View source for 1928 Okeechobee hurricane

{{short description|Category 5 Atlantic hurricane}}
{{For|the 1876 hurricane with a similar name|1876 San Felipe hurricane}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox weather event
| name = Hurricane Four<br /><small>1928 Okeechobee hurricane</small><br /><small>San Felipe Segundo hurricane</small>
| image = 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane Analysis 13 Sep.jpg
| caption = [[Surface weather analysis]] of the storm nearing Puerto Rico as a [[list of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes|Category 5 hurricane]] on September 13
| formed = {{start date|1928|09|06}}
| dissipated = {{end date|1928|09|21}}
}}{{Infobox weather event/NWS
| winds = 140
| pressure = 929
| pressure-prefix = ≤
}}{{Infobox weather event/Effects
| year = 1928
| fatalities = 4,112+
| damage = 100000000
| damage-suffix = <br />(${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|100000000|1928}}}} in 2018)
| areas = [[West Africa]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Lesser Antilles]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Virgin Islands]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[The Bahamas]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[East Coast of the United States]], [[Northeastern United States]], [[Eastern Canada]]
| refs = 
}}{{Infobox weather event/Footer
| season = [[1928 Atlantic hurricane season]]
}}
The '''Okeechobee hurricane''' of 1928, also known as the '''San Felipe Segundo hurricane''', was one of the deadliest hurricanes in the recorded history of the North Atlantic basin, and the fourth deadliest hurricane in the [[United States]], only behind the [[1900 Galveston hurricane]], [[1899 San Ciriaco hurricane]], and [[Hurricane Maria]]. The hurricane killed an estimated 2,500 people in the United States; most of the fatalities occurred in the state of [[Florida]], particularly in [[Lake Okeechobee]]. It was the fourth tropical cyclone, third hurricane, the only major hurricane of the [[1928 Atlantic hurricane season]], and remains the deadliest disaster in Florida’s history to date.<ref>{{Citation |title=BIBLIOGRAPHY |date=2019-10-08 |work=Fire in the Big House |pages=263–272 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv224txkx.22 |access-date=2024-02-21 |publisher=Ohio University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv224txkx.22 }}</ref> It developed off the west coast of Africa on September 6 as a tropical depression, but it strengthened into a tropical storm later that day, shortly before passing south of the [[Cape Verde]] islands. Further intensification was slow and halted late on September 7. About 48 hours later, the storm strengthened and became a Category 1 hurricane on the [[Saffir–Simpson scale|Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale]]. Still moving westward, the system reached Category 4 intensity before striking [[Guadeloupe]] on September 12, where it brought great destruction and resulted in 1,200 deaths. The islands of [[Martinique]], [[Montserrat]], and [[Nevis]] also reported damage and fatalities, but not nearly as severe as in Guadeloupe.

Around midday on September 13, the storm strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane and peaked with sustained winds of {{convert|160|mph|abbr=on}}. About six hours later, the system made landfall in [[Puerto Rico]]; it remains the only tropical cyclone on record to strike the island at Category 5 intensity. Very strong winds resulted in severe damage in Puerto Rico; 24,728 homes were destroyed and 192,444 were damaged throughout the island, leaving over 500,000 people homeless. Heavy rainfall also led to extreme damage to vegetation and agriculture. On Puerto Rico alone, there were 312 deaths and about US$50 million (${{Inflation|US|50|1928}} million today) in damage. While crossing the island and emerging into the Atlantic, the storm weakened slightly, falling to Category 4 intensity. It began crossing through the Bahamas on September 16, where it resulted in 18 fatalities.

The storm made landfall near [[West Palm Beach, Florida]], early on September 17, with winds of {{convert|145|mph|abbr=on}}. In the city, more than 1,711 homes were destroyed; the effects were most severe around Lake Okeechobee. The [[storm surge]] caused water to pour out of the southern edge of the lake, flooding hundreds of square miles to depths as great as {{convert|20|ft|m}}. Numerous houses and buildings were swept away in the cities of [[Belle Glade, Florida|Belle Glade]], [[Canal Point, Florida|Canal Point]], Chosen, [[Pahokee, Florida|Pahokee]], and [[South Bay, Florida]]. At least 2,500 people drowned, while damage was estimated at $25 million (${{Inflation|US|25|1928}} million today).<ref>{{cite web |title=The deadliest disaster to ever happen in each state |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/the-deadliest-disaster-to-ever-happen-in-each-state/ss-AA15iVyW?ocid=msedgntp&cvid=b852eb5146d44c5497c7b7a63e1e26f8&ei=70#image=10 |website=MSN |access-date=25 April 2023}}</ref> The system weakened significantly while crossing Florida, falling to Category 1 intensity late on September 17. It curved north-northeast and briefly emerged into the Atlantic on September 18, but soon made another landfall near [[Edisto Island|Edisto Island, South Carolina]], with winds of {{convert|85|mph|abbr=on}}. Early on the following day, the system weakened to a tropical storm and became an [[extratropical cyclone]] over [[North Carolina]] hours later. Overall, the hurricane caused $100 million in damage (${{Inflation|US|100|1928}} million today) and killed at least 4,112 people.

== Meteorological history ==
{{storm path| 1928 Atlantic hurricane 4 path.png|colors=new}}
On September&nbsp;6, ships reported a tropical depression developing just off the west coast of Africa near [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]]. On the next day, a ship reported winds of {{convert|60|mph|0|abbr=on}}, or tropical storm status; on this basis, the [[Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project]] estimated that the system attained tropical storm status late on September&nbsp;6. However, lack of observations for several days prevented the system from being classified in real time as it moved generally westward across the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name="meta">{{cite report|author=Chris Landsea|date=April 2014 |title=Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT |publisher=Hurricane Research Division |access-date=May 2, 2015 |url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_master.html#1928_04 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604063810/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_master.html |archive-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref> On September&nbsp;10, the ''S.S. Commack'' first observed the storm about {{convert|900|mi|-1|abbr=on}} to the east of [[Guadeloupe]], which at the time was the most easterly report of a tropical cyclone ever received through ship's radio. Later that day, two other ships confirmed the intensity of the storm,<ref name="mwr-westindian" /> and the [[Hurricane Research Division]] estimated it strengthened into a hurricane at 18:00&nbsp;[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] on September&nbsp;10.<ref name="meta"/>

