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[[File:A mosaic LAW by Frederick Dielman, 1847-1935.JPG|thumb|200px|right|[[Mosaic]] representing both the judicial and legislative aspects of law. The woman on the throne holds a sword to chastise the guilty and a [[Palm branch (symbol)|palm branch]] to reward the meritorious. [[Halo (religious iconography)|Glory]] surrounds her head, and the [[aegis]] of [[Minerva]] signifies the armor of righteousness and wisdom.<ref>Cole, John et al. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1P_bTHtdTwkC&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=mosaic+dielman+law&source=bl&ots=M_lvtTNSJ4&sig=SfpekK4bWkQfpGcqp_yVDDBCia8&hl=en&ei=GZf7SYyyFoqgMqKxlcQE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3 The Library of Congress]'', page 113 (W. W. Norton & Company 1997).</ref>]]
{{Politics}}

The '''rule of law''', sometimes called '''supremacy of law''', is a [[legal maxim]] that says (at least) that governmental decisions should be made by applying known principles or [[law]]s with minimal [[discretion]] in their application.<ref>''Black's Law Dictionary'', Fifth Edition, page 1196 (West Publishing Company 1979).</ref> This maxim is used to describe certain characteristics about the proper functioning of a legal system and its relationship with political power and individuals. 

Despite wide use by politicians, judges and academics, the rule of law has been described as "an exceedingly elusive notion"<ref>{{Cite book
  | last = Tamanaha
  | first = Brian Z.
  | title = On the Rule of Law
  | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
  | year = 2004
  | page = 9
 |ref=harv }}</ref> giving rise to a "rampant divergence of understandings ... everyone is for it but have contrasting convictions about what it is."{{Sfn|Tamanaha|2004|p=9}}
The phrase has been used since the 17th century, but the important conceptual ideas can be traced back much further. For instance [[Aristotle]], the philosopher of [[Ancient Greece]], said "Law should govern".<ref name=ari />

At least two principal conceptions of the rule of law can be identified: a formalist or "thin" and a substantive or "[[Thick concept|thick]]" definition of the rule of law. Formalist definitions of the rule of law do not make a judgment about the "justness" of law itself, but define specific procedural attributes that a legal framework must have in order to be in compliance with the rule of law. Substantive conceptions of the rule of law go beyond this and include certain substantive rights that are said to be based on, or derived from, the rule of law.<ref>{{Cite journal
  | last = Craig
  | first = Paul P.
  | title = Formal and substantive conceptions of the rule of law: an analytical framework
  | journal = Public Law
  | page = 467
  | year = 1997}}</ref>

== History ==
Although credit for popularizing the expression "the rule of law" in modern times is usually given to [[A. V. Dicey]],<ref name=Wormuth /><ref>[[Lord Bingham|Bingham, Thomas]]. ''The Rule of Law'', page 3 (Penguin 2010).</ref> development of the legal concept can be traced through history to many ancient civilizations, including [[Ancient Greece]], [[Ancient China]], ancient [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Ancient Rome]].<ref>Black, Anthony.  ''A World History of Ancient Political Thought'' (Oxford University Press 2009). ISBN 0199281696</ref>

=== Antiquity ===
In [[Western philosophy]], the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] initially regarded the best form of government as rule by the best men. [[Plato]] advocated a [[benevolent dictatorship|benevolent monarchy]] ruled by an idealized [[philosopher king]], who was above the law.<ref name=Clarke>David Clarke, "[http://www.lfip.org/lawe506/documents/lawe506davidclarke.pdf The many meanings of the rule of law]" in Kanishka Jayasuriya, ed., ''Law, Capitalism and Power in Asia'' (New York: Routledge, 1998).</ref> Plato nevertheless hoped that the best men would be good at respecting established laws, explaining that "Where the law is subject to some other authority and has none of its own, the collapse of the state, in my view, is not far off; but if law is the master of the government and the government is its slave, then the situation is full of promise and men enjoy all the blessings that the gods shower on a state."<ref>Cooper, John et al. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eSKTvJDrr5kC&pg=PA1402&lpg=PA1402&dq=%22if+law+is+the+master+of+the+government+and+the+government+is+its+slave%22&source=bl&ots=XNhu-PDe7H&sig=4in2cTSQVL-2gcq9i881VqWYUxo&hl=en&ei=UmTZSZDIKqntlQe4vLzgDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6#PPA1402,M1 Complete Works By Plato]'', page 1402 (Hackett Publishing, 1997).</ref> More than Plato attempted to do, [[Aristotle]] flatly opposed letting the highest officials wield power beyond guarding and serving the laws.<ref name=Clarke /> In other words, Aristotle advocated the rule of law:

