View source for Semi-periphery countries

{{International relations theory}}
In [[world-systems theory]], the '''semi-periphery countries''' (sometimes referred to as just '''the semi-periphery''') are the [[industrialization|industrializing]], mostly [[capitalism|capitalist]] [[country|countries]] which are positioned between [[periphery countries|the periphery]] and [[core countries]]. Semi-periphery countries have organizational characteristics of both core countries and periphery countries and are often geographically located between core and peripheral regions as well as between two or more competing core regions.<ref name=chase/> Semi-periphery regions play a major role in mediating economic, political, and social activities that link core and peripheral areas.<ref name=chase>Chase-Dunn and Thomas D. Hall.''The Seedbed of Change''.Chapter 5 of C.</ref>

These regions allow for the possibility of innovative technology, reforms in social and orginazational structure, and dominance over peripheral nations.<ref name=chase/> These changes can lead to a semi-periphery country being promoted to a core nation.<ref name="chase"/> Semi-periphery is, however, more than a description, as it also serves as a position within the world hierarchy in which social and economic change can be interpreted..<ref name=terlouw>Terlouw 1992 pg 36-45</ref>

World-systems theory describes the semi-periphery as a key structural element in a world economy.<ref name=waller>Wallerstein 1976, pp. 229-233</ref> The semi-periphery plays a vital role comparative to that of the role that Spain and Portugal played in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as intermediate trading groups within the European colonial empire.<ref name=waller/>

Today, the semi-periphery is generally industrialized.<ref name=waller2>Wallerstein 1974 Vol.3, No.4.,pp 461-483</ref> Semi-peripheral countries contribute to the manufacturing and exportation of a variety of goods.<ref name=waller/> They are marked by above average land mass, as exemplified by [[China]], [[India]], [[Mexico]], [[Iran]], and other countries.<ref name=terlouw/> More land mass typically means an increased market size and share.<ref name=waller2/> Semi-peripheral nations are not all large though, as smaller countries such as [[Italy]], [[Israel]], [[Poland]], and [[Greece]] exist within the semi-periphery.<ref name=waller2/>

==Origin in sociological theory==
The term "semi-periphery" originated in the thirteenth century.<ref name=abu>Janet Abu-Lughod 1989</ref> World-system theorists originally used only two categories: [[periphery countries]] and [[core countries]]. A need for an "in between" category became quickly apparent,<ref name="Chirot">Chirot. 1977. </ref> leading to the establishment of the semi-periphery category for societies that have moved away from the periphery but have not become core. In other words, the category describes societies that remain dependent, and to some extent underdeveloped, despite having achieved significant levels of industrialization.<ref name="Chirot"/> Semi-peripheral countries are tied into dynamic world systems that focus on the reliance of poor nations upon the wealthy, a concept known as the [[dependency theory]].<ref>Tausch A.</ref>

==Function==
[[Image:China fuels 1983.jpg|thumb|250px|Energy and mineral resources]]
The semi periphery is needed to stabilize the world system,<ref name=waller/> as it facilitates interaction and provides a connection between the low-income [[periphery countries|peripheral states]] and the high-income [[core countries|core states]] by adding another step in the world system hierarchy.<ref name=waller/> As the middle ground, semi-peripheral countries display characteristics of both the [[core]] and the [[periphery]].<ref name=waller2/> They also serve as a "political buffer zone" in that while they are exploited, they are also the exploiters.<ref name=waller/> These areas have either been core regions in the past or formerly-peripheral areas that have since advanced in the world economy.<ref name=waller2/>

Semi-peripheral nations are a necessary structural element in a world-trade system,<ref name=waller/> since such nations can serve to alleviate the political pressures that the core can exert upon the periphery and the political unrest that the periphery can direct back at the core.<ref name=waller/> On the other hand, the semi-periphery can find itself excluded from the region's politics, as it lies just outside of the bounds of political arena of the core states.<ref name=waller/>

Semi-periphery exists because it needs to divide the economic power between the core and the periphery. Semi-periphery, refer to middle class by Wallerstein, is what makes the capitalist world function because it is much like the sociological structural functionalism theory, where norms, customs, traditions, and institutions act as “organs” that work toward the proper functioning of the “body” as a whole. Without these industrializing countries, change will never reach the periphery.<ref>Chirot, Daniel, and Thomas D. Hall. 1982. 8:81-106.</ref>