As the storm neared the [[Lesser Antilles]], it continued to intensify.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}} Between 17:30 and 18:30&nbsp;UTC on September&nbsp;12, the hurricane's [[eye (cyclone)|eye]] moved over [[Guadeloupe]] with a [[atmospheric pressure|barometric pressure]] of {{convert|940|mb|inHg|abbr=on}}, suggesting [[maximum sustained wind]]s of {{convert|140|mph|abbr=on}}, or [[List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes|Category 4]] intensity on the [[Saffir–Simpson scale]].<ref name="meta"/> Continuing to the west-northwest, the hurricane passed about {{convert|10|mi|0|abbr=on}} south of [[Saint Croix]]  before approaching [[Puerto Rico]]. On September&nbsp;13, the {{convert|15|mi|adj=on|abbr=on}} eye crossed Puerto Rico in eight hours from the southeast to the northwest, moving ashore near [[Guayama, Puerto Rico|Guayama]] and exiting between [[Aguadilla, Puerto Rico|Aguadilla]] and [[Isabela, Puerto Rico|Isabela]].<ref name="aoml">{{cite web|author=Orlando Pérez|year=1970|title=Notes on the Tropical Cyclones of Puerto Rico|publisher=San Juan, Puerto Rico National Weather Service|access-date=May 2, 2015|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/data_sub/perez_21_34.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629125754/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/data_sub/perez_21_34.pdf|archive-date=June 29, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> A ship near the southern coast reported a pressure of {{convert|931|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}}, and the cup [[anemometer]] at [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] reported sustained winds of {{convert|160|mph|0|abbr=on}} before failing.<ref name="meta"/> As the wind station was {{convert|30|mi|0|abbr=on}} north of the storm's center, winds near the landfall point were unofficially estimated as high as {{convert|200|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> On this basis, the hurricane is believed to have made landfall in Puerto Rico as a [[List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes|Category 5]] hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale, although there was uncertainty in the peak intensity, due to the large size and slow movement of the storm.<ref name="meta"/>

After emerging from Puerto Rico, the hurricane had weakened to winds of about {{convert|140|mph|abbr=on}}, based on a pressure reading of {{convert|941|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}} at Isabela. The storm brushed the northern coast of [[Hispaniola]] while moving west-northwestward, gradually restrengthening. On September&nbsp;15, it passed within {{convert|35|mi|abbr=on}} of [[Grand Turk Island|Grand Turk]], by which time the winds increased to {{convert|155|mph|abbr=on}}. The storm continued through the Bahamas as a strong Category 4 hurricane, passing near [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]] at 10:00&nbsp;UTC on September&nbsp;16.<ref name="meta"/> Initially, Richard Gray of the [[National Weather Service|U.S. Weather Bureau]] was optimistic that the storm would spare [[South Florida]].<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Eliot Kleinberg]] |title=Black Cloud: The Great Florida Storm of 1928 |publisher=Carroll & Graf Publishers |page=87 |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7867-1146-8}}</ref> However, at 00:00&nbsp;UTC on September&nbsp;17, the large hurricane made landfall in southeastern Florida near [[West Palm Beach, Florida|West Palm Beach]], with estimated winds of {{convert|145|mph|abbr=on}}. This was based on a pressure reading of {{convert|929|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}} in the city,<ref name="meta"/> which at the time was the lowest pressure reading in the mainland United States; this broke the previous record of {{convert|935|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}} set during the [[1926 Miami hurricane]]. Peak gusts were estimated near {{convert|160|mph|abbr=on}} at [[Canal Point, Florida|Canal Point]].<ref name="mwr-westindian"/>

The hurricane quickly weakened as it progressed inland and moved over [[Lake Okeechobee]], although its large size enabled it to maintain hurricane status for several more days. Late on September&nbsp;17, the hurricane recurved to the northeast and passed near [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] early the next day with winds of {{convert|75|mph|abbr=on}}. At 08:00&nbsp;UTC on September&nbsp;18, the storm again reached open waters. Later that day, the hurricane restrengthened slightly over open waters, making a second United States landfall near [[Edisto Island|Edisto Island, South Carolina]], at 19:00&nbsp;UTC with winds of {{convert|85|mph|abbr=on}}. Accelerating northeastward, the system quickly weakened into a tropical storm over North Carolina. On September&nbsp;19, the storm transitioned into an [[extratropical cyclone]], although it restrengthened slightly to hurricane strength, due to [[weather front|baroclinic forcing]] caused by a frontal system. The cyclone turned to the north-northwest, moving quickly through the eastern United States.<ref name="meta"/> On September&nbsp;21, the former hurricane dissipated over [[Ontario]],<ref name="meta"/> having merged with another disturbance.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/>

== Effects ==
=== Leeward Islands ===
{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; margin:10px;"
|-
!colspan=4|'''Storm deaths by region'''
|-
!Region
!Deaths
!Locale
!Deaths
|-
!rowspan=8|Caribbean <br /> and Bahamas
|rowspan=8|1,601<ref name="mwr-westindian" /><ref name="neely"/>
|[[Martinique]]||3<ref name="neely"/>
|-
|[[Guadeloupe]]||1,200<ref name="neely"/>
|-
|[[Montserrat]]||42<ref name="Montserrat">{{cite web|author=William G. Innanen |title=A Condensed History of Montserrat |access-date=February 27, 2006 |url=http://innanen.com/montserrat/history/1920-1930.shtml#h2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060212185759/http://innanen.com/montserrat/history/1920-1930.shtml%23h2 |archive-date=February 12, 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
|[[Dominica]]||1<ref name="neely"/>
|-
|[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]||22<ref name="neely"/>
|-
|Puerto Rico||312<ref name="neely"/>
|-
|[[Turks and Caicos Islands]]||18<ref name="neely"/>
|-
|Bahamas<!-- A sloop near Ambergris Cay -->||3<ref name="mwr-westindian" />
|-
!rowspan=4|United States
|rowspan=4|2,511+<ref>{{cite web |author=Chris Landsea, NHC |author-link=Christopher Landsea |title=FAQ E12: For the USA, what are the 30 highest death toll hurricanes on record? |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |access-date=January 14, 2008 |url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E12.html| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071225115255/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E12.html| archive-date= December 25, 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>
|Florida
|2,500+
|-
|Maryland
|1
|-
|New Jersey
|3
|-
|Pennsylvania
|7
|-
!colspan=3|Total
!colspan|4,112+
|}

The hurricane moved directly over the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean Sea, strengthening as it did so. On the island of [[Dominica]], winds were clocked at {{convert|24|mph|abbr=on}}; there were no reports of damage,<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> though one fatality occurred.<ref name="neely"/> In [[Martinique]], further south of the storm's path, there were three fatalities. Guadeloupe received a direct hit from the storm, apparently with little warning; the death toll there was 1,200,<ref name="pastdeadly">{{cite web|author=National Hurricane Center |year=1995–1997 |title=The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |access-date=January 14, 2008 |url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadlyapp1.shtml| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080128104902/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadlyapp1.shtml| archive-date= January 28, 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref> and damage reports relayed through Paris indicated "great destruction" on the island.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> About three-fourths of the island's residents were left homeless. In the community of [[Saint-François, Guadeloupe|Saint-François]], the only structure to remain standing was the police station, which was built with reinforced concrete. To the east of the town, the merchant ship ''Albatros'' sank; it had been carrying 80&nbsp;casks of rum. The crew and the five men attempting to save the ship drowned.<ref name="neely"/> Approximately 85%–95% of banana crops were destroyed, 70%–80% of tree crops suffered severe damage, and 40% of the sugar cane crop was ruined. The people struggled to survive both in the short and longer term after the storm.<ref>{{cite book|author=Don R. Hoy|title=Agricultural Land Use of Guadeloupe, Issue 12|publisher=[[National Academies Press]]|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1961|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PWUrAAAAYAAJ&q=1928+hurricane+guadeloupe&pg=PA64|access-date=March 15, 2014}}</ref>