<blockquote>It is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens: upon the same principle, if it is advantageous to place the supreme power in some particular persons, they should be appointed to be only guardians, and the servants of the laws.<ref name=ari>Aristotle,''Politics'' [[s:Politics (Aristotle)/Book 3#3:16|3.16]]</ref></blockquote>

According to the [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]] statesman [[Cicero]], "We are all servants of the laws in order that we may be free."<ref>In Latin, ''Omnes legum servi sumus ut liberi esse possumus''.</ref> During the Roman Republic, controversial magistrates might be put on trial when their terms of office expired. Under the Roman Empire, the sovereign was personally immune (''legibus solutus'') and above the law, but those with grievances could sue the treasury.<ref name=Wormuth>Wormuth, Francis. ''The Origins of Modern Constitutionalism'', page 28 (1949).</ref>

In [[Ancient China]], members of the school of [[w:Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|legalism]] during the 3rd century BC argued for using law as a tool of governance, but they promoted "rule ''by'' law" as opposed to "rule ''of'' law", meaning that they placed the aristocrats and emperor above the law.<ref>Xiangming, Zhang. [http://www.international-relations.com/wbcm5-1/wbrule.htm On Two Ancient Chinese Administrative Ideas: Rule of Virtue and Rule by Law], ''The Culture Mandala: Bulletin of the Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies'' (2002): “Although Han Fei recommended that the government should rule by law, which seems impartial, he advocated that the law be enacted by the lords solely. The lords place themselves above the law. The law is thereby a monarchical means to control the people, not the people's means to restrain the lords. The lords are by no means on an equal footing with the people. Hence we cannot mention the rule by law proposed by Han Fei in the same breath as democracy and the rule of law advocated today.”</ref><ref>Bevir, Mark. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=wVIoCtB3m74C&pg=PA162&dq=han+fei+zi+%22rule+of+law%22&hl=en&ei=1yB3TbGbDNLAgQfy2f2bDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false The Encyclopedia of Political Theory]'', page 162.</ref><ref>Munro, Donald. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nBerAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=%22the+law+does+not+fawn+on+the+noble%22&hl=en&ei=GC53TdWPAdKRgQe46s3BBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22the%20law%20does%20not%20fawn%20on%20the%20noble%22&f=false The Concept of Man in Early China]''. Page 4.</ref><ref>Guo, Xuezhi. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6vG-MROnr7IC&pg=PA152&dq=%22the+law+does+not+fawn+on+the+noble%22&hl=en&ei=GC53TdWPAdKRgQe46s3BBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22the%20law%20does%20not%20fawn%20on%20the%20noble%22&f=false The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective]''. Page 152.
</ref> In contrast, the [[Huang-Lao]] school of [[Daoism]] rejected [[legal positivism]] in favor of a [[natural law]] that even the ruler would be subject to.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peerenboom|first=Randall|title=Law and morality in ancient China: the silk manuscripts of Huang-Lao|year=1993|publisher=SUNY Press|pages=171|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qxgLcrLL-IIC&dq=}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
In [[Sharia|Islamic jurisprudence]] rule of law was formulated before the twelfth century, so that no official could claim to be above the law, not even the [[caliph]].<ref>Weeramantry, C. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3-1sH1wc58UC&pg=PP1&dq=%22Justice+Without+Frontiers:+Furthering+Human+Rights%22&ei=f1f-SbCnH5nCyASU38TvBw#PPA132,M1 Justice without Frontiers]'', page 132 (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1997).</ref> However, this was not a reference to [[secular]] law, but to Islamic [[religious law]] in the form of [[Sharia law]].

In 1215, a similar development occurred in England: [[John of England|King John]] placed himself and England's future sovereigns and magistrates at least partially within the rule of law, by signing [[Magna Carta]].<ref>[http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured_documents/magna_carta/ U.S. National Archives].</ref>

=== Modern times ===
In a petition to [[James I of England]] in 1610, the [[House of Commons of England|House of Commons]] said:
<blockquote>Amongst many other points of happiness and freedom which your majesty's subjects of this kingdom have enjoyed under your royal progenitors, kings and queens of this realm, there is none which they have accounted more dear and precious than this, to be guided and governed by the certain rule of the law which giveth both to the head and members that which of right belongeth to them, and not by any uncertain or arbitrary form of government....<ref>[[Henry Hallam|Hallam, Henry]]. ''The Constitutional History of England'', Volume 1, page 441 (1827).</ref></blockquote>

