondary schools (typically [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasiums]]) where studies typically last for four years. All forms of secondary schooling include an element of [[vocational education|vocational training]]. Pupils graduating from general secondary schools obtain the ''[[Matura]]'' and can enroll in any tertiary educational institution or academy by passing a qualification examination prescribed by the governing body or institution. Students graduating technical subjects obtain a [[Diploma]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/boherco.htm |title=Education System in Bosnia and Herzegovina |website=EuroEducation.net – The European Education Directory |access-date=18 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215095037/http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/boherco.htm |archive-date=15 February 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Sarajevo, knihovna.jpg|thumb|[[National and University Library of Bosnia and Herzegovina|National and University Library]] in [[Sarajevo]]]]

===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

The [[architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] is largely influenced by four major periods where political and social changes influenced the creation of distinct cultural and architectural habits of the population. Each period made its influence felt and contributed to a greater diversity of cultures and architectural language in this region.

===Media===
{{Main|Mass media in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Radio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BHRT) building, Sarajevo.jpg|thumb|[[Radio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina|BHRT]] headquarters in Sarajevo]]

Some television, magazines, and newspapers in Bosnia and Herzegovina are state-owned, and some are for-profit corporations funded by [[advertising]], [[Subscription business model|subscription]], and other sales-related revenues. The [[Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] guarantees [[freedom of speech]].

As a [[Transition economy|country in transition]] with a post-war legacy and a [[politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina|complex domestic political structure]], Bosnia and Herzegovina's media system is under transformation. In the early post-war period (1995–2005), media development was guided mainly by international donors and cooperation agencies, who invested to help reconstruct, diversify, democratize and professionalize media outlets.<ref>Hozić, 2008; Thompson & De Luce, 2002; Kurspahić, 2003; Jusić, 2006</ref><ref name="EJC">Tarik Jusić, "[http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/bosnia-and-herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053605/http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/bosnia-and-herzegovina |date=4 March 2016 }}", EJC Media Landscapes</ref>

Post-war developments included the establishment of an independent Communication Regulatory Agency, the adoption of a Press Code, the establishment of the Press Council, the decriminalization of libel and defamation, the introduction of a rather advanced Freedom of Access to Information Law, and the creation of a Public Service Broadcasting System from the formerly state-owned broadcaster.
Yet, internationally backed positive developments have been often obstructed by domestic elites, and the professionalisation of media and journalists has proceeded only slowly. High levels of partisanship and linkages between the media and the political systems hinder the adherence to professional code of conducts.<ref name=EJC/>

===Literature===
{{Main|Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Literature}}
[[File:S. Kragujevic, Andric na vest o N. nagradi 1961.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Ivo Andrić]] with his wife [[Milica Babić-Jovanović|Milica]], upon learning he had won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]]]

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich literature, including the [[Nobel Prize]] winner [[Ivo Andrić]] and poets such as [[Antun Branko Šimić]], [[Aleksa Šantić]], [[Jovan Dučić]] and [[Mak Dizdar]], writers such as [[Zlatko Topčić]], [[Meša Selimović]], [[Semezdin Mehmedinović]], [[Miljenko Jergović]], [[Isak Samokovlija]], [[Safvet-beg Bašagić]], [[Abdulah Sidran]], [[Petar Kočić]], [[Aleksandar Hemon]] and [[Nedžad Ibrišimović]].

The [[Sarajevo National Theatre|National Theater]] was founded in 1919 in [[Sarajevo]] and its first director was dramatist [[Branislav Nušić]]. Magazines such as ''[[Novi Plamen]]'' or ''Sarajevske sveske'' are some of the more prominent publications covering cultural and literary themes.

By the late 1950s, Ivo Andrić's works had been translated into a number of languages. In 1958, the [[Association of Writers of Yugoslavia]] nominated Andrić as its first ever candidate for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]

===Art===
{{Main|Bosnia and Herzegovina art}}
[[File:Bosniangraves bosniska gravar februari 2007 stecak stecci5.jpg|thumb|[[Stećak|Stećci]] from [[Stećak necropolis Radimlja|Radimlja]], near [[Stolac]] (13th century)]]

The [[Bosnia and Herzegovina art|art of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] was always evolving and ranged from the original medieval tombstones called [[Stećak|Stećci]] to paintings in [[Kotromanić dynasty|Kotromanić]] court. However, only with the arrival of [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarians]] did the painting renaissance in Bosnia really begin to flourish. The first educated artists from European academies appeared with the beginning of the 20th century. Among those are: [[Gabrijel Jurkić]], [[Petar Šain]], [[Roman Petrović]] and [[Lazar Drljača]].