[[Montserrat]], just north of the storm's center, was warned in advance of the storm but still suffered £150,000 (1928 [[Pound sterling|UKP]]) in damages and 42 deaths; [[Plymouth, Montserrat|Plymouth]] and [[Salem, Montserrat|Salem]] were devastated, and crop losses caused near-starvation conditions before relief could arrive.<ref name="Montserrat" /> All commercial and government buildings on the island were destroyed, as were more than 600&nbsp;homes. [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] also suffered heavily. On the island of [[Saint Kitts|St. Kitts]], a number of homes built on wooden foundations were demolished. Nine deaths were reported, six of which occurred in a schoolhouse collapse. Thirteen people were killed on the island of [[Nevis]].<ref name="neely"/>

The storm destroyed hundreds of homes on [[Antigua]], including a doctor's home and a "poor house". Government offices, hospitals, and school were also damaged. On [[Saint Croix]], nearly all of the island's 11,000&nbsp;residents suffered some degree of loss. A total of 143&nbsp;buildings were destroyed, including a sugar mill. The storm resulted in nine deaths on the island. Throughout the [[Virgin Islands]], as many as 700,000&nbsp;people were rendered homeless.<ref name="neely"/>

=== Puerto Rico ===
[[File:Hurricane winds drive a 10-foot 2X4 through a palm tree.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Hurricane-force winds drove this {{convert|10|ft|m|adj=on}} piece of [[Lumber#Dimensional lumber|2x4 lumber]] through a palm tree in Puerto Rico.]]
While the storm was passing near Dominica, the U.S. Weather Bureau located at San Juan, Puerto Rico, warned about the threat of the hurricane which would strike the island within a day or two. The advisory was sent via [[telegraphy|telegraph]] to 75&nbsp;police districts and was broadcast from the naval radio station every two hours;<ref name="mwr-pr"/> this was the first hurricane warning broadcast by radio.<ref name="aoml"/> Warnings were also posted for 12&nbsp;ports along the southern coast, causing ships to avoid the island or remain at port. Effective preparation is credited for the relatively low death toll of 312, and not a single ship was lost at sea in the vicinity of Puerto Rico. By comparison, the weaker [[1899 San Ciriaco hurricane]] killed approximately 3,000&nbsp;people.<ref name="mwr-pr"/>
{{Strongest U.S. landfalling hurricanes}}
According to the San Juan National Weather Service office, the storm was "up to this time the greatest and more {{sic}} intense and destructive hurricane of record in Puerto Rico."<ref name="aoml"/> Along the storm path, the eye passed over Guayama, Cayey, and Aibonito, resulting in a period of calm lasting 20&nbsp;minutes.<ref name="mwr-pr"/> The island of Puerto Rico received the worst of the storm's winds when the hurricane moved directly across the island at Category 5 strength.<ref name="mwr-pr"/> The hurricane was extremely large as it crossed Puerto Rico. Hurricane-force winds were measured in [[Guayama, Puerto Rico|Guayama]] for 18&nbsp;hours, where a low pressure of {{convert|931|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}} was reported. Since the storm is estimated to have been moving at {{convert|13|mph|abbr=on}}, the diameter of the storm's hurricane winds was estimated very roughly to be {{convert|234|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="mwr-pr">{{cite journal|author=Oliver L. Fassig |date=December 8, 1928 |title=San Felipe–The Hurricane of September 13, 1928, at San Juan, P.R. |journal=Monthly Weather Review |pages=350–352 |volume=56 |issue=9 |url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/056/mwr-056-09-0350.pdf |access-date=April 29, 2010 |doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1928)56<350:SFHOSA>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1928MWRv...56..350F |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326184727/http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/056/mwr-056-09-0350.pdf |archive-date=March 26, 2009 |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The rainfall recorded on September 13–14, 1928, remains the record for the maximum rainfall associated with a hurricane in Puerto Rico within a period of forty-eight hours. In those regions where precipitation is more common place, as in Adjuntas in the [[Cordillera Central (Puerto Rico)|Cordillera Central]] and in the Sierra de Luquillo, the rain was over {{convert|25|in|mm}}, with {{convert|29.60|in|mm|abbr=on}} recorded in Adjuntas. The [[anemometer]] located in [[Puerta de Tierra, San Juan|Puerta de Tierra]] lost one of its cups at 11:44&nbsp;am on September 13, just when it had registered a maximum speed of {{convert|150|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} —a speed that was sustained for five consecutive minutes. Previously the same instrument had measured {{convert|160|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} for one minute. Because these measurements were taken {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} from San Felipe's eye, at the time, it seemed possible that some estimates of {{convert|200|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} near the center of the storm were not overdrawn.<ref name=Mujica>{{Cite report|first=Frank|last=Mújica-Baker|title=Huracanes y tormentas que han afectado a Puerto Rico|publisher=Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, Agencia Estatal para el Manejo de Emergencias y Administración de Desastres|url=http://www.gobierno.pr/NR/rdonlyres/49EA64D0-305B-4881-8B85-04B518004BD5/0/Ciclones_en_PR.pdf|pages=3–4, 7–10, 12–14|language=es|access-date=October 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924022947/http://www.gobierno.pr/NR/rdonlyres/49EA64D0-305B-4881-8B85-04B518004BD5/0/Ciclones_en_PR.pdf|archive-date=September 24, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Wettest tropical cyclones in Puerto Rico|align=left}}
There was general destruction through the island, with the towns where the eye passed being swept away.<ref name=Mujica/> Property damage on the island from winds and rain was catastrophic. The northeast portion of the island received winds in excess of Category&nbsp;3 strength, with hurricane-force winds lasting as long as 18&nbsp;hours. Official reports stated "several hundred thousand" people were left homeless, and property damages were estimated at $50&nbsp;million.<ref name="mwr-pr"/><ref name="history">{{cite web|author=U.S. Southern Command |title=Hurricane Preparedness: History |publisher=U.S. Army |access-date=January 14, 2008 |url=http://www.southcom.mil/usag-miami/sites/hurricane/hurricane_history.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217202517/http://www.southcom.mil/usag-miami/sites/hurricane/hurricane_history.asp |archive-date=December 17, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On the island there was no building that was not affected. Some sugar mills ("Centrales") that had cost millions of dollars to build were reduced to rubble. Reports say that 24,728 homes were destroyed and 192,444 were partially destroyed.<ref name=Mujica/>  Most of the [[sugarcane]] fields were flooded, ruining the year's crops. Half of the [[coffea|coffee plants]] and half of the [[shade tree]]s that covered these were destroyed; almost all of the coffee harvest was lost. The coffee industry would take years to recover since coffee needs shade trees to grow. The tobacco farms also had great losses. After this hurricane, Puerto Rico never regained its position as a major coffee exporter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/book/differential-diasters |author=Stuart B. Schwartz |title=The 1928 Hurricane and the Shaping of the Circum-Caribbean Region |website=ReVista: Harvard Review of Latin America |publisher=The David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard University. |date=Winter 2007 |access-date=2015-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920073142/http://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/book/differential-diasters |archive-date=2015-09-20 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Communications were disrupted by fallen trees, landslides, and damaged bridges. Some 770 school buildings were destroyed or damaged. According to some estimates of the day, excluding personal losses, the damages reached $85.312&nbsp;million and more than 500,000&nbsp;people were left homeless. Until [[Hurricane Maria]] 89 years later, San Felipe II was officially classified as Puerto Rico's biggest, worst, and most devastating hurricane to ever have hit the island.<ref name=Mujica/>

