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{{otheruses4|the flight deck of an aircraft carrier|the flight deck of an aircraft|Cockpit (aviation)|the roller coasters of the same name|Flight Deck (roller coaster)}}
[[Image:Stennis RudderSwing3.JPG|right|thumb|300px|Flight deck of {{USS|John C. Stennis|CVN-74|6}} doing a high speed turn during her acceptance trials.]]

The '''flight deck''' of an [[aircraft carrier]] is the [[Deck (ship)|surface]] from which its [[aircraft]] take off and land, essentially a miniature airfield at sea. On smaller naval ships which do not have aviation as a primary mission, the landing area for [[helicopter]]s and other [[VTOL]] aircraft is also referred to as the flight deck. The official [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] term for these vessels is "aviation capable ships".

==Evolution==
[[File:F-18 landing on USS Nimitz 2.jpg|thumb|[[F/A-18 Hornet]] landing on {{USS|Nimitz|CVN-68|2}}]]

===Early flight decks===
The first flight [[Deck (ship)|decks]] were inclined wooden ramps built over the [[forecastle]] of naval warships. [[Eugene Ely]] made the [[Naval aviation|first fixed-wing aircraft take-off from a warship]] from {{USS|Birmingham|CL-2|6}} on 14 November 1910. Two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher plane on a platform on ''Pennsylvania'' anchored in San Francisco Bay, using the first ever tailhook system, designed and built by circus performer & aviator Hugh Robinson.[1] Ely told a reporter: "It was easy enough. I think the trick could be successfully turned nine times out of ten." On 4 May 1912, [[Commander]] [[Charles Rumney Samson|Charles Samson]] became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway when he flew his [[Short Brothers|Short]] [[Short S27|S27]] off of {{HMS|Hibernia|1905|6}}, which was steaming at {{convert|10.5|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}}. Because the take-off speed of early aircraft was so low, it was possible for an aircraft to make a very short take off when the launching ship was steaming into the wind. Later, removable "flying-off platforms" appeared on the gun turrets of [[battleship]]s and [[battlecruiser]]s, allowing aircraft to be flown off for scouting purposes, although there was no chance of recovery.

On 2 August 1917, while performing trials, [[RAF officer ranks|Squadron Commander]] [[Squadron Commander E.H. Dunning|Edwin Dunning]] landed a [[Sopwith Pup]] successfully on board the flying-off platform of {{HMS|Furious|1916|6}}, becoming the first person to land an aircraft on a moving ship. However, on his third attempt, a tire burst as he attempted to land, causing the aircraft to go over the side, killing him; thus Dunning also has the dubious distinction of being the first person to die in an aircraft carrier landing accident. The landing arrangements on ''Furious'' were highly unsatisfactory. In order to land, aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure. ''Furious'' was therefore returned to dockyard hands to have a {{convert|300|ft|m|abbr=on}} deck added aft for landing, on top of a new hangar. The central superstructure remained, however,  and turbulence caused by it badly affected the landing deck.

===Full length decks===
[[Image:HMS Argus (1917).jpg|thumb|HMS ''Argus'' showing the full-length flight deck from bow to stern]]
The first aircraft carrier that began to show the configuration of the modern vessel was the converted liner {{HMS|Argus|1917|6}}, which had a large flat wooden deck added over the entire length of the hull, giving a combined landing and take-off deck unobstructed by superstructure turbulence. Because of her unobstructed flight deck, ''Argus'' had no fixed [[conning tower]] and no funnel. Rather, exhaust gases were trunked down the side of the ship and ejected under the fantail of the flight deck (which, despite arrangements to disperse the gases, gave an unwelcome "lift" to aircraft immediately prior to landing). The lack of a command position and funnel was unsatisfactory, and ''Argus'' was used to experiment with various ideas to remedy the solution. A photograph in 1917 shows her with a canvas mock-up of a starboard "island" superstructure and funnel. This was placed on the starboard side because the [[rotary engine]]s of some early aircraft created torque which pulled the nose left, meaning an aircraft naturally [[Yaw, pitch, and roll|yawed]] to port on take-off; therefore, it was desirable that they turned away from the fixed superstructure. This became the typical aircraft carrier arrangement and was used in the next [[United Kingdom|British]] carriers, {{HMS|Hermes|95|6}} and {{HMS|Eagle|1918|2}}.