After [[World War II]], artists like [[Mersad Berber]] and [[Safet Zec]] rose in popularity.

In 2007, [[Ars Aevi]], a museum of contemporary art that includes works by renowned world artists, was founded in Sarajevo.

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
{{See also|List of Bosnia and Herzegovina patriotic songs|Bosnian root music}}
[[File:43. TKB - Seljo z Sarajewa (Bośnia i Hercegowina) 10.JPG|thumb|left|[[Bosniaks]] dancing a traditional [[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]]]

Typical Bosnian songs are ''[[Ganga (music)|ganga]], rera'', and the traditional Slavic music for the folk dances such as ''[[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]'', while from the Ottoman era the most popular is [[Sevdalinka]]. Pop and Rock music has a tradition here as well, with the more famous musicians including [[Dino Zonić]], [[Goran Bregović]], [[Davorin Popović]], [[Kemal Monteno]], [[Zdravko Čolić]], [[Elvir Laković Laka]], [[Edo Maajka]], [[Hari Varešanović]], [[Dino Merlin]], [[Mladen Vojičić Tifa]], [[Željko Bebek]], etc. Other composers such as [[Đorđe Novković]], [[Al' Dino]], [[Haris Džinović]], [[Kornelije Kovač]], and many [[Musical ensemble#Rock and pop bands|rock and pop bands]], for example, [[Bijelo Dugme]], [[Crvena jabuka]], [[Divlje jagode]], [[Indexi]], [[Plavi orkestar]], [[Zabranjeno Pušenje]], [[Ambasadori]], [[Dubioza kolektiv]], who were among the leading ones in the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia is home to the composer [[Dušan Šestić]], the creator of the [[National Anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and father of singer [[Marija Šestić]], to the jazz musician, educator and Bosnian jazz ambassador [[Sinan Alimanović]], composer [[Saša Lošić]] and pianist [[Saša Toperić]]. In the villages, especially in [[Herzegovina]], Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats play the ancient [[gusle]]. The gusle is used mainly to recite epic poems in a usually dramatic tone.

Probably the most distinctive and identifiably "Bosnian" of music, Sevdalinka is a kind of emotional, melancholic folk song that often describes sad subjects such as love and loss, the death of a dear person or heartbreak. Sevdalinkas were traditionally performed with a [[Bağlama|saz]], a Turkish string instrument, which was later replaced by the accordion. However the more modern arrangement is typically a vocalist accompanied by the accordion along with snare drums, upright bass, guitars, clarinets and violins.

[[File:Ensemble "Kolo", Đurđevdan customs from Podgrmeč.jpg|thumb|[[Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Serbs]] from [[Bosanska Krajina]] in traditional clothing]]

Rural folk traditions in Bosnia and Herzegovina include the shouted, [[polyphony|polyphonic]] ganga and "ravne pjesme" (''flat song'') styles, as well as instruments like a droneless [[Bagpipes|bagpipe]], wooden [[flute]] and [[šargija]]. The gusle, an instrument found throughout the [[Balkans]], is also used to accompany ancient [[Slavs|Slavic]] [[epic poetry|epic]] [[Poetry|poems]]. There are also Bosnian folk songs in the [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]] language, derived from the area's Jewish population.

''Bosnian roots music'' came from [[Central Bosnia]], [[Posavina]], the [[Drina]] valley and [[Kalesija]]. It is usually performed by singers with two violinists and a šargija player. These bands first appeared around [[World War I]] and became popular in the 1960s. This is the third oldest music after the Sevdalinka and [[Nasheed|ilahija]]. Self-taught people, mostly in two or three members of the different choices of old instruments, mostly in the violin, sacking, saz, drums, flutes ({{lang|bs|zurle}}) or wooden flute, as others have already called, the original performers of Bosnian music that can not be written notes, transmitted by ear from generation to generation, family is usually hereditary. It is thought to be brought from Persia-Kalesi tribe that settled in the area of the present Sprečanski valleys and hence probably the name Kalesija. In this part of Bosnia, it is the most common. This kind of music was enjoyed by all three peoples in Bosnia, Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats, and it contributed a lot to reconcile people socializing, entertainment and other organizations through festivals. In Kalesija, it is maintained each year with the Original Bosnian Festival music.