=== Greater Antilles and Bahamas ===
{{deadliest Atlantic hurricanes|align=right}}
After affecting Puerto Rico, the hurricane passed just north of the [[Dominican Republic]], causing very little damage. This was due to the small core and weaker winds to the south of the center. Advance warning reduced the number of ships traversing the region.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/>

While the hurricane was passing nearby, Grand Turk reported winds of {{convert|120|mph|0|abbr=on}}. According to a ship report in the region, "The force of the wind&nbsp;... could only be judged by the noise made by the storm, which reminded me of the [[New York City Subway|New York subway]] going full speed passing switches." Winds approached {{convert|120|mph|0|abbr=on}} at Nassau before the anemometer failed.<ref name="meta"/> In addition to the winds, the storm dropped heavy rainfall in the region, totaling {{convert|9|in|mm|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} in Nassau.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> As in Puerto Rico, authorities in the Bahamas had ample warning of the hurricane's approach, and preparations minimized the loss of life in the islands. Two boats were wrecked as they washed ashore in Grand Turk, although the crews were saved. A [[sloop]] traversing from [[Ambergris Cay]] to Grand Turk was lost, killing all 18&nbsp;people on board.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> The storm caused heavy damage throughout the Bahamas, mostly to property and crops.<ref name="meta"/>

In [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]], some buildings which had been recently repaired after the [[1926 Nassau hurricane]] were destroyed during this storm. A 10-year-old girl drowned after falling into an open trench filled with water. At the Fort Montague Hotel, the windows, doors, and furniture were badly damaged. Similar damage was reported at the Royal Victoria Hotel, while the British Colonial Hotel was largely spared. However, the gardens of the three hotels were "damaged almost beyond recognition".<ref name="neely">{{cite book|author=Wayne Neely|title=The Great Okeechobee Hurricane of 1928|publisher=iUniverse|location=Bloomington, Indiana|isbn=978-1-4917-5446-7|date=2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6LRBQAAQBAJ&q=great+okeechobee+hurricane+of+1928+wayne+neely|access-date=May 7, 2015}}</ref>

On [[Bimini]], sustained winds of {{convert|140|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} were observed, causing major damage to buildings. Ninety-five houses and some other buildings, including a few churches and government buildings, were damaged or destroyed on [[Eleuthera]]. Minor damage was reported on [[Rum Cay]]. Most of the food crops were destroyed. On [[San Salvador Island]], four buildings were demolished, including two churches, while several other structures suffered minor damage. Food crops were nearly wiped out.<ref name="neely"/>

===Florida===
[[File:1928 Okeechobee Aftermath.jpg|thumb|left|Damage from the hurricane]]
{{main|Effects of the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane in Florida}}
While the hurricane was moving through the Bahamas, the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from [[Miami]] to [[Titusville, Florida|Titusville]], later upgrading to a hurricane warning from Miami to [[Daytona Beach, Florida|Daytona Beach]]. The agency advised residents to take precautions for the hurricane, citing the potential for strong winds and waves. Hurricane warnings were also posted for the west coast from [[Punta Rassa, Florida|Punta Rassa]] to [[Apalachicola, Florida|Apalachicola]], and after the storm recurved, hurricane warnings were extended along the [[East Coast of the United States|east coast]] to [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]].<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> Because of well-issued hurricane warnings, residents were prepared for the storm, and only 26 deaths were recorded in the coastal Palm Beach area.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/>

Strong winds struck southern Florida as the hurricane moved ashore, with three unofficial reports of {{convert|100|mph|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> In Miami to the south of the center, winds reached {{convert|78|mph|abbr=on}},<ref name="meta"/> and farther south, [[Key West]] reported winds of {{convert|39|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. The eye at landfall was {{convert|25|mi|km|abbr=on}} wide, and after moving inland crossed Lake Okeechobee, where a calm was reported for 30&nbsp;minutes. Winds at [[Canal Point, Florida|Canal Point]], adjacent to the lake, were estimated as high as {{convert|160|mph|0|abbr=on}}; the anemometer blew away after reporting sustained winds of {{convert|75|mph|abbr=on}}. The pressure at Canal Point dropped to {{convert|942|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}}. The lowest pressure north of Lake Okeechobee was {{convert|966|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}} in [[Bartow, Florida|Bartow]], and along the west coast, winds reached {{convert|31|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]].<ref name="mwr-westindian"/>

The hurricane left thousands of people homeless in Florida; property damage was estimated at $25&nbsp;million (${{Format price|{{Inflation|US|25000000|1928|r=2}}}}). It is estimated if a similar storm were to strike as of the year 2003, it would cause $18.7&nbsp;billion in damages. The cyclone remains one of three Atlantic hurricanes to strike the southern mainland of Florida with a central pressure below {{convert|940|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}}, the others being the [[1926 Miami hurricane]] and [[Hurricane Andrew]] of [[1992 Atlantic hurricane season|1992]].<ref name="USHurricanes">{{cite web|author=Hurricane Research Division|year=2008 |url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/ushurrlist18512007.txt |title=All U.S. Hurricanes (1851–2007) |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |access-date=April 6, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921102626/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/ushurrlist18512007.txt |archive-date=September 21, 2008}}</ref>

In addition to the human fatalities, 1,278&nbsp;livestock and 47,389 poultry were killed.<ref name="1928remember">{{cite web|url=http://www.historicalsocietypbc.org/images/file/Storm_of_28_Teachers_Guide.pdf |title=The Storm: 1928 Remembered |date=2008 |publisher=Historical Society of Palm Beach County |page=9 |access-date=July 24, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023353/http://www.historicalsocietypbc.org/images/file/Storm_of_28_Teachers_Guide.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016 }}</ref> Agriculture was significantly affected, with the storm destroying what may have been the largest "citrus crop in the history of the industry". Approximately 6% of oranges and 18% of grapefruit were ruined. Harvesting the remaining crops was delayed until mid-October due to inundated groves.<ref name=neely /> Communications also suffered severely. Throughout the state, 32,000&nbsp;households were left without telephone service and 400&nbsp;poles were broken and about 2,500&nbsp;others leaning.<ref name=neely /> [[List of governors of Florida|Governor of Florida]] [[John W. Martin]] estimated that 15,000&nbsp;families were left homeless in Palm Beach County alone. Additionally, about 11,500&nbsp;families would need to be "re-established".<ref name=uf>{{cite web|url=http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00001306/00001/1j|title=Palm Beach Hurricane—92 Views|date=1928|publisher=American Autochrome Company|access-date=June 27, 2015|location=Chicago, Illinois|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207155306/http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00001306/00001/1j|archive-date=February 7, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Coastal South Florida====
[[File:1928 Okeechobee Flood.png|thumb|right|Approximate area of the flood. Note: The Palm Beach County label is misplaced. North of Canal Point has been in Martin County since 1925.]]