In terms of their contribution to industry and economy, the contemporary semi-peripheral states are semi-industrialized.<ref name=waller2/> Semi-peripheral countries are major exporters of minerals and agricultural goods. They are often focused in the manufacturing and exportation of industrial goods and commodities. While these advances separate the semi-periphery from the periphery, they lack the power and the economic dominance of core nations and still have a lot of un-managed poverty, which places them beneath the core.<ref name=terlouw/> Semi-peripheral countries are important contributors to the world economy for the above reasons and because they tend to have above average land mass, meaning that they are host to an above average market.<ref name=terlouw/> A primary example is [[China]], a country with not only a large area but with a booming population.<ref name=terlouw/>

==History and development==
===13th century===
[[Image:Silkroutes.jpg|thumb|Ancient [[silk road]] [[trade routes]] across [[Eurasia]]]]This era of human history found the semi-periphery concentrated in the area stretching from the [[Middle East]] to [[China]], including [[India]] and the [[Mongol Empire]].<ref name=abu/> This was the first time in history that the peripheries and semi-peripheries of the world became connected and involved in the trade of the world, both with cores and with each other.<ref name=abu/> Through a lucrative trade system, including heavy taxing of goods traveling through their borders, they were able to maintain a steady stream of wealth, becoming the driving forces of economic change throughout this time period.<ref name=abu/>  In addition, a heavy emphasis on defense and border security, particularly among the [[Mongols]], allowed them to be fairly impenetrable [[trade]] obstacles.<ref name=abu/> [[Geography]] also played a role, as seen in [[India]]'s development of an impressive [[maritime industry]].  Because of its position along a convenient route through the [[Indian Ocean]], India established its role as a "hinge" between the [[East]] and [[West]].<ref name=abu/> Through their positions within the world trade system, semi-peripheries in the Middle East became crucially important in connecting the cities of Chinese and Indian cores with the fledgling cities of Europe, as well as serving as key points between other, more major core cities in the region, such as [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]], and [[Aden]].<ref name=abu/>

===1300-1450===
[[Image:Bubonic plague-en.svg|thumb|250px|The Black Death rapidly spread along the major European sea and land trade routes.]]

Following increases in population and commerce in Western Europe in the thirteenth century, the [[feudal system]] met severe economic difficulties in the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries.<ref name=halsall>Halsall 1997, pp.14-19</ref> This decline in development was caused by a combination of the decline in agricultural production, the shrinking economy that had already hit its peak within the current feudal structure, and the devastating effects of the [[Black Plague]] epidemic.<ref name=waller/> The regression of Western Europe into the semi-periphery and periphery allowed for the rise of the trading powers of [[Italy]], most notably [[Genoa]] and [[Venice]].<ref name=abu/> These Italian city-states took advantage of their established trade connections with the [[Mongol Empire]], the [[Far East]], the [[Middle East]], and the other [[Mediterranean]] powers to maintain their growth despite the economic failures of their European trade partners.<ref name=abu/> Genoa and Venice had influence beyond their trade channels. Both were instrumental in the [[Crusades]] through their provisions of troops, transport vessels, and naval ships.<ref name=abu/> Genoa also assisted the [[Byzantine Empire]] when it helped recapture the capital, [[Constantinople]], in the late thirteenth century.<ref name=abu/> The Byzantine Empire took advantage of its strategic position along various trade routes and the decline of Western Europe to rise to [[core]] status until its fall in 1453.<ref name=abu/> 

During this time period, Genoa and Venice developed forms of [[laissez-faire]] government,and institutions that are viewed as precursors to modern [[capitalism]].<ref name=abu/> Despite these advances in influence and entrepreneurship, Genoa and Venice suffered from the crippling effects of the Black Plague as much of the rest of Europe had before them.<ref name=abu/> Venice was able to survive due to its connection with the Southern trade route, though her strength was much reduced by the middle of the fifteenth century.<ref name=abu/> Genoa never fully recovered from the [[Black Death]] and its defeat at the hands of Venice in the late fourteenth century.<ref name=abu/> The decline of Genoa and the shift in Venice's focus to the [[Red Sea]] trade route left the western Mediterranean and the Atlantic open to [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]], who were already better positioned geographically to control [[Atlantic]] trade routes.<ref name=abu/>

===1450-1670===
[[Image:Spanish Empire Anachronous 0.PNG|thumb|460px|The areas of the world that at one time were territories of the Spanish Empire.]]
  