===Cinema and theatre===
{{Main|List of Bosnia and Herzegovina films}}

Sarajevo is internationally renowned for its eclectic and diverse selection of festivals. The [[Sarajevo Film Festival]] was established in 1995, during the [[Bosnian War]] and has become the premier and largest film festival in the Balkans and [[Southeast Europe]].

Bosnia has a rich cinematic and film heritage, dating back to the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]; many Bosnian filmmakers have achieved international prominence and some have won international awards ranging from the [[Academy Awards]] to multiple [[Palme d'Or]]s and [[Golden Bear]]s. Some notable Bosnian screenwriters, directors and producers are [[Danis Tanović]] (known for the Academy Award and [[Golden Globe Awards|Golden Globe Award]] winning 2001 film ''[[No Man's Land (2001 film)|No Man's Land]]'' and [[Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize]] winning 2016 film ''[[Death in Sarajevo]]''),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.berlinale.de/en/das_festival/preise_und_juries/preise_internationale_jury/index.html |title=Home Festival Awards & Juries: International Jury "Prizes of the International Jury |website=berlinale.de/en |date=2016 |access-date=23 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816162458/http://www.berlinale.de/en/das_festival/preise_und_juries/preise_internationale_jury/index.html |archive-date=16 August 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Jasmila Žbanić]] (won Golden Bear, Academy Award and [[British Academy Film Awards|BAFTA]] nominated 2020 film ''[[Quo Vadis, Aida?]]''), [[Emir Kusturica]] (won two Palme d'Ors at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]]), [[Zlatko Topčić]], [[Ademir Kenović]], [[Ahmed Imamović]], [[Pjer Žalica]], [[Aida Begić]], etc.

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Bosnia and Herzegovina cuisine}}
[[File:Bosnian meat platter.JPG|thumb|Bosnian meat platter that contains, among other things, [[ćevapi]], which is considered the [[national dish]] of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

Bosnian cuisine uses many spices, in moderate quantities. Most dishes are light, as they are boiled; the sauces are fully natural, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables in the dish. Typical ingredients include tomatoes, potatoes, onions, [[garlic]], [[Capsicum|peppers]], [[cucumber]]s, carrots, [[cabbage]], [[mushroom]]s, [[spinach]], [[zucchini]], [[bean|dried beans]], fresh beans, [[plum]]s, milk, [[paprika]] and cream called [[Smetana (dairy product)|pavlaka]]. Bosnian cuisine is balanced between [[Western culture|Western]] and [[Eastern world|Eastern]] influences. As a result of the [[Turkish cuisine|Ottoman]] administration for almost 500 years, Bosnian food is closely related to Turkish, [[Greek cuisine|Greek]] and other former Ottoman and [[Mediterranean cuisine|Mediterranean]] cuisines. However, because of years of Austrian rule, there are many influences from [[Central European cuisine|Central Europe]]. Typical meat dishes include primarily beef and [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]]. Some local specialties are [[ćevapi]], [[Börek|burek]], [[dolma]], [[Sarma (food)|sarma]], [[Pilaf|pilav]], [[goulash]], [[ajvar]] and a whole range of Eastern sweets. Ćevapi is a grilled dish of minced meat, a type of [[kebab]], popular in former Yugoslavia and considered a national dish in Bosnia and Herzegovina<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Bosnia and Herzegovina|date=2009|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=July 27, 2009|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503211212/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/700826/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina|archive-date=May 3, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Serbia]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoVUAAAAMAAJ&q=cevapcici|first=Encyclopedia|last=Britannica|title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia : Knowledge in depth|date=August 11, 2002|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|isbn=9780852297872|via=Google Books|access-date=11 August 2019|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414085106/https://books.google.com/books?id=aoVUAAAAMAAJ&q=cevapcici|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pssZAQAAIAAJ&q=cevapcici|title=Countries and Their Cultures: Saint Kitts and Nevis to Zimbabwe|page=68|isbn=9780028649467|last=Ember|first=Melvin|year=2001|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=28 September 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806231146/https://books.google.com/books?id=pssZAQAAIAAJ&q=cevapcici|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=TravelSerbia.Info – Your travel guide for Serbia|access-date=August 9, 2010|url=https://www.travelserbia.info/serbian-cuisine.php|title=Serbian cuisine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330135429/http://www.travelserbia.info/serbian-cuisine.php|archive-date=30 March 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> Local wines come from [[Herzegovina]] where the climate is suitable for growing grapes. Herzegovinian ''loza'' (similar to Italian [[Grappa]] but less sweet) is very popular. Plum (''rakija'') or apple (''jabukovača'') alcohol beverages are produced in the north. In the south, distilleries used to produce vast quantities of [[brandy]] and supply all of ex-Yugoslav alcohol factories (brandy is the base of most [[alcoholic drink]]s).

