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'''Open Manufacturing''' or “Open Production” is a new model of [[socioeconomic]] production in which physical objects are produced in an open and collaborative manner<ref>Michel Bauwens: The Emergence of Open Design and Open Manufacturing. In: We_magazine Volume 02 </ref> and based on [[open design]] and [[open source principles]]. 

Open manufacturing combines the following elements of a production process: new open production tools and methods (such as 3D printers), new value-based movements (such as the maker movement), new institutions and networks for manufacturing and production (such as FabLabs), and open source methods, software and protocols (Making good our future, page 5). 

Open manufacturing may also include digital modeling and fabrication and [[computer numeric control]] (CNC) of the machines used for production through [[open source software]] and [[open source hardware]].

The philosophy of open manufacturing is close to the [[open-source movement]], but aims at the development of physical products rather than software.[5]  The term is linked to the notion of democratizing technology [link] as embodied in the [[Maker-culture]], the [[DIY-ethic]], the [[open source appropriate technology]] movement, the [[Fablab]]-network  and other rooms for grassroot innovation such as hackerspaces.

According to scholar Michel Bauwens, Open Manufacturing is “the expansion of peer production to the world of physical production”.

Redlich and Bruns define “Open Production” as “a new form of coordination for production systems that implies a Superior broker system coordinating the information and material flows between the stakeholders of production”, and which will encompass the entire value creation process for physical goods: development, manufacturing, sales, support etc. [Redlich 2008, p 7].

== Principles ==

The Openness of “open manufacturing” may relate to the nature of the product (open design), to the nature of the production machines and methods (e.g. open source 3D-printers, open source CNC), to the process of production and innovation ([[commons-based peer production]] / collaborative / [[distributed manufacturing]]), or to new forms of value creation (network-based bottom-up or hybrid versus business-centric top down) (S. Dickel et al, page 12).  Jeremy Rifkin argues, that open production through 3D-printing “will eventually and inevitably reduce marginal costs to near zero, eliminate profit, and make property exchange in markets unnecessary for many (though not all) products”[link to source zero marginal cost society].
A policy paper commissioned by the European Commission uses the term “maker manufacturing” and positions it between social innovation, open source ICT and manufacturing (Link).


== Socioeconomic implications ==

The following points are seen as key implications of open manufacturing [Referenz Waldman Brown 2016, p.4f]: 
•	A democratization of (the means of) production, 
•	a decentralization of production and local value creation (global cooperation – local manufacturing), 
•	the possibility to produce high quality prototypes and products in small quantities at moderate (to increasingly low) prices, 
•	the closing of the gap between the formal and informal sector and opportunities for  bottom-up innovation, and 
•	ultimately a transition from consumer to producer.

In the context of Economic and Social Development, open manufacturing has been described as a path towards a more sustainable industrialization on a global scale, that promotes “social sustainability” and provides the opportunity to shift to a “collaboration-oriented industrialization driven by stakeholders from countries with different development status connected in a global value creation at eye level” [Basner S. 2015 50]. For developing countries, Open Production could notably lead to products more adapted to local problems and local markets and reduce dependencies on foreign goods, as vital products could be manufactured locally. (Ten Frontier Technologies for International Development, p 43). In such a context, open manufacturing is strongly linked to the broader concept of [[Open Source Appropriate Technology]] movement.


==Criticism==

A number of factors are seen to hamper the broad-based application of the model of “open manufacturing” and / or to realize its positive implications for more sustainable global production pattern.

The first factor is the sustainability of commons-based peer production models: “Empowerment happens only, if the participants are willing to share their knowledge with their colleagues. The participation of the actors cannot be guaranteed, thus there are many cases known, where participation could only be insufficiently realized” [Quote Basemer et al 2015]. Other problems include missing or inadequate systems of quality control, the persistent paradigm of high-volume manufacturing and its cost-efficiency, the lack of widely adopted platforms to share hardware designs [Brown 2016, p3], as well as challenges linked to the joint-ownership paradigm behind the open licences of open manufacturing and the fact, that hardware is much more difficult to share and to standardize than e.g. software.

In developing countries, a number of factors need to be considered in addition to the points above. Scholar Waldman-Brown names lack of manufacturing expertise and informality of current SMMs in emerging markets as an obstacle to quality control for final products and raw material as well as universities and vocational training programs not apt to react rapidly enough to provide the necessary knowledge and qualifications [Brown S 24-25]



== Examples ==

* [[Open Source Ecology]], a project for designing and building open source industrial machines, fabricated by [[eXtreme Manufacturing]]
* Examples of open source 3D-Printable Products for Self-Directed Sustainable Development (http://www.appropedia.org/Category:OSAT_3D-Printable_Designs)
*  Case studies of 3D Printing humanitarian supplies Made-in-the-Field: Umbilical Cord Clamps, Splitters/IV Hooks, Prosthetic Hands, WASH Fixtures
* [[RepRap Project]], a project to create an open-source self-copying 3D printer.
* [[Sensorica]], a hardware development network-organization using the [[open value network]] model. 


== See also ==
{{div col||22em}}
* [[Distributed manufacturing]]
* [[Open source hardware]]
* [[Open Source]]
* [[Collaboration]]
* [[Commons-based peer production]]
* [[Prosumer]]
* [[Open business]]
* [[Collaborative software development model]]
* [[Co-creation]]
* [[Decentralized planning (economics)]]
* [[Fablab]]
* [[Gift economy]]
* [[Knowledge commons]]
* [[Mass collaboration]]
* [[Production for use]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==

* [http://p2pfoundation.net/The_Foundation_for_P2P_Alternatives The Foundation for P2P Alternatives] - Functions as a clearing house for open/free, participatory/p2p and commons-oriented initiatives.
* [http://www.we-magazine.net/we-volume-02/the-emergence-of-open-design-and-open-manufacturing/ ''The Emergence of Open Design and Open Manufacturing''] Michel Bauwens, We Magazine Volume 2



[[Category:Economic systems]]
[[Category:Digital manufacturing]]
[[Category:Collaboration]]
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Manufactured goods]]
[[Category:3D printing]]
[[Category:Emerging trends]]
[[Category:Public commons]]