Among the first modern authors to give the principle theoretical foundations was [[Samuel Rutherford]] in ''[[Lex, Rex]]'' (1644). The title is Latin for "the law is king" and reverses the traditional ''rex lex'' ("the king is the law"). [[John Locke]] also discussed this issue in his ''[[Second Treatise of Government]]'' (1690). Later, the principle was further entrenched by [[Montesquieu]] in ''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'' (1748).<ref name="Tamanaha3">Tamanaha, Brian. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=p4CReF67hzQC&pg=PA47&dq=%22Rule+of+Law%22+and+locke&lr=&ei=zFwASrHvFJuEygTQ7a3hDA On the Rule of Law]'', page 47 (Cambridge University Press, 2004).</ref>

In 1776, the notion that no one is above the law was popular during the founding of the United States, for example [[Thomas Paine]] wrote in his pamphlet ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'' that "in America, ''the law is king''. For as in absolute governments the King is law, so in free countries the law ''ought'' to be king; and there ought to be no other."<ref>Lieberman, Jethro. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OmA8a1Q9UekC&pg=PA436&dq=%22so+in+free+countries+the+law+ought+to+be+king%22+and+%22rule+of+law%22&ei=9lH-Sa-cEIXGzAS0hLm2Cw A Practical Companion to the Constitution]'', page 436 (University of California Press 2005).</ref> In 1780, [[John Adams]] enshrined this principle in the [[Massachusetts Constitution]] by seeking to establish "a government of laws and not of men."<ref>''[[s:Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (1780)|Massachusetts Constitution]]'', Part The First, art. XXX (1780).</ref>

== Categorization of interpretations ==
Different people have different interpretations about exactly what "rule of law" means. According to political theorist [[Judith N. Shklar]], "the phrase 'the Rule of Law' has become meaningless thanks to ideological abuse and general over-use", but nevertheless this phrase has in the past had specific and important meanings.<ref>Shklar, Judith and Hoffman, Stanley. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x7zS55i9QzoC&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=%22has+become+meaningless+thanks+to+ideological+abuse+and+general+%22&source=bl&ots=ArAuz53It-&sig=rUhnUdLIEOl9ZmZykNoSXIEb6cg&hl=en&ei=wU_-SbDuEcSGtgeOgqHFCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7 Political Thought and Political Thinkers]'', page 21 (University of Chicago Press, 1998).</ref> Among modern [[Legal_theory#Legal_theory|legal theorists]], most views on this subject fall into three general categories: the [[legal formalism|formal]] (or "thin") approach, the substantive (or "thick") approach, and the functional approach.<ref name="Tamanaha">Tamanaha, Brian. [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=312622# “The Rule of Law for Everyone?”], ''Current Legal Problems'', volume 55, via [[SSRN]] (2002):<blockquote>Most legal theorists believe that the rule of law has purely formal characteristics, meaning that the law must be publicly declared, with prospective application, and possess the characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty, but there are no requirements with regard to the content of the law. Others, including a few legal theorists, believe that the rule of law necessarily entails protection of individual rights. Within legal theory, these two approaches to the rule of law are seen as the two basic alternatives, respectively labelled the formal and substantive approaches. Still, there are other views as well. Some believe that democracy is part of the rule of law.</blockquote></ref><ref name="Stephenson" />

The "formal" interpretation is more widespread than the "substantive" interpretation. Formalists hold that the law must be prospective, well-known, and have characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty. Other than that, the formal view contains no requirements as to the content of the law.<ref name="Tamanaha" /> This formal approach allows laws that protect democracy and individual rights, but recognizes the existence of "rule of law" in countries that do not necessarily have such laws protecting democracy or individual rights.

The substantive interpretation holds that the rule of law intrinsically protects some or all individual rights.

The functional interpretation of the term "rule of law", consistent with the traditional English meaning, contrasts the "rule of law" with the "[[rule of man]]."<ref name="Stephenson">Stephenson, Matthew. [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTLAWJUSTINST/0,,contentMDK:20763583~menuPK:1989584~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:1974062,00.html "Rule of Law as a Goal of Development Policy"], World Bank Research (2008).</ref> According to the functional view, a society in which government officers have a great deal of discretion has a low degree of "rule of law", whereas a society in which government officers have little discretion has a high degree of "rule of law".<ref name="Stephenson" /> The rule of law is thus somewhat at odds with flexibility, even when flexibility may be preferable.<ref name="Stephenson" />

The ancient concept of rule '''''of''''' law can be distinguished from rule '''''by''''' law, according to political science professor Li Shuguang: "The difference....is that, under the rule of law, the law is preeminent and can serve as a check against the abuse of power.  Under rule by law, the law is a mere tool for a government, that suppresses in a legalistic fashion."<ref>Tamanaha, Brian.  ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=p4CReF67hzQC&pg=PA3&dq=Tamanaha+and+%22rule+of+law%22+and+%22rule+by+law%22&ei=Vlf6SYjNMJviygSxqOnRBg On the Rule of Law]'', page 3 (Cambridge University Press, 2004).</ref>