After [[World War I]], [[battlecruiser]]s that otherwise would have had to have been discarded under the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] - such as the British ''Furious'' and [[Glorious class aircraft carrier|''Glorious''-class]] and the American {{USS|Lexington|CV-2|6}} and {{USS|Saratoga|CV-3|2}}- were converted to carriers along the above lines. Being large and fast they were perfectly suited to this role; the heavy armouring and [[scantling]]s and low speed of the converted battleship ''Eagle'' served to be something of a handicap in practice. Because the military effectiveness of aircraft carriers was then unknown, early ships were typically equipped with cruiser-calibre guns to aid in their defence if surprised by enemy warships. These guns were generally removed during [[World War II]] and replaced with [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft gun]]s, as carrier doctrine developed the "task force" (later called "battle group") model, where the carrier's defence against surface ships would be a combination of escorting warships and its own aircraft.

In ships of this configuration, the hangar deck was the strength deck, and an integral part of the hull, and the hangar and wooden flight deck were considered to be part of the superstructure. Such ships were still being built into the late '40s, classic examples being the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]'s [[Essex class aircraft carrier|''Essex'']] and [[Ticonderoga class aircraft carrier|''Ticonderoga''-class]] carriers. However, in 1936, the [[Royal Navy]] began construction of the [[Illustrious class aircraft carrier|''Illustrious''-class]]. In these ships, the flight deck was now the strength deck, an integral part of the hull, and was heavily armoured to protect the ship and her air complement. Although the armoured carrier concept in this form remained something of a dead end, the flight deck as the strength deck was adopted for later construction. This was necessitated by the ever-increasing size of the ships, from the 13,000&nbsp;[[Tonnage|ton]] {{USS|Langley|CV-1|6}} in 1922 to over 100,000&nbsp;tons in the latest [[Nimitz class aircraft carrier|''Nimitz''-class]] carriers.

===Armoured decks===
{{Main|Comparison of armoured to unarmoured flight deck designs}}

When aircraft carriers supplanted battleships as the primary fleet capital ship, there were two schools of thought on the question of armour protection being included into the flight deck. The addition of armour to the flight deck offered aircraft below some protection against aerial bombs. However, to reduce top-weight the hangar height was reduced and this restricted the types of aircraft that these ships could carry, although the Royal Navy's armoured carriers did carry spare aircraft in the hangar overheads.<ref>Roberts, ''British Warships of the Second World War'', p62.</ref> The armour also reduced the length of the flight deck, reducing the maximum aircraft capacity of the armoured flight deck carrier, however the largest part of the disparity between RN and USN carriers in aircraft capacity was due to the use of a permanent deck park on USN carriers.<ref>Hone, Friedman, Mandeles, ''British and American Carrier Development, 1919-1941'', p125. </ref> RN carriers did not use a permanent deck park until 1943.

==Landing on flight decks==
:''See also: [[Arresting gear]]

[[Image:Carrier arrestor.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A barricade is raised on the {{USS|Ronald Reagan}}.  Barricade usage is a rare emergency measure.]]

Landing arrangements were originally primitive, with aircraft simply being "caught" by a team of deck-hands who would run out from the wings of the flight deck and grab a part of the aircraft to slow it down. This dangerous procedure was only possible with early aircraft of low weight and landing speed. Arrangements of nets served to catch the aircraft should the latter fail, although this was likely to cause structural damage.

Landing larger and faster aircraft on a flight deck was made possible through the use of arresting cables installed on the flight deck and a [[tailhook]] installed on the aircraft. Early carriers had a very large number of [[arrestor cable]]s or "wires". Current U.S. Navy carriers have three or four steel cables stretched across the deck at {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=on}} intervals which bring a plane, traveling at {{convert|150|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}, to a complete stop in about {{convert|320|ft|m|abbr=on}}. The cables are set to stop each aircraft at the same place on the deck, regardless of the size or weight of the plane. During World War II, large net barriers would be erected across the flight deck in order that aircraft could be parked on the forward part of the deck and recovered on the after part. This allowed increased complements, but resulted in lengthened turn-around times as aircraft were shuffled around the carrier to allow take-off or landing operations.

A [[Arresting gear#Barricade|barricade]] is an emergency system used if a normal arrestment cannot be made. Barricade webbing engages the wings of the landing aircraft, and momentum is transferred to the arresting engine.

==Modern innovations==
===Angled flight deck===<!-- This section is linked from [[F2H Banshee]] -->
[[Image:Cvna1nim.gif|thumb|Animated representation of a [[bolter (aviation)|missed approach]] on angled flight deck, [[Centaur class aircraft carrier|''Centaur''-class]] showing how the offset recovery area allows for simultaneous launch and recovery operations.]]