Coffeehouses, where [[Turkish coffee|Bosnian coffee]] is served in [[Cezve|džezva]] with [[Turkish delight|rahat lokum]] and [[Cube sugar|sugar cubes]], are common in [[Sarajevo]] and every city in the country. Coffee drinking is a favorite Bosnian pastime and part of the culture. Bosnia and Herzegovina is the ninth country in the entire world by per capita coffee consumption.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-43742686|title=Coffee: Who grows, drinks and pays the most?|last=Jones|first=Lora|date=April 13, 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=May 13, 2018|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613115037/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-43742686|archive-date=June 13, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Sports===
{{See also|Bosnia and Herzegovina at the Olympics|Football in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[File:Asim Ferhatović Hase Stadium.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Koševo City Stadium|Asim Ferhatović Hase Stadium]] in [[Sarajevo]] hosted the opening ceremony of the [[1984 Winter Olympics]]]]
[[File:Jahorina mountain 2018.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Jahorina Ski Resort]], a 1984 Winter Olympics venue, is the biggest and most popular ski resort in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

Bosnia and Herzegovina has produced many athletes. The most important international [[Sport|sporting event]] in the [[history of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] were the [[1984 Winter Olympics|14th Winter Olympics]], held in [[Sarajevo]] from 7 to 19 February 1984.

The [[RK Borac Banja Luka|Borac]] [[handball]] club has won seven [[Yugoslav Handball Championship]]s, as well as the [[EHF Champions League|European Cup]] in [[1975–76 European Cup (handball)|1976]] and the [[EHF European League|International Handball Federation Cup]] in 1991.

[[Amel Mekić]], Bosnian judoka, became [[2011 European Judo Championships|European champion]] in 2011. Track and field athlete [[Amel Tuka]] won bronze and silver medals in 800 metres at the [[2015 World Championships in Athletics|2015]] and [[2019 IAAF World Athletics Championships]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iaaf.org/competitions/iaaf-world-championships/iaaf-world-athletics-championships-doha-2019-6033/results/men/800-metres/final/result#resultheader|title=800 metres men IAAF World Athletics Championships, Doha 2019 – Results|date=1 October 2019|access-date=1 October 2019|language=en|website=iaaf.org|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007220511/https://www.iaaf.org/competitions/iaaf-world-championships/iaaf-world-athletics-championships-doha-2019-6033/results/men/800-metres/final/result#resultheader|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Hamza Alić]] won the silver medal in [[2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships – Men's shot put|shot put]] at the [[2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships|2013 European Indoor Championships]].

The [[KK Bosna Royal|Bosna Royal]] [[basketball]] club from Sarajevo were [[Euroleague Basketball|European Champions]] in [[1978–79 FIBA European Champions Cup|1979]]. The [[Yugoslavia men's national basketball team]], which won medals in every world championship from 1963 through 1990, included Bosnian players such as [[FIBA Hall of Fame]]rs [[Dražen Dalipagić]] and [[Mirza Delibašić]]. Bosnia and Herzegovina regularly qualifies for the [[EuroBasket|European Championship in Basketball]], with players including [[Mirza Teletović]], [[Nihad Đedović]] and [[Jusuf Nurkić]]. The [[Bosnia and Herzegovina men's national under-16 and under-17 basketball team|Bosnia and Herzegovina national under-16 team]] won two gold medals in 2015, winning both [[Basketball at the 2015 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival|2015 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival]] as well as the [[2015 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship]].