==Status in various jurisdictions==
The rule of law has been considered as one of the key dimensions that determine the quality and [[good governance]] of a country.<ref name="Bank">Kaufman, Daniel et al. [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=999979 "Governance Matters VI: Governance Indicators for 1996-2006, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4280"] (July 2007).</ref> Research, like the [[Worldwide Governance Indicators]], defines the rule of law as: "the extent to which agents have confidence and abide by the rules of society, and in particular the quality of contract enforcement, the police and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime or violence."<ref name="Bank" /> Based on this definition the Worldwide Governance Indicators project has developed aggregate measurements for the rule of law in more than 200 countries, as seen in the map below.<ref>[http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/sc_country.asp "Governance Matters 2008"], [[World Bank]].</ref>

===United States===
[[Image:Maprl.png|thumb|450px|2005 map of [[Worldwide Governance Indicators]], which attempts to measure the extent to which agents have confidence in and abide by the rules of society. Colors range from dark green (90th-100th percentile) to light green (75th-90th percentile), yellow (50th-75th percentile), orange (25th-50th percentile), pink (10th-25th percentile) and red (0th-10th percentile). Percentile rank indicates the percentage of countries worldwide that rate below the selected country.]]All government officers of the [[United States]], including the [[President of the United States|President]], the [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States|Justices of the Supreme Court]], and all [[United States Congress|members of Congress]], pledge first and foremost to uphold the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]. These oaths affirm that the rule of law is superior to the rule of any human leader.<ref>Vile, John. ''[http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=-QXyUM5BhKUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=%22rule+of+law%22+and+%22shall+be+a+law%22+and+constitution&ots=7hOE4WdL4m&sig=PRZ1TgZMRfRKQ-p0k-8skOzRF7I#PPA80,M1 A Companion to the United States Constitution and its Amendments],'' page 80 (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006).</ref> At the same time, the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] has considerable discretion: the legislative branch is free to decide what statutes it will write, as long as it stays within its [[enumerated powers]] and respects the constitutionally protected [[United States Bill of Rights|rights of individuals]]. Likewise, the judicial branch has a degree of [[judicial discretion]],<ref>''[http://supreme.justia.com/us/22/738/case.html Osborn v. Bank of the United States]'', 22 U. S. 738 (1824): "When [courts] are said to exercise a discretion, it is a mere legal discretion, a discretion to be exercised in discerning the course prescribed by law; and, when that is discerned, it is the duty of the court to follow it."</ref> and the executive branch also has various discretionary powers including [[prosecutorial discretion]].

Scholars continue to debate whether the U.S. Constitution adopted a particular interpretation of the "rule of law," and if so, which one. For example, Law Professor John Harrison asserts that the word "law" in the Constitution is simply defined as that which is legally binding, rather than being "defined by formal or substantive criteria," and therefore judges do not have discretion to decide that laws fail to satisfy such unwritten and vague criteria.<ref>Harrison, John. "Substantive Due Process and the Constitutional Text," ''[[Virginia Law Review]],'' Volume 83, page 493 (1997).</ref> Law Professor [[Frederick Mark Gedicks]] disagrees, writing that [[Cicero]], [[Augustine]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], and the framers of the U.S. Constitution believed that an unjust law was not really a law at all.<ref>[[Frederick Gedicks|Gedicks, Frederick]]. [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1072284 "An Originalist Defense of Substantive Due Process: Magna Carta, Higher-Law Constitutionalism, and the Fifth Amendment"], ''Emory Law Journal,'' Vol. 58, pages 585-673 (2009). See also Edlin, Douglas "[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1124590 Judicial Review without a Constitution]", ''Polity'', Volume 38, pages 345-368 (2006).</ref>

[[James Wilson]] said during the [[Philadelphia Convention]] in 1787 that, "Laws may be unjust, may be unwise, may be dangerous, may be destructive; and yet not be so unconstitutional as to justify the Judges in refusing to give them effect." [[George Mason]] agreed that judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. But with regard to every law, however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as judges to give it a free course."<ref>Snowiss, Sylvia. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JUj81cN6nyAC&pg=PA41&dq=%22could+declare+an+unconstitutional+%22+%22Laws+may+be+unjust,+may+be+unwise,+may+be+dangerous%22&as_brr=3&ei=P0P-Sa6jGI_CzASqtpzhDQ Judicial Review and the Law of the Constitution]'', pages 41-42 (Yale University Press 1990).</ref>   Chief Justice [[John Marshall]] (joined by Justice [[Joseph Story]]) took a similar position in 1827: "When its existence as law is denied, that existence cannot be proved by showing what are the qualities of a law."<ref>''Ogden v. Saunders'', {{ussc|25|213|1827|pin=347}}. This was Marshall's only dissent in a constitutional case.  The [[individualist anarchist]] [[Lysander Spooner]] later denounced Marshall for this part of his ''Ogden'' dissent. See {{cite book|first=Lysander|last=Spooner|title=Let's Abolish Government|publisher=Ludwig Von Mises Institute|date=2008|page=87}}  These same issues were also discussed in an earlier U.S. Supreme Court case, ''Calder v. Bull'', {{ussc|3|386|1798}}, with Justices [[James Iredell]] and [[Samuel Chase]] taking opposite positions. See Presser, Stephen. "Symposium: Samuel Chase: In Defense of the Rule of Law and Against the Jeffersonians", ''[[Vanderbilt Law Review]]'', Volume 62, page 349 (March 2009).</ref>