In a push to ensure stable economic growth, Europe turned to a capitalistic economy in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries to replace the failed feudal system.<ref name=halsall/> Modern capitalism allowed for economies to extend beyond geographical and political boundaries, leading to the formation of the first worldwide economic system.<ref name=halsall/> At the base of this world system was an [[international division of labor]] that determined countries' relationships and placement within the categories of the world system: core, semi-periphery, periphery, and external.<ref name=halsall/> The core regions, most notably the countries of Northwestern Europe like [[England]], [[France]], and [[Holland]], gained the most from the world economy.<ref name=halsall/> Their ascension from previous peripheral and semi-peripheral status to the core was driven by the development of strong central government and military power, the combination of which made possible control of international commerce and exploitation of colonial possessions.<ref name=halsall/> 

At the other end of the spectrum was the periphery, marked by lack of central government, exportation of raw materials to the core, and exploitive labor practices.<ref name=halsall/> In this time period, Eastern Europe, most notably [[Poland]], and [[Latin America]] stood out as peripheral zones.<ref name=halsall/> [[Slaves]] and indigenous workers in these regions developed [[raw materials]] for export to Europe, a distinctive characteristic of the new capitalism, as goods were no longer produced solely for internal consumption.<ref name=halsall/> The [[aristocracy]] of these regions controlled commerce and became wealthy through the new world economy, leading to their rise in power above the government.<ref name=halsall/> Even in periods of upheaval, local aristocrats were able to rely on core European powers to assist in keeping control over the economic system.<ref name=halsall/>

In between the core and periphery was the semi-periphery, which constituted both previous core regions that had declined, like Italy, Spain and Portugal, and peripheries that had improved their position, like southern [[Germany]] and southern France.<ref name=halsall/> Spain and Portugal had taken advantage of the opening to Atlantic control left by the decline of Italian powers like Genoa and Venice.<ref name=halsall/> Much like the core European powers, Spain and Portugal had strong navies and expansive colonial domains, which they exploited for their natural resources and cheap labor.<ref name=halsall/> Rather than using the increased wealth to develop strong domestic [[manufacturing]] sectors, as other Western European powers did, Spain and Portugal used imported gold and silver to obtain manufactured goods from the core countries, relegating them to semi-periphery instead of core status.<ref name=halsall/> So, while they had control over several peripheral regions and exploited them, a characteristic of a core region, these countries failed to develop the quality manufacturing industries the access to international banking that further defined core countries, leaving them a step below in the world system at semi-periphery status.<ref name=halsall/>

===1700-1875===
[[File:graph rel share world manuf 1750 1900 02.png|300px|thumb|As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies]]
The development of trade between Europe, the Americas, and the East generated massive profits for a relatively small [[merchant]] elite in the European colonial powers.<ref name=halsall/> These merchants were able to utilize their profits to take control of [[agriculture]] and other industries.<ref name=halsall/> The merchant class further consolidated its power by extending control over internal markets and the prices of finished goods.<ref name=halsall/> The end result was the development of the necessary capital to [[industrialize]] the European core states.<ref name=halsall/>

This era was defined by the transition from agriculture to [[industrialization]].<ref name=halsall/> The rapid development of industry triggered several reactions. Many European states explored new territories in addition to their original colonial holdings for new markets to exploit.<ref name=halsall/> The European world system continued to expand and include more regions, as it absorbed the [[Indian Ocean]] economic system through the acquisition of colonies by Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, among others.<ref name=halsall/> Previously isolated regions, like much of the American interior zone, joined newly independent Latin American countries in becoming part of the periphery.<ref name=halsall/> By the nineteenth century, [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] had also entered the world system as peripheral regions.<ref name=halsall/> This development of Africa and Asia as peripheral continents allowed for new cores like the [[United States]] and [[Germany]] to improve their core status, rising higher within the world system.<ref name=halsall/>