Women's basketball club [[ŽKK Jedinstvo Tuzla|Jedinstvo Aida]] from [[Tuzla]] won the [[EuroLeague Women|Women's European Club Championship]] in 1989 and [[Ronchetti Cup]] final in 1990, led by [[Razija Mujanović]], three times best female European basketball player, and [[Mara Lakić]]

The Bosnian [[chess]] team was [[Yugoslav Chess Championship|Champion of Yugoslavia]] seven times, in addition to club [[ŠK Bosna]] winning four [[European Chess Club Cup]]s. Chess grandmaster [[Borki Predojević]] has also won two European Championships. The most impressive success of Bosnian Chess was a runner-up position at the [[31st Chess Olympiad]] in 1994 in [[Moscow]], featuring Grandmasters [[Predrag Nikolić]], [[Ivan Sokolov (chess player)|Ivan Sokolov]] and [[Bojan Kurajica]].

Middle-weight [[Boxing|boxer]] [[Marijan Beneš]] has won several Championships of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslav Championships and the [[European Amateur Boxing Championships|European Championship]].<ref name="nezavisne">{{cite web|url=http://www.nezavisne.com/revija/tekst3-050612.php|title=Ring zamijenio nalivperom|publisher=Nezavisne novine|date=June 12, 2005|language=bs, hr, sr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001210122/http://www.nezavisne.com/revija/tekst3-050612.php|archive-date=October 1, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1978, he won the World Title against [[Elisha Obed]] from [[The Bahamas]].

[[File:20150331 2219 AUT BIH 2704.jpg|thumb|190px|right|upright=0.6|[[Edin Džeko]] playing for [[Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team|Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 2015]]

[[Association football]] is the most popular sport in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It dates from 1903, but its popularity grew significantly after [[World War I]]. Bosnian clubs [[FK Sarajevo]] and [[FK Željezničar Sarajevo|Željezničar]] won the [[Yugoslav First League|Yugoslav Championship]], while the [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslav national football team]] included Bosnian players of all ethnic backgrounds and generations, such as [[Safet Sušić]], [[Zlatko Vujović]], [[Mehmed Baždarević]], [[Davor Jozić]], [[Faruk Hadžibegić]], [[Predrag Pašić]], [[Blaž Slišković]], [[Vahid Halilhodžić]], [[Dušan Bajević]], [[Ivica Osim]], [[Josip Katalinski]], [[Tomislav Knez]], [[Velimir Sombolac]] and numerous others. The [[Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team]] played at the [[2014 FIFA World Cup]], its first major tournament. Players on the team again includes notable players of all country's ethnic background, such as then and now captains [[Emir Spahić]], [[Zvjezdan Misimović]] and [[Edin Džeko]], defenders like [[Ognjen Vranješ]], [[Sead Kolašinac]] and [[Toni Šunjić]], midfielders like [[Miralem Pjanić]] and [[Senad Lulić]], striker [[Vedad Ibišević]], etc. Former Bosnian footballers include [[Hasan Salihamidžić]], who became only the second Bosnian to ever win a [[UEFA Champions League]] trophy, after [[Elvir Baljić]]. He made 234 appearances and scored 31 goals for German club [[FC Bayern Munich]]. [[Sergej Barbarez]], who played for several clubs in the German [[Bundesliga]]. including [[Borussia Dortmund]], [[Hamburger SV]] and [[Bayer 04 Leverkusen|Bayer Leverkusen]] was joint-top scorer in the [[2000–01 Bundesliga]] season with 22 goals. [[Meho Kodro]] spent most of his career playing in Spain, most notably with [[Real Sociedad]] and [[FC Barcelona]]. [[Elvir Rahimić]] made 302 appearances for Russian club [[PFC CSKA Moscow|CSKA Moscow]] with whom he won the [[UEFA Europa League|UEFA Cup]] in [[2005 UEFA Cup Final|2005]].
[[Milena Nikolić]], member of the [[Bosnia and Herzegovina women's national football team|women's national team]], was the [[2013–14 UEFA Women's Champions League]] [[UEFA Women's Champions League#Top scorers by tournament|top scorer]].<ref name="uefa.com-nikolic-scorer">{{cite web |title=Nikolić and Müller take scorer honours |url=https://www.uefa.com/womenschampionsleague/news/0215-0e15e02f0f57-9ea95d1edf8f-1000--nikolic-and-muller-take-scorer-honours/ |website=UEFA.com |access-date=23 October 2022 |language=en |date=22 May 2014}}</ref>