===Asia===
East Asian cultures are influenced by two schools of thought, [[Confucianism]], which advocated good governance as rule by leaders who are benevolent and virtuous, and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], which advocated strict adherence to law. The influence of one school of thought over the other has varied throughout the centuries. One study indicates that throughout East Asia, only [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], [[Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]] have societies that are robustly committed to a law-bound state.<ref>Chu, Yun-Han et al. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oNk6KpfXyYQC&pg=PA32&dq=%22Rule+of+Law%22+and+Korea+and+Japan&lr=&ei=0NMASsrtG5XQzATy8KC8BA#PPA31,M1 How East Asians View Democracy]'', pages 31-32.</ref> According to Awzar Thi, a member of the [[Asian Human Rights Commission]], the rule of law in [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]], and most of Asia is weak or nonexistent:

<blockquote>Apart from a number of states and territories, across the continent there is a huge gulf between the rule of law rhetoric and reality. In Thailand, the police force is an organized crime gang. In Cambodia, judges are proxies for the ruling political party….That a judge may harbor political prejudice or apply the law unevenly are the smallest worries for an ordinary criminal defendant in Asia. More likely ones are: Will the police fabricate the evidence? Will the prosecutor bother to show up? Will the judge fall asleep? Will I be poisoned in prison? Will my case be completed within a decade?<ref>Thi, Awzar.
[http://www.upiasia.com/Human_Rights/2008/08/14/asia_needs_a_new_rule-of-law_debate/2340/ “Asia needs a new rule-of-law debate”], [[United Press International]], UPIAsia.com (2008-08-14).</ref></blockquote>

In countries such as [[China]] and [[Vietnam]], the transition to a market economy has been a major factor in a move toward the rule of law, because a rule of law is important to foreign investors and to economic development. It remains unclear whether the rule of law in countries like China and Vietnam will be limited to commercial matters or will spill into other areas as well, and if so whether that spillover will enhance prospects for related values such as democracy and human rights.<ref>Peerenboom, Randall ''in'' [http://books.google.com/books?id=YlKYLRjcoi0C&pg=PA39&dq=%22Rule+of+law+in+Asia%22&ei=hcIASqy4KKGeygSpzf2vDQ Asian Discourses of Rule of Law], page 39 (Routledge 2004).</ref> The [[Chinese law#Rule of law|rule of law in China]] has been widely discussed and debated by both legal scholars and politicians in China.

In [[India]], the longest constitutional text in the history of the world has governed that country since 1950. Although the [[Constitution of India]] may have been intended to provide details that would limit the opportunity for judicial discretion, the more text there is in a constitution the greater opportunity the judiciary may have to exercise [[Constitution_of_India#Judicial_Review|judicial review]].<ref>Baxi, Upendra ''in'' [http://books.google.com/books?id=YlKYLRjcoi0C&pg=PA39&dq=%22Rule+of+law+in+Asia%22&ei=hcIASqy4KKGeygSpzf2vDQ#PPA336,M1 Asian Discourses of Rule of Law], pages 336-337 (Routledge 2004).</ref> According to Indian journalist [[Harish Khare]], "The rule of law or rather the Constitution [is] in danger of being supplanted by the rule of judges."<ref>Robinson, Simon. [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1556853,00.html “For Activist Judges, Try India”], ''[[Time Magazine]]'' (2006-11-08).</ref>

[[Japan]] had centuries of tradition prior to [[World War II]], during which there were laws, but they were not a central organizing principle for society, and they did not constrain the powers of government. As the 21st century began, the percentage of people who were lawyers and judges in Japan remained very low relative to western Europe and the United States, and legislation in Japan tended to be terse and general, leaving much discretion in the hands of bureaucrats.<ref>Green, Carl. [http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/green.html "Japan: 'The Rule of Law Without Lawyers' Reconsidered"], Speech to the [[Asia Society]] (2001-03-14).</ref>

==Organizations and scholarly works==
Many organizations and scholars have advocated for the rule of law and have taken positions regarding the interpretation of that concept they prefer.