Throughout this time period was a constant shift within core regions from a combination of agriculture and industry to solely industrial enterprise.<ref name=halsall/> In this period, England was the leader in industrial and agricultural production, though by 1900, only ten percent of England's populace worked in agriculture, demonstrating the shift to industry not only in England but across the core stratum.<ref name=halsall/> The dramatic shift to industry extended beyond the core by the end of this time period, as core regions encouraged the development of [[manufacturing]] in peripheral and semi-peripheral zones to further develop those markets and create demand for newly developed machines and other goods.<ref name=halsall/>

===1875-1914===
[[File:Royal Irish Rifles ration party Somme July 1916.jpg|thumb|A ration party of the Royal Irish Rifles in a communication trench.]] The [[West]] represented both the core and the semi-periphery, as [[Europe]] dominated 80% of the world's market share.<ref name="Hobsbawn">Hobsbawn, Eric. 1987.</ref> The rest of the world was a diverse periphery, with the exception of only some nations, like [[Japan]].<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> As expansionism continued, new core nations emerged, such as the [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Germany]], and the [[United States]], while old cores such as [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] faded to the semi-periphery.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> The growth of the power of the common man led to an expansion of thought concerning democracy, communism, and revolution, which pervaded the weaker semi-peripheral nations overcome with civil distress.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> In some cases, this led to the weakening of the nations, such as the violent revolution in [[France]].<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> This contributed to the adoption of totalitarian leaders, as seen in [[Germany]] and [[France]].<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> The major factors contributing to world war were the conflicts and power struggles taking place between the three classes of nations in the global system.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/> Nations considered part of the semi-periphery felt oppressed by the stronger, larger core nations.<ref name="Hobsbawn"/>

===Today===
[[Image:Imf-advanced-un-least-developed-2008.svg|thumb|250px|{{legend|#0000ff|Advanced economies}}
{{legend|#ff9000|Emerging and developing economies (not least developed)}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Emerging and developing economies ([[least developed country|least developed]])}}<small>Classifications by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and the [[United Nations|UN]]</small>]]In today's global hierarchy, some states are transitioning upward while others are moving downward in terms of status and influence. Former colonial powers no longer exercise control over an international domain and are instead mostly relegated to their core; for example, former European world powers do not exert influence over colonial outposts in the [[Americas]], [[Africa]], or [[Asia]], but rather have consolidated their power in the form of the [[European Union]].<ref name="shaw">Shaw, Timothy M. ''The Review of Black Political Economy'': pp. 341-358.
[http://www.springerlink.com/content/2118h2x63n84u170/]</ref> The new leading powers are mostly non-European ([[United States]], [[China]], Japan). Outside of these developed countries are countries (see list below) that are considered semi-periphery and are both dominant and dominated within economic, political, and social realms. These middle powers are a combination of nations that have emerged as a result of the fragmentation of the [[Soviet Union]] and nations that have risen because of their possession of resources in high demand, like oil in [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="shaw"/> While these nations are by no means on the level of the stated world powers, they are able to exert influence over the weaker nations of the impoverished [[Fourth World]].<ref name="shaw"/>

Other terms used to describe semi-periphery countries include sub-imperial and semi-industrial.<ref name="shaw"/> [[Immanuel Wallerstein]] identifies three ways by which countries can emerge from the periphery into the semi-periphery.<ref name="shaw"/> Countries with a large market and room for industrial growth, like [[Brazil]], [[South Africa]], and [[Mexico]], and countries with valuable energy resources, like [[Iran]] and Saudi Arabia, can utilize the strategy of seizing the chance.<ref name="shaw"/> The strategy of promotion by invitation can be utilized by countries willing to be open to foreign governmental and regional administrative centers.<ref name="shaw"/> Examples of past countries to utilize this strategy are the capitalist regimes in Africa like [[Egypt]], [[Kenya]], [[Nigeria]], [[Zaire]], [[Senegal]], and [[Cote d'Ivoire]].<ref name="shaw"/> These countries use [[dependency theory|dependent development]] to integrate into the world economy and establish local dominance.<ref name="shaw"/> Outside of these strategies is that of self-reliance, a basic theory that as some countries grow, others will decline.<ref name="shaw"/> Many countries in Africa and Latin America have exhibited the qualities of a sub-imperial or semi-industrial power.<ref name="shaw"/>