In Miami, damage was minimal, limited to broken windows and awnings. In [[Hollywood, Florida|Hollywood]] and [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]], windows and roofs were damaged, although to a fairly minor extent.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> Numerous power lines and telephone wires were downed in the latter city.<ref name="fldn">{{cite news|title=Hurricane Hits City Sunday|date=September 17, 1928|newspaper=Fort Lauderdale Daily News|access-date=May 9, 2015|url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/search/sfl-9.17.1928hurricane1,0,4406073.story|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012192825/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/search/sfl-9.17.1928hurricane1%2C0%2C4406073.story|archive-date=October 12, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Northward, from [[Pompano Beach, Florida|Pompano Beach]] to [[Jupiter, Florida|Jupiter]], buildings suffered serious damage from the heavy winds and {{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on}} storm surge.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/> Nearly all small frame houses were destroyed in [[Deerfield Beach, Florida|Deerfield Beach]], while several citizens estimated that at least 50% of homes were demolished. The town's post office, depot, and an entire business block were also destroyed. An eight-year-old boy drowned in a ditch near where his family sought refuge. In [[Boca Raton, Florida|Boca Raton]], two garages and several houses were destroyed. At the Cloister Inn, windows were shattered and the roof was damaged; across the street, 32&nbsp;freight cars belonging to a train along the [[Florida East Coast Railway]] were tossed by the wind into a nearby ditch. A short distance to the north, a warehouse was flattened. A building occupied by a restaurant and a store was flattened. In [[Delray Beach, Florida|Delray Beach]], four churches suffered severe damage and the Alta Repp and Seacrest hotels both lost a portion of their roof. The police reported three deaths within the city. In Delray Beach and [[Lantana, Florida|Lantana]], all houses and the railroad station were badly damaged. In [[Boynton Beach, Florida|Boynton Beach]], about 75% of businesses suffered complete destruction. Fifteen people were injured by a roof collapse while taking refuge in the auditorium of a high school.<ref name="36 lives">{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Tropical%20Storm%20Miami%20Herald%20September%2018,%201928%20page%201%20col%201.pdf|title=36 Lives Lost is Storm Toll Over Florida|date=September 18, 1928|newspaper=[[Miami Herald]]|access-date=May 8, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222145830/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Tropical%20Storm%20Miami%20Herald%20September%2018,%201928%20page%201%20col%201.pdf|archive-date=February 22, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:1928 Okeechobee Aftermath 17.jpg|thumb|left|Aftermath of the hurricane in southern Florida]]
In [[Lake Worth Beach, Florida|Lake Worth]], approximately 50% of homes were damaged or destroyed, while 75% of buildings in the business district suffered damage.<ref name="36 lives"/> Damage along the coast was most severe in [[Palm Beach, Florida|Palm Beach]]. Total coastal damages were estimated as "several million" dollars.<ref name="mwr-westindian">{{cite journal | first=Charles | last=Mitchell | title=The West Indian Hurricane of September 10–20, 1928 | journal=[[Monthly Weather Review]] | volume=56 | issue=9 | date=September 1928 | pages=347–350 | url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1928.pdf | doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1928)56<347:TWIHOS>2.0.CO;2 | access-date=April 29, 2010 | bibcode=1928MWRv...56..347M | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326015331/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1928.pdf | archive-date=March 26, 2014 | url-status=live | doi-access=free }}</ref> In [[West Palm Beach, Florida|West Palm Beach]], the storm destroyed 1,711&nbsp;homes and damaged 6,369&nbsp;others, and demolished 268&nbsp;businesses and impacted 490&nbsp;other businesses; the city suffered the worst damage, totaling just under $13.8&nbsp;million.<ref name=uf /> Likewise, there was also severe wind damage in [[Palm Beach, Florida|Palm Beach]]. A few buildings constructed by [[Henry Flagler]], such as [[The Breakers (hotel)|The Breakers]], the [[Royal Poinciana Hotel]], and [[Whitehall]], were damaged. [[Mar-a-Lago]] suffered few effects other than uprooted trees and the destruction of a large Roman-style window, according to [[Marjorie Merriweather Post]]. [[Rodman Wanamaker]]'s house, known as "[[La Querida (mansion)|La Querida]]" and later the "[[List of residences of presidents of the United States#Winter White House|Winter White House]]" when used by President [[John F. Kennedy]], suffered heavy damage during the storm.<ref name="uf"/> The Alba, Billows, New Palm Beach, and Royal Daneli hotels all suffered water damage, while the Alba Hotel was also deroofed. Nearby, the Rainbow Pier had only structural damage to its railings, though the pier office was blown away.<ref name="fewbuildings">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5754813/the_palm_beach_post/|title=Few Buildings Escape Damage From Hurricane|date=September 18, 1928|newspaper=The Palm Beach Post|access-date=July 5, 2017|via=Newspapers.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103171719/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5754813/the_palm_beach_post/|archive-date=January 3, 2017|url-status=live}} {{open access}}</ref> Approximately 600&nbsp;structures, including 10 hotels, were damaged in Palm Beach. Damage totaled over $2&nbsp;million.<ref name="uf"/>

The strongest winds in the eyewall affected northern Palm Beach County, particularly the vicinity of [[Jupiter, Florida|Jupiter]] as the eye made landfall farther south.<ref name=NWSMiamipage-2>{{cite web|author1=National Weather Service|title=Memorial Web Page for the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane|url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mfl/?n=okeechobee|website=srh.noaa.gov|publisher=[[National Weather Service]]|access-date=21 February 2015|location=[[Miami]], Florida|date=29 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809045013/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mfl/?n=okeechobee|archive-date=9 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> At the [[Jupiter Inlet Light]]house, the mortar was reportedly "squeezed&nbsp;... like toothpaste" from between the bricks during the storm, swaying the tower {{convert|17|in|mm|abbr=on}} off the base.<ref name="barnes">{{cite book|author=Jay Barnes|title=Florida's Hurricane History|publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]|date=2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/floridashurrican00barn/page/n144 129]|isbn=978-0-8078-3068-0|url=https://archive.org/details/floridashurrican00barn|url-access=registration|quote=florida's hurricane history.|access-date=May 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915100558/https://archive.org/details/floridashurrican00barn|archive-date=September 15, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The lighthouse keeper, Captain Seabrook, and his son, Franklin, worked to keep the light on during the storm after the electricity went out. After the generator failed to work, they hand-cranked the light's mantle.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.historicalsocietypbc.org/images/file/Storm_of_28_Teachers_Guide.pdf|title=The Storm: 1928 Remembered (Teacher's Guide) |publisher=Historical Society of Palm Beach County |year=2008 |page=21 |access-date=March 10, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023353/http://www.historicalsocietypbc.org/images/file/Storm_of_28_Teachers_Guide.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> The building formerly used as a [[National Weather Service Miami, Florida|Weather Bureau Office]] was destroyed. Nearby, six people died after a house was demolished. Six other fatalities occurred west of Jupiter after a school where people sought shelter collapsed.<ref name="neely"/>