Bosnia and Herzegovina was the world champion of [[volleyball at the 2004 Summer Paralympics]] and [[volleyball at the 2012 Summer Paralympics]]. Many among those on the team lost their legs in the [[Bosnian War]]. Its [[Bosnia and Herzegovina national sitting volleyball team|national sitting volleyball team]] is one of the dominant forces in [[Sitting volleyball|the sport]] worldwide, winning nine European Championships, three World Championships and two [[Volleyball at the Summer Paralympics|Paralympic]] gold medals.

[[Tennis]] is also gaining a lot of popularity after the recent successes of [[Damir Džumhur]] and [[Mirza Bašić]] at [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] level. Other notable tennis players who have represented Bosnia and Herzegovina are [[Tomislav Brkić]], [[Amer Delić]] and [[Mervana Jugić-Salkić]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
* [[Outline of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFCIA2019}}
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book|last=Albertini|first=Luigi|editor=Jochen Thies|title=The Origins of the War of 1914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ct5mAAAAMAAJ|date=2005|publisher=Enigma Books|isbn=978-1-929631-26-1|access-date=25 March 2016|archive-date=6 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106042306/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ct5mAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1=Bejko|first1=Lorenc|last2=Morris|first2=Sarah|last3=Papadopoulos|first3=John|last4=Schepartz|first4=Lynne|title=The Excavation of the Prehistoric Burial Tumulus at Lofkend, Albania|year=2015|publisher=ISD LLC|isbn=978-1938770524|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWmRDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Bosnia and Herzegovina|access-date=May 13, 2019|year=2019 |ref={{sfnref|CIA|2019}} }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Dausse |first1=Marie-Pierre |editor1-last=Souchon |editor1-first=Cécile |title=La Grèce du Nord aux IVe et IIIe siècles avant J.-C. : des États puissants aux frontières floues? |journal=Actes des congrès nationaux des sociétés historiques et scientifiques |date=2015 |pages=24–31 |doi=10.4000/books.cths.2013 |isbn=9782735508679 |url=https://books.openedition.org/cths/2043|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book|last=Fine| first=John Van Antwerp Jr. |title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century|publisher=University of Michigan Press|date=1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C|isbn=978-0-472-08149-3|access-date=28 September 2020|archive-date=4 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404203602/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Fine| first=John Van Antwerp Jr. |title=The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest|date=1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LvVbRrH1QBgC|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=9780472082605|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-date=8 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108160027/https://books.google.com/books?id=LvVbRrH1QBgC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Hammond|first1=N. G. L.|last2=Wilkes|first2=J. J.|editor-last1=Hornblower|editor-first1=Simon|editor-last2=Spawforth|editor-first2=Antony|editor-last3=Eidinow|editor-first3=Esther|dictionary=The Oxford Classical Dictionary|date=2012|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-954556-8|entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA726|entry=Illyrii|page=726}}
* {{cite book|title=The Roots of the Religious, Ethnic, and National Identity of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Muslims|last=Basic|first=Denis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RivPTByg2rMC|publisher=[[University of Washington]]|date=2009|chapter=4.1.1. Early Medieval Bosnia in Porphyrogenitus' ''De Administrando Imperio''|isbn=9781109124637|access-date=30 June 2016|archive-date=28 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628160106/http://books.google.com/books?id=RivPTByg2rMC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Moravcsik |editor-first=Gyula |editor-link=Gyula Moravcsik |title=Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio |year=1967 |orig-year=1949 |edition=2nd revised |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies |isbn=9780884020219 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC}}
* {{cite book|first=Jozo|last=Tomasevich|author-link=Jozo Tomasevich|title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia: 1941–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC&pg=PA485|access-date=4 December 2013|date=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-7924-1|archive-date=4 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104165249/http://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC&pg=PA485|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Malcolm|first=Noel|title=Bosnia: A Short History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToYfeuTfhF8C|date=2002|publisher=Pan Books|isbn=978-0-330-41244-5|access-date=25 March 2016|archive-date=6 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106042311/https://books.google.com/books?id=ToYfeuTfhF8C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Shpuza|first=Saimir|chapter=D'un limên à une polis. Orikos aux périodes archaïque et classique|title=Schemata: la città oltre la forma : per una nuova definizione