[[Image:Ark Royal R09 from top lauch Buc NAN1-71.jpg|thumb|Overhead view of {{HMS|Ark Royal|R09|6}} showing the angled flight deck]]

The '''angled flight deck''' was invented by Captain (later Rear Admiral) Dennis Campbell<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fleetairarmoa.org/pages/fleet_air_arm_history/history.shtml |title=History of the Fleet Air Arm}}</ref>. With this type of deck, (also referred to as a "skewed deck" or "canted deck" or the "angle"), the aft part of the deck is widened and a separate runway is positioned at an angle from the centreline.<ref name=SPCflightdeck>{{cite web |url=http://www.navy.gov.au/The_angled_flight_deck |title=The angled flight deck |accessdate=2008-09-15 |work=Sea Power Centre Australia |publisher=Royal Australian Navy}}</ref> The angled flight deck was designed with the higher landing speeds of jet aircraft in mind, which would have required the entire length of a centreline flight deck to stop.<ref name=SPCflightdeck/> The design also allowed for concurrent launch and recovery operations, and allowed aircraft failing to connect with the [[arrestor cable]]s to abort the landing, accelerate, and relaunch (or "[[Bolter (aviation)|bolter]]") without risk to other parked or launching aircraft.<ref name=SPCflightdeck/> The redesign allowed for several other design and operational modifications, including the mounting of a larger island (improving both ship-handling and flight control), drastically simplified aircraft recovery and deck movement (aircraft now launched from the bow and re-embarked on the angle, leaving a large open area amidships for arming and fuelling), and damage control. Because of its utility in flight operations, the angled deck is now a defining feature of [[STOBAR]] and [[CATOBAR]] equipped aircraft carriers.

[[Image:Cvnanim.gif|thumb|left|Animated representation of how the angled flight deck allows for simultaneous launch and recovery operations without risk of aircraft colliding on deck. ''[[Nimitz class aircraft carrier|''Nimitz'' class]]'' carrier {{USS|Dwight D. Eisenhower|CVN-69|6}} illustrating how increasing the offset angle of a carrier's recovery area allows the use of two catapults during launch and recovery operations.]]

The angled flight deck was first tested on {{HMS|Triumph|R16|6}}, by painting angled deck markings onto the centeline flight deck for touch and go landings.<ref name=SPCflightdeck/>. This was also tested on the {{USS|Midway|CV-41|6}} the same year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-UT7MDTeKj8C&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=carrier+flight+deck+modification&source=web&ots=HTadZOEwSg&sig=A47Vm-HMxHQuyQIeCR0-2_n1VlY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA264,M1 |title=U.S. aircraft carriers By Norman Friedman, A. D. Baker, III}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/ships/carriers/histories/cv41-midway/cv41-midway.html |title=unknown}}</ref> It should be noted that in both tests, the arresting gear and barriers remained oriented to the original axis deck. From September-December 1952, the {{USS|Antietam|CV-36|6}} had a rudimentary [[sponson]] installed for true angle deck tests, allowing for full arrested landings, which proved during trials to be superior.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-UT7MDTeKj8C&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=carrier+flight+deck+modification&source=web&ots=HTadZOEwSg&sig=A47Vm-HMxHQuyQIeCR0-2_n1VlY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA264,M1 |title=unknown |work=googlebooks}}</ref> In 1953, ''Antietam'' trained with both US and British naval units, proving the worth of the angle deck concept.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/nan/backissues/2000s/2000/ja2000/ppp.pdf |title=unknown |format=pdf}}</ref> {{HMS|Centaur|R06|6}} was modified with overhanging angled flight deck in 1954.<ref name=SPCflightdeck/> The U.S. Navy installed the decks as part of the SCB-125 upgrade for the [[Essex class aircraft carrier|''Essex''-class]] and SCB-110/110A for the [[Midway class aircraft carrier|''Midway''-class]]. In February 1955, {{HMS|Ark Royal|R09|6}} became the first carrier to be constructed and launched with the deck, followed in the same year by the lead ships of the British [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic''-class]] ({{HMAS|Melbourne|R21|6}}) and the American [[Forrestal class aircraft carrier|''Forrestal''-class]] ({{USS|Forrestal|CV-59|6}}).<ref name=SPCflightdeck/>

{{Anchor|Ski-jump}}

===Ski-jump ramp===
[[Image:Kusnzov2.jpg|thumb|right|A view of the Russian [[Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov|''Admiral Kuznetsov'']] showing prominent ski-jump ramp.]]