===International Commission of Jurists===
In 1959, an international gathering of over 185 judges, lawyers, and law professors from 53 countries, meeting in [[New Delhi]] and speaking as the [[International Commission of Jurists]], made a declaration as to the fundamental principle of the rule of law. This was the [[Declaration of Delhi]]. They declared that the rule of law implies certain rights and freedoms, that it implies an independent judiciary, and that it implies social, economic and cultural conditions conducive to human dignity. The Declaration of Delhi did not, however, suggest that the rule of law requires legislative power to be subject to [[judicial review]].<ref>Goldsworthy, Jeffrey. [http://books.google.com/books?id=84tBKuObyNEC&pg=PA69&dq=%22Declaration+of+Delhi%22+and+%22rule+of+law%22&as_brr=3&ei=5PLOSdWiJ4WoNsPhoMcH “Legislative Sovereignty and the Rule of Law"] in Tom Campbell, Keith D. Ewing and Adam Tomkins (eds), ''Sceptical Essays on Human Rights'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p 69.</ref>

===United Nations===
The [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] defines the rule of law as:<ref>[http://www.unrol.org/article.aspx?article_id=3 What is the Rule of Law?], United Nations Rule of Law.</ref>
<blockquote>
a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights norms and standards. It requires, as well, measures to ensure adherence to the principles of supremacy of law, equality before the law, [[accountability]] to the law, fairness in the application of the law, separation of powers, participation in [[decision-making]], legal certainty, avoidance of arbitrariness and procedural and legal transparency.</blockquote>

The General Assembly has considered rule of law as an agenda item since 1992, with renewed interest since 2006 and has adopted resolutions at its last three sessions.<ref>See United Nations General Assembly Resolutions A/RES/61/39, A/RES/62/70, A/RES/63/128.</ref> The Security Council has held a number of thematic debates on the rule of law,<ref>See United Nations Security Council debates S/PRST/2003/15, S/PRST/2004/2, S/PRST/2004/32, S/PRST/2005/30, S/PRST/2006/28.</ref> and adopted resolutions emphasizing the importance of these issues in the context of women, peace and security,<ref>See United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1325 and 1820.</ref> children in armed conflict,<ref>E.g. see United Nations Security Council Resolution 1612.</ref> and the protection of civilians in armed conflict.<ref>E.g. see United Nations Security Council Resolution 1674.</ref> The [[Peacebuilding Commission]] has also regularly addressed rule of law issues with respect to countries on its agenda.<ref>[http://www.un.org/en/ruleoflaw/index.shtml United Nations and the Rule of Law].</ref> The [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] also requires the rule of law be included in [[human rights education]].<ref>[[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] Part II, paragraph 79</ref> 

===International Bar Association===
The Council of the [[International Bar Association]] passed a resolution in 2009 endorsing a substantive or "thick" definition of the rule of law:<ref>[http://www.ibanet.org/Document/Default.aspx?DocumentUid=9925C6FD-5804-407F-9D39-ECB9D6A8B9D4 Resolution of the Council of the International Bar Association of October 8, 2009, on the Commentary on Rule of Law Resolution (2005)].</ref>

<blockquote>An independent, impartial judiciary; the presumption of innocence; the right to a fair and public trial without undue delay; a rational and proportionate approach to punishment; a strong and independent legal profession; strict protection of confidential communications between lawyer and client; equality of all before the law; these are all fundamental principles of the Rule of Law. Accordingly, arbitrary arrests; secret trials; indefinite detention without trial; cruel or degrading treatment or punishment; intimidation or corruption in the electoral process, are all unacceptable.  The Rule of Law is the foundation of a civilised society. It establishes a transparent process accessible and equal to all. It ensures adherence to principles that both liberate and protect. The IBA calls upon all countries to respect these fundamental principles. It also calls upon its members to speak out in support of the Rule of Law within their respective communities.</blockquote>

===World Justice Project===
As used by the [[World Justice Project]], a non-profit organization committed to advancing the rule of law around the world, the rule of law refers to a rules-based system in which the following four universal principles are upheld:<ref>[http://www.worldjusticeproject.org About the WJP].</ref>
<blockquote>
1. The government and its officials and agents are accountable under the law;
<br />
2. The laws are clear, publicized, stable, fair, and protect fundamental rights, including the security of persons and property;
<br />
3. The process by which the laws are enacted, administered, and enforced is accessible, fair, and efficient;
<br />
4. Access to justice is provided by competent, independent, and ethical adjudicators, attorneys or representatives, and judicial officers who are of sufficient number, have adequate resources, and reflect the makeup of the communities they serve.
</blockquote>