====Lake Okeechobee and Everglades====
Inland, the hurricane wreaked much more widespread destruction along the more heavily populated coast of Lake Okeechobee. Residents had been warned to evacuate the low ground earlier in the day, but after the hurricane did not arrive on schedule, many thought it had missed and returned to their homes. In the weeks prior to the storm, heavy rainfall had caused the lake to rise {{convert|3|ft|m|abbr=on}} between August&nbsp;10 and September&nbsp;10 and filled nearby canals and ditches. Precipitation from the hurricane itself caused Lake Okeechobee to rise further.<ref name="barnes"/> When the worst of the storm crossed the lake, the south-blowing wind caused a [[storm surge]] to overflow the small dike that had been built at the south end of the lake. The resulting flood covered an area of hundreds of square miles with water that in some places was more than {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=on}} deep. Houses were floated off their foundations and dashed to pieces against any obstacles encountered.<ref name="sptimes">{{cite news| title=A storm of memories| author=Jeff Klinkenberg|newspaper=St. Petersburg Times| date=July 12, 1992| url=http://www2.sptimes.com/weather/HG.2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717070129/http://www2.sptimes.com/Weather/HG.2.html |archive-date= July 17, 2012 |access-date= May 6, 2015}}</ref> Most survivors and bodies were washed out into the [[Everglades]], where many of the bodies were never found.<ref name="Brochu"/> Agricultural losses in the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee were also significant, with virtually all crops destroyed and over 150&nbsp;tractors suffering damage.<ref name=neely />

[[File:Pcpn1928091519isohyet.png|thumb|right|Storm total precipitation for September&nbsp;15–19, 1928]]
As the rear [[eye (cyclone)|eyewall]] passed over the area, the flood reversed itself, breaking the dikes along the northern coast of the lake and causing similar but smaller flooding.<ref name="Brochu"/> [[U.S. Route 98 in Florida|Route 98]], then known as Conner's Highway, was closed until January, when the bridge across the Onosohatchee River at [[Taylor Creek, Florida|Taylor Creek]] was replaced after the original bridge was carried about {{convert|150|ft|m|abbr=on}} upstream during the storm.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Taylor%20Creek%20Bridge%20repositioned%20at%20Conners%20Hwy%20Tampa%20Tribune%20January%2011,%201929%20page%202%20col%202.JPG|title=Span Blown Out By Storm, Fished From River and Replaced|date=January 10, 1929|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=[[The Tampa Tribune]]|access-date=May 10, 2015|location=Okeechobee, Florida|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518072203/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Taylor%20Creek%20Bridge%20repositioned%20at%20Conners%20Hwy%20Tampa%20Tribune%20January%2011,%201929%20page%202%20col%202.JPG|archive-date=May 18, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Okeechobee County, Florida|Okeechobee County]], homes along the lake were destroyed by the storm surge, while dwellings within the city of [[Okeechobee, Florida|Okeechobee]] were severely damaged or demolished by winds of at least {{convert|90|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. However, brick and concrete dwellings suffered little damage. A number of three-story business buildings collapsed during the storm.<ref name="bigwave"/> Almost all roads were left impassable, while communications were nearly wiped out.<ref name="exaggerated">{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Appeal%20for%20Aid%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2019,%201928%20page%202%20col%206.pdf|title=Storm Cannot Be Exaggerated Says Red Cross|date=September 19, 1928|newspaper=The Tampa Tribune|access-date=May 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518074219/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Appeal%20for%20Aid%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2019,%201928%20page%202%20col%206.pdf|archive-date=May 18, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Overall, 27&nbsp;deaths occurred in [[Okeechobee County, Florida|Okeechobee County]]. Along the southwestern shore of Lake Okeechobee, the towns of [[Clewiston, Florida|Clewiston]] and [[Moore Haven, Florida|Moore Haven]] were both flooded, but most houses suffered more damage due to strong winds.<ref name="bigwave">{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Appeal%20for%20Aid%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2019,%201928%20page%202%20col%206.pdf|title=Okeechobee Deaths Laid To Big Wave|date=September 19, 1928|newspaper=The Tampa Tribune|access-date=May 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518074219/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Appeal%20for%20Aid%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2019,%201928%20page%202%20col%206.pdf|archive-date=May 18, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

On Kreamer Island, many residents received information about the storm when it was too late to evacuate. In some houses, 20–30&nbsp;people sought shelter inside and later stood on tables and chairs to remain above the water. Most of the houses were swept away into rows of pine trees and others more than {{convert|1/2|mi|km|spell=in}} away. Despite this, only one person drowned on the island. Residents of Torry Island did not have enough time to prepare for the storm. They tried to evacuate, but with the causeway already inundated, twenty-three people sought refuge in a packinghouse. Floodwaters entered the building, forcing the occupants into the rafters. The building was eventually pushed into a nearby canal. Ten people drowned, but thirteen others survived by clinging to a barge or tree tops, while one woman tied herself to a telegraph pole. Others who survived were swept far away from the original sites of the building and the barge. A teenage boy was carried from the packinghouse to the Everglades Experiment Station in Belle Glade &ndash; a distance of about {{convert|8|mi|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="barnes"/> On Ritta Island, a number of persons who had successfully climbed to the roof of their houses to escape floodwaters were struck by trees or received fatal bites from [[Agkistrodon piscivorus|water moccasin]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lee Allyn Davis|title=Natural Disasters|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York City, New York|date=January 1, 2009|page=296|isbn=978-1-4381-1878-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRzMOYIuLJEC&q=ritta+island&pg=PA296|access-date=September 9, 2015}}</ref>