Another British innovation is the '''ski-jump ramp''', which came about as a means of improving take off for the [[VSTOL]] [[BAE Sea Harrier]] "jump-jet" on the small [[Invincible class aircraft carriers]]. They are most common on aircraft carriers supporting [[STOVL]] aircraft such as the Harrier, but the Russians also used them with conventional [[MiG-29]]s.

The ski jump is a ramp which is curved upwards at its forward end.  For STOVL aircraft the aircraft starts by making a conventional rolling takeoff with the jet exhausts set to provide maximum forward thrust. As the plane nears the end of the ramp (the ski jump portion) the jet exhausts are rotated to provide upward lift as well as forward thrust. Rolling over the ski ramp launches the plane both upwards and forwards. As the plane leaves the ski jump ramp it continues to accelerate horizontally until the wings can provide the needed lift.

For conventional aircraft such as the MiG-29 the aircraft just rolls down the runway in the obvious manner. Again, rolling over the ski ramp launches the plane both upwards and forwards. 

Such takeoffs allow a larger takeoff weight than a straight vertical launch because the wings provide some lift even at low speeds, and the ski jump ramp provides a vertical impetus when most needed, right at takeoff at the slowest takeoff speed.  

These takeoffs use less runway than a takeoff over a flat surface because the plane takes off at a lower speed, using both the ski jump ramp's vertical impetus and the deflected jet engines to generate lift.
[[File:Aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal (R07) pic 32.jpg|thumb|left|Ski-jump flight deck of the Royal Navy's ''Invincible'' class, [[HMS Ark Royal (R07)|HMS ''Ark Royal'']]]]
Ski jump ramp takeoffs are considered safer than takeoffs over a flat top carrier. When a Harrier launches from an American LHA it might finish its takeoff roll and begin flight at {{convert|60|ft|m|abbr=on}} above the water. It might not have a positive rate of climb, especially if the ship had pitched nose down during the takeoff roll. Using a ski jump ramp the plane will certainly launch with a positive rate of climb and its momentum will carry it to {{convert|150|to|200|ft|m|abbr=on}} above the water<ref>http://www.history.navy.mil/nan/backissues/1990s/1990/mj90.pdf</ref>.

For example, an AV-8B Harrier with a gross weight of {{convert|29000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} on a {{convert|59|°F|°C}} day and a {{convert|35|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} wind over the deck would require {{convert|400|ft|m|abbr=on}} to takeoff using a 12° ski jump ramp designed as on the ''[[Spanish aircraft carrier Principe de Asturias|Principe de Asturias]]'', but {{convert|750|ft|m|abbr=on}} without the ski jump ramp<ref>http://www.history.navy.mil/nan/backissues/1990s/1990/mj90.pdf</ref>.

For a MiG-29 launching over the ski jump ramp on the ''[[Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov|Tbilisi]]'', takeoff speed is reduced from about {{convert|140|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} to about {{convert|70|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}} (depending on many factors such a gross weight)<ref>Mikoyan MiG-29, Yefim Gordon, p 84</ref>.

Carriers using STOVL aircraft and a ski jump ramp do not need [[Aircraft catapult|catapults]] nor [[arresting gear]].

With the exception of the United States and France, every navy in the world that operates STOVL naval aircraft uses ski jump ramps<ref>http://www.history.navy.mil/nan/backissues/1990s/1990/mj90.pdf</ref>.

===Flexible decks===
An idea tested but never taken to completion was the "[[Rubber deck|flexible deck]]". In the early jet age it was seen that by eliminating the landing gear for carrier borne aircraft the inflight performance/range would be improved. This led to the concept of a deck that would absorb the energy of landing, the risk of damaging propellers no longer being an issue though take off would require some sort of launching cradle. <ref>[http://www.thunder-and-lightnings.co.uk/scimitar/history.html Thunder and Lightnings - Scimitar] 21 May 2007 </ref> Test were carried out with a [[de Havilland Vampire|Sea Vampire]] on the rubber deck fitted to [[HMS Warrior (R31)|HMS ''Warrior'']], and [[Supermarine]] designed their Type 508 for rubber deck landing, and the flexible deck idea was found to be technically feasible in tests but was nevertheless abandoned. The Supermarine Type 508 was subsequently developed into a 'normal' carrier aircraft, the [[Supermarine Scimitar|Scimitar]].

==See also==
{{Commonscat|Flight decks}}
* [[Aircraft carrier]]
* [[Aircraft catapult]]
* [[Modern US Navy carrier operations]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Aircraft carriers]]
[[Category:Naval aviation technology]]

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