dei paesaggi urbani e delle loro funzioni: urbanizzazione e società nel Mediterraneo pre-classico : età arcaica|editor-last=Brancato|editor-first=Rodolfo|publisher=Edizioni Quasar|year=2022|isbn=9788854912755|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07U5zwEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Velikonja|first=Mitja|title=Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia–Herzegovina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rf8P-7ExoKYC|date=2003|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=978-1-58544-226-3|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-date=30 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430080425/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rf8P-7ExoKYC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1=Zindel|first1=Christian|last2=Lippert|first2=Andreas|last3=Lahi|first3=Bashkim|last4=Kiel|first4=Machiel|title=Albanien: Ein Archäologie- und Kunstführer von der Steinzeit bis ins 19. Jahrhundert|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|year=2018|isbn=9783205200109|language=de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BR9WDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Živković |first=Tibor |author-link=Tibor Živković |chapter=On the Beginnings of Bosnia in the Middle Ages |title=Spomenica akademika Marka Šunjića (1927-1998) |year=2010b |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Filozofski fakultet |pages=161–180 |chapter-url=https://www.scribd.com/document/46910715}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* Allcock, John B., Marko Milivojevic, et al. ''Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia: An Encyclopedia'' (1998)
* {{Cite book|last=Bataković|first=Dušan T.|title=The Serbs of Bosnia & Herzegovina: History and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3xpAAAAMAAJ|date=1996|publisher=Dialogue Association|isbn=9782911527104|ref=none|access-date=24 September 2016|archive-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224065823/https://books.google.com/books?id=k3xpAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|title=The Handbook of Language and Globalization|last=Coupland|first=Nikolas|date=2010|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-1-4051-7581-4|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|first=Sir Arthur J.|last=Evans|title=Through Bosnia and the Herzegovina on Foot During the Insurrection, August and September 1875|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2VoQAQAAIAAJ|date=2007|publisher=Cosimo Classics|isbn=978-1602062702|ref=none|access-date=28 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414140116/https://books.google.com/books?id=2VoQAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}} (Also at [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73712 Project Gutenberg])
* {{cite book|first=Omer|last=Hadziselimovic|title=At the Gates of the East: British Travel Writers on Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kGdpAAAAMAAJ|date=2001|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0880334709|ref=none|access-date=28 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135840/https://books.google.com/books?id=kGdpAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|first=Marko Attila|last=Hoare|title=The History of Bosnia: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQtAQAAIAAJ|date=2007|publisher=Saqi Books|isbn=978-0863569531|ref=none|access-date=28 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414085246/https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQtAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|first=Maude M.|last=Holbach|title=Bosnia and Herzegovina, Some Wayside Wanderings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_dMAAAAMAAJ|date=2016|publisher=Palala Press|isbn=978-1355062769|ref=none|access-date=28 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135939/https://books.google.com/books?id=L_dMAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Albertini|first=Luigi|title=The Origins of the War of 1914: European relations from the Congress of Berlin to the eve of the Sarajevo murder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udVmAAAAMAAJ|date=1952|publisher=Oxford University Press|ref=none|access-date=25 March 2016|archive-date=6 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106085838/https://books.google.com/books?id=udVmAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|first=Robert|last=Munro|title=Rambles and Studies in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yd7hPaLXUZIC|orig-year=1894|year=2015|publisher=Palala Press|isbn=978-1346798868|ref=none|access-date=28 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135942/https://books.google.com/books?id=yd7hPaLXUZIC|url-status=live}}
* Okey, Robin. ''Taming Balkan Nationalism: The Habsburg 'Civilizing' Mission in Bosnia, 1878–1914'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)
* Phillips, Douglas A. ''Bosnia and Herzegovina'' (Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2004).
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
{{EB1911 poster|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080703235430/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bosniaherzegovina.htm Bosnia and Herzegovina] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 3 July 2008)
* {{Wikiatlas|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

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