The World Justice Project has developed an Index to measure the extent to which countries adhere to the rule of law in practice. The WJP Rule of Law Index is composed of 9 factors and 52 sub-factors, and covers a variety of dimensions of the rule of law —such as whether government officials are accountable under the law, and whether legal institutions protect fundamental rights and allow ordinary people access to justice.<ref>Agrast, M., Botero, J., Ponce, A., WJP [http://worldjusticeproject.org/sites/default/files/wjproli2011_0.pdf Rule of Law Index 2011.] Washington, D.C.: The World Justice Project. (2011).</ref>

===Albert Dicey===
British jurist [[A. V. Dicey]] popularized the phrase "rule of law" in 1885.<ref name=Wormuth /><ref>Dicey, Albert. ''An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution'' (1885).</ref> Dicey emphasized three aspects of the rule of law :<ref>Palekar, S. [http://books.google.com/books?id=0J7Q60bJkkIC&pg=PA64&dq=Dicey+%22may+be+punished+for+breach+of+law%22&as_brr=3&ei=o2g7Su-YGpP8zQSqyNy6BQ Comparative Politics and Government] 64-65 (PHI Learning 2009).</ref> 
# No one can be punished or made to suffer except for a breach of law proved in an ordinary court.
# No one is above the law and everyone is equal before the law regardless of social, economic, or political status.
# The rule of law includes the results of judicial decisions determining the rights of private persons.

===Joseph Raz===
In 1977, the influential political theorist [[Joseph Raz]] identified several principles that may be associated with the rule of law in some (but not all) societies.<ref name="Raz">Raz, Joseph. "The Rule of Law and Its Virtue", ''The Law Quarterly Review'', volume 93, page 195 (1977); reprinted by Culver, Keith. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Pd0bA2pcR30C&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=%22does+not+deny+that+every+legal+system+should+consist%22&source=bl&ots=99HjksLqak&sig=AsNdY2SSzLgpZdeu_9sq_pDVUxA&hl=en&ei=5FjZSb6uE4qyMYHE4eUO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#PPA13,M1 Readings in the Philosophy of Law]'', page 13 (Broadview Press, 1999).</ref> Raz's principles encompass the requirements of guiding the individual's behaviour and minimizing the danger that results from the exercise of discretionary power in an arbitrary fashion, and in this last respect he shares common ground with the constitutional theorists A. V. Dicey, [[Friedrich Hayek]] and [[E. P. Thompson]]. Some of Raz's principles are as follows:

*  That laws should be [[prospective]] rather than [[Ex post facto law|retroactive]].
*  Laws should be stable and not changed too frequently, as lack of awareness of the law prevents one from being guided by it.
*  There should be clear rules and procedures for making laws.
*  The [[independence of the judiciary]] has to be guaranteed.
*  The [[principles of natural justice]] should be observed, particularly those concerning the right to a [[fair hearing]].
*  The courts should have the power of [[judicial review]] over the way in which the other principles are implemented.
*  The courts should be accessible; no man may be denied [[justice]].
*  The [[discretion]] of law enforcement and crime prevention agencies should not be allowed to pervert the law.
According to Raz, the validity of these principles depends upon the particular circumstances of different societies, whereas the rule of law generally "is not to be confused with democracy, justice, equality (before the law or otherwise), human rights of any kind or respect for persons or for the dignity of man".<ref name="Raz" />

==In relation to economics==
One important aspect of the rule-of-law initiatives is the study and analysis of the rule of law’s impact on economic development. The rule-of-law movement cannot be fully successful in transitional and developing countries without an answer to the question: does the rule of law matter for economic development or not?<ref>Luis Flores Ballesteros. "Corruption and development. Does the “rule of law” factor weigh more than we think?" 54 Pesos May. 2008:54 Pesos 15 Nov 2008. <http://54pesos.org/2008/11/15/corruption-and-development-does-the-%E2%80%9Crule-of-law%E2%80%9D-factor-weigh-more-than-we-think/></ref> [[Constitutional economics]] is the study of the compatibility of economic and financial decisions within existing constitutional law frameworks, and such a framework includes government spending on the [[judiciary]], which, in many transitional and [[developing countries]], is completely controlled by the executive. It is useful to distinguish between the two methods of [[political corruption|corruption]] of the judiciary: corruption by the executive branch, in contrast to corruption by private actors.