In [[South Bay, Florida|South Bay]], nearly all houses were destroyed and several buildings were unroofed. At least 160&nbsp;fatalities occurred in the city.<ref name="uf"/> The future first mayor of South Bay, Aubrey (a.k.a. "Orb" or "A.O.") Walker, along with his brother, Haughty D. Walker (a.k.a. "Haught"), survived the great hurricane of 1928 by gathering family members and joining a number of other South Bay citizens on a barge in the canal; this action allowed them to survive the flood waters that swept over South Bay and ultimately engulfed Okeelanta.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Will|first1=Lawrence|title=A Cracker History of Okeechobee|date=1964|publisher=Great Outdoors|page=212|edition=First}}</ref> Throughout the 1920s, [[Okeelanta, Florida|Okeelanta]] had suffered several floods and muck fires. After being flooded severely during the 1928 hurricane, it was abandoned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbchistoryonline.org/page/okeelanta|title=Okeelanta|publisher=Historical Society of Palm Beach County|year=2009|access-date=June 27, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530204455/http://www.pbchistoryonline.org/page/okeelanta|archive-date=May 30, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Bean City was also destroyed during the hurricane, but it was eventually rebuilt by Arthur Wells.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12144029/the_palm_beach_post/|title=Bean City|author=Mike Abrams|date=May 12, 1970|newspaper=The Palm Beach Post|access-date=July 5, 2017|location=Bean City, Florida|via=Newspapers.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909052503/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12144029/the_palm_beach_post/|archive-date=September 9, 2017|url-status=live}} {{open access}}</ref> Sebring Farms was reduced to piles of rubber, with only four tall royal palm trees left standing.<ref name=neely /> The hotel at Miami Locks was the only building to survive the storm.<ref name=neely /> Ninety-nine people died in that town.<ref name=neely /> In Chosen, only two people escaped a house that had sheltered nineteen people. Twenty other residents took refuge in a building which lost its roof during the storm, forcing the occupants to move into the restroom. A house that was full of people floated about {{convert|1/2|mi|km|spell=in}} from its original location. The refugees were unaware that the house was moving until it collided with a railroad embankment.<ref name="barnes"/>

[[File:Burial of victims of the 1928 hurricane- West Palm Beach, Florida (3674596695).jpg|thumb|left|Burial of victims in West Palm Beach]]

Floodwaters persisted for several weeks, greatly impeding attempts to clean up the devastation. Burial services were quickly overwhelmed, and many of the bodies were placed into mass graves. Around 75% of the fatalities were migrant farm workers, making identification of both the dead and missing very difficult; as a result of this, the count of the dead is not very accurate. The [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] estimated the number of fatalities as 1,836, which was taken as the official count by the [[National Weather Service]] for many years. Older sources usually list 3,411 as the hurricane's total count of fatalities, including the Caribbean. However, in 2003, the U.S. death count was revised to "at least" 2,500, making the Okeechobee hurricane one of the deadliest natural disasters in United States history. A mass grave at the Port Mayaca Cemetery east of [[Port Mayaca, Florida|Port Mayaca]] contains the bodies of 1,600 victims of the hurricane.<ref name="Brochu">{{cite web |author=Nicole Sterghos Brochu |year=2003 |url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/search/sfl-ahurricane14sep14,0,6237828.story |title=Florida's Forgotten Storm: the Hurricane of 1928 |publisher=South Florida Sun-Sentinel |access-date=April 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916110210/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/search/sfl-ahurricane14sep14%2C0%2C6237828.story |archive-date=September 16, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Central and North Florida====
In [[Fort Myers, Florida|Fort Myers]], property damage was slight, limited mostly to scores of small boats and fishing shacks along the waterfront.<ref name="dadswell">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=pClPAAAAIBAJ&pg=7162%2C6151045|title=Storm Effects Told In Survey Made By Radio|date=September 18, 1928|author=Jack Dadswell|newspaper=[[Tampa Bay Times|St. Petersburg Times]]|page=2|access-date=July 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311235625/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=pClPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=xk0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=7162%2C6151045|archive-date=March 11, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Nearly all cigar factories in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]] were closed after wind and rain drove too much moisture into the buildings.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Storm%20death%20in%20Okeechobee,%202nd%20part,%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2018,%201928%20page%202%20col%201.pdf|title=Storm Passes To North With Force Lessened|newspaper=The Tampa Tribune|access-date=June 27, 2015|location=Lakeland, Florida|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518072743/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Storm%20death%20in%20Okeechobee,%202nd%20part,%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2018,%201928%20page%202%20col%201.pdf|archive-date=May 18, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Offshore, the fishing smack ''Wallace A. McDonnell'' was beached near Piney Point, though all of the crew survived. The Cuban schooner ''Isabel Alvado'' sank offshore [[Boca Grande, Florida|Boca Grande]]. The crew, who were immigrants, were rescued by the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] and later deported.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Storm%20death%20in%20Okeechobee,%20first%20part,%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2018,%201928%20page%201%20col%208.pdf|title=Smack Around, Schooner Sinks During Storm|date=September 18, 1928|newspaper=The Tampa Tribune|access-date=June 27, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114321/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Storm%20death%20in%20Okeechobee,%20first%20part,%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2018,%201928%20page%201%20col%208.pdf|archive-date=March 4, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Martin County, Florida|Martin County]], a bridge connecting [[Stuart, Florida|Stuart]] and [[Palm City, Florida|Palm City]] was severely damaged and closed to traffic as a result. A temporary ferry service across the [[St. Lucie River]] was established and operated until repairs to the bridge were complete in the summer of 1929.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tcpalm.com/news/historical-vignettes-chillingworths-palm-city-deve|title=Historical Vignettes: Chillingworth's Palm City Development|author=Alice L. and Greg E. Luckhardt|date=December 10, 2013|newspaper=[[Treasure Coast Newspapers]]|access-date=July 25, 2015|location=Stuart, Florida}}</ref> In [[Fort Pierce, Florida|Fort Pierce]], most of the effects were confined to the waterfront areas. A warehouse, fish houses, docks, and a bridge across the Indian River were destroyed, while several other buildings were unroofed. Damage in the city totaled about $150,000.<ref name="uf"/>

In the interior areas of Central and North Florida, effects were mainly confined to agricultural losses, particularly citrus, though wind damage occurred to structures. Between [[Sebring, Florida|Sebring]] and [[Lake Wales, Florida|Lake Wales]], 200&nbsp;telephone poles were toppled. In [[Bartow, Florida|Bartow]], business building windows were shattered and signs were knocked down, while several roofs and chimneys also suffered damage. Winds gusting up to {{convert|70|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} lashed [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]]. Many trees were uprooted and several buildings were impacted, including the hospital and a number of businesses. At [[Florida Southern College]] (FSC), the north side of the gymnasium collapsed while other buildings on campus were damaged to a lesser degree. The trees in the citrus grove surrounding FSC lost much of their fruit. Overall, Lakeland suffered about $50,000 in damage.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Storm%20death%20in%20Okeechobee,%202nd%20part,%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2018,%201928%20page%202%20col%201.pdf|title=$50,000 Damage Caused to Lakeland Property|newspaper=The Tampa Tribune|access-date=June 27, 2015|location=Lakeland, Florida|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518072743/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Storm%20death%20in%20Okeechobee,%202nd%20part,%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2018,%201928%20page%202%20col%201.pdf|archive-date=May 18, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], damage to properties was described as slight.<ref name="dadswell"/> Strong winds up to {{convert|50|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} affected the [[Jacksonville metropolitan area|Jacksonville area]], resulting in minor damage at [[Jacksonville Beach, Florida|Jacksonville Beach]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=pClPAAAAIBAJ&pg=6168%2C6146877|title=Jacksonville and Brunswick, Ga. are Whipped by Winds|date=September 18, 1928|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=St. Petersburg Times|page=1|access-date=July 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426075021/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=pClPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=xk0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6168,6146877|archive-date=April 26, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Elsewhere===
Outside Florida, damage from the hurricane elsewhere in the United States was minor.<ref name="mwr-westindian"/>  In Georgia, low-lying streets were flooded or washed out in the [[Savannah metropolitan area|Savannah area]]. Additionally, winds downed trees and power lines.<ref name="meta"/> Heavy rainfall occurred from eastern Florida through coastal Georgia, the Carolinas, and southeast Virginia. The highest rainfall total was {{convert|12.53|in|mm}} at [[Darlington, South Carolina]].<ref>{{cite book|page=SA 2–15|title=Storm Total Rainfall In The United States|author=United States Army Corps of Engineers|publisher=War Department|date=1945}}</ref> The storm caused flooding in [[North Carolina]] and brought near-hurricane-force winds and a {{convert|7|ft|m}} storm surge to the [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]] area.<ref>{{cite web|author=David Roth and Hugh Cobb |title=Virginia Hurricane History |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |access-date=January 14, 2008 |url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/roth/vaerly20hur.htm| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080108155833/http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/roth/vaerly20hur.htm| archive-date= January 8, 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref> After the hurricane became extratropical, its wind field became very large. [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]], recorded winds of {{convert|76|mph|abbr=on}} despite being far from the center.<ref name="meta"/>