Wallerstein examines the role of semi-periphery countries during a period of economic downturn.<ref name=waller2/> To redefine core and periphery countries in an economic sense, core countries are characterized by advanced technology, high [[profits]], high [[wages]], and diversified production while periphery countries have less technology, low profits, low wages, and less diversified production.<ref name=waller2/> Semi-periphery countries fall in the middle of these spectra, and their unique political and social structure place them in a position where they can best take advantage of economic downturns.<ref name=waller2/>

These economic downturns occur because of increased [[supply]] and decreased [[demand]], which combine to create a shift in surplus and power to the semi-periphery, which takes advantage of the situation by expanding control of their home markets and the surrounding periphery countries at the expense of core countries.<ref name=waller2/> The underlying reason for this shift in power lies in the basic economic principle of [[scarcity]]. As long as core countries maintain scarcities of their goods, they can select customers from semi-periphery and periphery countries that are competing over them. When excess supply occurs, the core countries are the ones competing over a smaller market. This competition allows semi-peripheral nations to select from among core countries rather than vice versa when making decisions about commodity purchases, manufacturing investments, and sales of goods, shifting the balance of power to the semi-periphery.<ref name=waller2/> While in general there is a power shift from core to semi-periphery in times of economic struggles, there are few examples of semi-peripheral countries transitioning to core status.<ref name=waller2/> To accomplish this, semi-peripheral nations must not only take advantage of weaker core countries but must also exploit any existing advantages over other semi-peripheral nations.<ref name=waller2/> How well they exploit these advantages determines their arrangement within the semi-periphery class.<ref name=waller2/>

==Effects==
[[Image:Election MG 3455.JPG|thumb|A ballot box]]
The semi-peripheral nations of the world have played an important role to world trade and interaction since early periods of globalized trade. This "middle ground" between the very powerful [[Core countries|cores]] and the backwaters of the far [[Periphery countries|periphery]] allowed those two zones to interact with greater ease. For example, during the [[Pax Mongolica|13th-century world system]], the semi-periphery areas around Europe's Mediterranean Coast facilitated trade between the peripheries of the more manufacturing based [[Flanders|Northern Europe]] and the cores of [[India]] and [[China]].<ref name=abu/> John Markoff, a [[sociology|sociologist]] at the [[University of Pittsburgh]], also notes that political developments, particularly in the advancement of [[democracy]], originate in the semi-periphery.<ref name="Markoff"/> He notes that innovations in democracy came from the semi-periphery rather than the more established, stable [[First World|core nations]], where profit discourages great reform, or the extremely poor [[Third World|periphery]] where instability makes reform too dangerous to attempt.<ref name="Markoff"/> It has been within semi-peripheral nations where democratic reforms like the expansion of suffrage and the institution of the secret ballot have been implemented.<ref name="Markoff">Markoff, John. 1999-1041:4</ref>

==Examples==
[[Image:UN Human Development Report 2008.svg|thumb|right|400px|World map indicating a [[Human Development Index]] (2008 Update)
{| style="width:100%;"
|-
| valign=top |
Developed
{{legend|#006000|0.950 and Over}}
{{legend|#00a000|0.900–0.949}}
{{legend|#00d000|0.850–0.899}}
{{legend|#00ff00|0.800–0.849}}
| valign=top |
Developing
{{legend|#e0ff00|0.750–0.799}}
{{legend|#ffff00|0.700–0.749}}
{{legend|#ffdf00|0.650–0.699}}
{{legend|#ffc160|0.600–0.649}}
{{legend|#ffa552|0.550–0.599}}
{{legend|#ff8000|0.500–0.549}}
| valign=top |
Under-developed
{{legend|#ff0000|0.450–0.499}}
{{legend|#a00000|0.400–0.449}}
{{legend|#800000|0.350–0.399}}
{{legend|#400000|under 0.350}}
{{legend|#c0c0c0|not available}}
|}
]]
The following are semi-periphery countries according to Wallerstein (1976).<ref name=waller2/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{flag|Brazil}}
| {{flag|China}}
| {{flag|India}}
| {{flag|Italy}}
| {{flag|Greece}}
|-
| {{flag|Malaysia}}
| {{flag|Poland}}
| {{flag|Mexico}}
| {{flag|Norway}}
| {{flag|Indonesia}}
|-
| {{flag|Singapore}}
| {{flag|India}}
| {{flag|South Korea}}
| {{flag|Spain}}
| {{flag|Norway}}
|-
| {{flag|Taiwan}}
| {{flag|Argentina}}
| {{flag|Venezuela}}
| {{flag|Portugal}}
| {{flag|Finland}}
|-
| {{flag|Algeria}}
| {{flag|Egypt}}
| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
| {{flag|Nigeria}}
| {{flag|Zaire}}
|-
| {{flag|Turkey}}
| {{flag|Iran}}
| {{flag|Israel}}
|}