The standards of constitutional economics can be used during annual [[budget process]], and if that budget planning is transparent then the rule of law may benefit. The availability of an effective court system, to be used by the [[civil society]] in situations of unfair government spending and executive impoundment of previously authorized appropriations, is a key element for the success of the rule-of-law endeavor.<ref>Peter Barenboim, Defining the rules, The European Lawyer, Issue 90, October 2009</ref>

The Rule of Law is especially important as an influence on the economic development in developing and transitional countries. To date, the term “rule of law” has been used primarily in the English-speaking countries, and it is not yet fully clarified even with regard to such well-established democracies as, for instance, Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, or Japan. A common language between lawyers of common law and civil law countries as well as between legal communities of developed and developing countries is critically important for research of links between the rule of law and real economy.<ref>Peter Barenboim, Natalya Merkulova. "[http://philosophicalclub.ru/content/docs/worldruleoflaw.pdf The 25th Anniversary of Constitutional Economics: The Russian Model and Legal Reform in Russia, in The World Rule of Law Movement and Russian Legal Reform]", edited by Francis Neate and Holly Nielsen, Justitsinform, Moscow (2007).</ref>

==In conflict with natural law==
Upholding the rule of law can sometimes require the punishment of those who commit offenses that are [[justification (law)|justifiable]] under [[natural law]] but not statutory law. [[Heidi M. Hurd]] raises the example of a [[battered woman]] who rightly believes that there is a strong probability that her husband will eventually attempt to kill her and her children unless she [[preemptive strike|preemptively]] kills him. If the law does not permit the acquittal of those who claim [[self-defense]] in the absence of an [[imminent threat]] of harm, then the woman must be punished, or "what will become of the rule of law? For law seemingly ceases to be law if judges are entitled to rethink its wisdom in every case to which it applies and to disregard it whenever it is inferior to the rule that they would fashion."<ref>{{cite journal|title=Justifiably Punishing the Justified|author=Heidi M. Hurd|journal=Michigan Law Review|volume=90|number=8|date=Aug., 1992|pages=2203–2324|publisher=The Michigan Law Review Association|jstor=1289573}}</ref>
----

==See also==
*[[Legal certainty]]
*[[Sovereign immunity]]
*[[Equality before the law]]
*[[Judicial activism]]
*[[Ochlocracy|Mob rule]]
*[[Violent non-state actor]]
*[[Constitutional economics]]
*[[Judiciary]]
*[[Separation of powers]]
*[[Civil society]]
*[[Nuremberg Principles]]
*[[Public interest litigation]]
*[[Rechtsstaat]]
*[[Rule According to Higher Law]]
*[[State secrets privilege]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* ''[http://www.journals.cambridge.org/rol Hague Journal on the Rule of Law]'', includes academic articles, practitioner reports, commentary, and book reviews.
* [http://www.inprol.org International Network to Promote the Rule of Law], [[United States Institute of Peace]].
* [http://law.lexisnexis.com/webcenters/RuleofLawResourceCenter Rule of Law Resource Center], [[LexisNexis]]
* [[Lord Bingham of Cornhill|Bingham, Thomas]]. [http://cpl.law.cam.ac.uk/past_activities/the_rt_hon_lord_bingham_the_rule_of_law.php "The Rule of Law"], Centre for Public Law, [[Faculty of Law, Cambridge|Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge]] (2006-11-16).
* [http://www.hiil.org/uploads/File/1-947-Rule_of_Law_Inventory_Report_2007.pdf "The Rule of Law Inventory Report"], Hague Institute for the Internationalisation of Law (HiiL), [[Hague Academic Coalition]] (2007-04-20).
* [http://www.worldjusticeproject.org The World Justice Project] A multinational, multidisciplinary initiative to strengthen the rule of law worldwide.
* [http://www.worldjusticemap.org World Justice Map] Map-based information exchange platform facilitating networking among Rule of Law promoters globally.
* ''[http://wikis.fu-berlin.de/display/SBprojectrol/Home "Understandings of the Rule of Law in various Legal Orders of the World"]'', Wiki-Project of Freie Universitaet Berlin.
* [http://www.eauclairecountybar.com/pdf/rule_of_law_speech_ecbar.pdf Eau Claire County Bar Association rule of law talk]
* Frithjof Ehm [http://www.venice.coe.int/docs/2010/CDL-UDT(2010)022-e.pdf "The Rule of Law: Concept, Guiding Principle and Framework"]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rule Of Law}}
[[Category:Law]]
[[Category:Theories of law]]
[[Category:Philosophy of law]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]

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[[bg:Върховенство на правото]]
[[cs:Právní stát]]
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[[et:Õigusriik]]
[[es:Imperio de la ley]]
[[fr:État de droit]]
[[ko:법치주의]]
[[hi:विधि शासन]]
[[hr:Pravna država]]
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[[it:Stato di diritto]]
[[he:שלטון החוק]]
[[la:Regnum legis]]
[[nl:Rechtsstaat]]
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[[pt:Estado Democrático de Direito]]
[[ru:Верховенство права]]
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