== See also ==
* [[Core-periphery]]
* [[Dependency theory]]
* [[Developing country]]
* [[Second World]]

== Further reading ==
* Chase-Dunn and Thomas D. Hall, Rise and Demise: Comparing World-Systems, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.The Semi Periphery: ''The Seedbed of Change''.Chapter 5 of C.
* Kaplan, David H.; Wheeler, James O.; Holloway, James O. ''Urban Geography''. York, PA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004., pg. 412.
* Kees Terlouw, ''The Regional Reography of the World-system:External Arena,Periphery,Semi-Periphery,Core.''(Utrecht:KNAG,1992),pg 36-45
*Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Academic Press, 1976, pp.&nbsp;229-233.
*Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974).
* Semi-Peripheral Countries and The Contemporary World Crisis, Immanuel Wallerstein, ''Theory and Society'',Vol.3, No.4.(Winter,1976),pp 461–483.
* Windows on Humanity by Conrad Phillip KOTTAK. Chapter 17, page 390.

==Notes==
{{reflist|4}}

== References ==
*{{cite book |last1=Chase-Dunn |last2=Hall|first1= Thomas D.|authorlink1= Chase-Dunn_and_Thomas_D._Hall|title=Rise and Demise: Comparing World-Systems The Semi Periphery: ''The Seedbed of Change''.|publisher=Westview Press|location=[[Boulder, CO]]|isbn=0813310067}}
*{{cite book |last1=Terlouw |first1= Kees|authorlink1= Kees_Terlouw|title=The Regional Reography of the World-System|year=1992|publisher=KNAG|location=[[Utrecht]]|isbn=9062660916}}
*{{cite book |last1=Wallerstein |first1= Immanuel|authorlink1= Immanuel_Wallerstein|title=The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century|year=1976|publisher=Academic Press|location=[[New York City]]|isbn=0127859209}}
*{{cite book |last1=Wallerstein |first1= Immanuel|authorlink1= Immanuel_Wallerstein|title=Semi-Peripheral Countries and The Contemporary World Crisis|year=1974|publisher=Academic Press|location=[[New York City]]|isbn=0521293588}}
*{{cite book |last1=Abu-Lughod |first1= Janet|authorlink1= Janet_Abu-Lughod|title=Before European Hegemony: the world system a.d. 1250-1350|year=1989|publisher=OUP|location=[[New York City]]|isbn=0195067746}}
*{{cite book |last1=Chirot |first1= Daniel|authorlink1= Daniel_Chirot|title=Social Change in the Twentieth Century|year=1977|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=[[New York City]]|isbn=0155814202}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tausch |first1= A.|authorlink1= A._Tausch|title=Social Cohesion, Sustainable Development and Turkey's Accession to the European Union: Implications from a Global Model}}
*{{cite book |last1=Chirot |last2=Hall|first1= Thomas D.|authorlink1= Daniel_Chirot and_Thomas_D._Hall|title=World-System Theory. Annual Review of Sociology|year=1982}}
*{{cite book |last1=Halsall|first1= Paul|authorlink1= Paul Halsall|title=Modern History Sourcebook: Summary of Wallerstein on World System Theory |year=1997}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hobsbawn |first1= Eric|authorlink1= Eric_Hobsbawn|title=The Age of Empire|year=1987|publisher=Random House|location=[[New York City]]|isbn=0679721754}}
*{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1= Timothy M.|authorlink1= Timothy_M._Shaw|title=The Semiperiphery in Africa and Latin America: Subimperialism and Semiindustrialism|issn=00346446}} 
*{{cite book |last1=Markoff|first1= John|authorlink1= John Markoff|title=Where and When was Democracy Invented. Comparative Studies in Society & History |year=1999}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Semi-Periphery Countries}}
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