== Aftermath ==
{{Deadliest United States hurricanes|align=right}}
In the immediate aftermath of the deadly storm, relief arrived from nearby areas such as [[Miami]]. Early on September&nbsp;18, a train leaving Miami carried 20&nbsp;doctors and 20&nbsp;nurses to West Palm Beach.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Storm%20death%20in%20Okeechobee,%202nd%20part,%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2018,%201928%20page%202%20col%201.pdf|title=33 Known Dead in Storm Area; Troops to Aid|date=September 18, 1928|newspaper=The Tampa Tribune|access-date=May 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518072743/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Storm%20death%20in%20Okeechobee,%202nd%20part,%20Tampa%20Tribune%20September%2018,%201928%20page%202%20col%201.pdf|archive-date=May 18, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The Miami [[American Red Cross|Red Cross]] Citizens Relief Committee, which was established to provide aid for victims of the storm, transported "hundreds of loaves of bread, gallons of milk, pounds of coffee and sugar, blankets, cots, and medical supplies." The first relief train was ridden by [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] [[Joseph Taylor Robinson|Joseph T. Robinson]], the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] vice presidential nominee during [[1928 United States presidential election|the election that year]]. At least 100&nbsp;people were brought to Miami for medical treatment. In Lake Worth, 25&nbsp;people were treated for various injuries at the [[Gulf Stream Hotel]] and the local fire station. Dr. W. A. Claxton, chief of the Miami Department of Public Welfare, requested [[antitoxin]], typhoid serum, and at least 200&nbsp;tetanus serums. There was also a request for 1,000&nbsp;more cots in West Palm Beach and Kelsey City.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Tropical%20Storm%20Miami%20Herald%20September%2018,%201928%20page%201%20col%201.pdf|title=Miami Prompt to Give Aid in Stricken Area|date=September 18, 1928|newspaper=Miami Herald|access-date=May 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222145830/http://lamartin.com/OldNewspapersOkeechobeeInfo/Tropical%20Storm%20Miami%20Herald%20September%2018,%201928%20page%201%20col%201.pdf|archive-date=February 22, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Racial issues ===
{{Further|Hurricane of 1928 African American Mass Burial Site}}
[[File:Mass Grave 020.JPG|thumb|left|Historical marker at the [[hurricane of 1928 African-American Mass Burial Site|mass grave]] in West Palm Beach]]

In Florida, although the hurricane's destruction affected everything in its path, the death toll was by far the highest and the aftermath the worst in the economically poor areas in the low-lying ground near Lake Okeechobee, such as the towns of Belle Glade, Chosen, Pahokee, South Bay, and Bean City.<ref name="hspbc">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbchistoryonline.org/page/hurricane-of|title=The Hurricane of 1928|date=2009|publisher=Historical Society of Palm Beach County|access-date=May 5, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312172327/http://www.pbchistoryonline.org/page/hurricane-of|archive-date=March 12, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Around 75% of the fatalities were among [[migrant worker|migrant farm workers]], most of whom were black.

The black workers did most of the post-hurricane cleanup work. Reflecting racial and class discrimination, authorities reserved the few caskets available for burials for the bodies of whites.<ref name="sharp">{{cite news| title=Storm's path remains scarred after 75 years| author=Deborah Sharp| work=USA Today| date=September 4, 2003| access-date=March 10, 2015| url=https://www.usatoday.com/weather/hurricane/2003-09-04-hurricane-usat_x.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524032840/http://www.usatoday.com/weather/hurricane/2003-09-04-hurricane-usat_x.htm| archive-date=May 24, 2011| url-status=live}}</ref> White victims received a formal burial service, although in a mass grave, at Woodlawn Cemetery in downtown West Palm Beach.<ref name="hspbc"/> This was the only mass gravesite to receive a timely memorial.<ref name="sharp"/>

In contrast, the bodies of black victims were burned in funeral pyres or thrown into mass burial sites such as the ones in [[Hurricane of 1928 African-American Mass Burial Site|West Palm Beach]] and Port Mayaca.

[[File:West PB FL 1928 Mass Burial Site marker01.jpg|thumb|right|The historical marker added to the memorial site in 2003, the seventy-fifth anniversary of the storm]]
Robert Hazard, a resident of West Palm Beach, established the Storm of '28 Memorial Park Coalition Inc. to fight for recognition of the black victims of the storm. In 2000, the West Palm Beach burial site was reacquired by the city of West Palm Beach and plans for construction of a memorial began. The [[hurricane of 1928 African-American Mass Burial Site|site]] was listed on the [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 2002 and a state historical marker was added in 2003 during events to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the hurricane.<ref name="hspbc"/> 
 
African-American writer [[Zora Neale Hurston]] explored the effects of the hurricane on black migrant workers in her seminal 1937 novel, ''[[Their Eyes Were Watching God]]''. This is her best-known work and it was included on ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'' magazine's 2005 list of the '100 best English-language novels published since 1923'.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://www.time.com/time/2005/100books/the_complete_list.html | magazine=Time | title=All Time 100 Novels | date=October 16, 2005 | access-date=September 16, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425071623/http://www.time.com/time/2005/100books/the_complete_list.html | archive-date=April 25, 2010 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/nr/feature/afam/2003/florida.htm|title=Florida Properties – African American History Month|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|access-date=May 5, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619234433/http://www.nps.gov/nr/feature/afam/2003/florida.htm|archive-date=June 19, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Improved building codes ===
In the aftermath of the hurricane in coastal Florida, observers noted that well-constructed buildings with shutters had suffered practically no damage from winds that caused serious structural problems to lesser buildings. Buildings with well-constructed frames, and those made of steel, concrete, brick, or stone, were largely immune to winds. The use of shutters prevented damage to windows and the interior of the buildings. With the 1928 hurricane coming so soon after the 1926 Miami hurricane, where a similar pattern had been noticed, one lasting result of the 1928 storm was improved state and local building codes.<ref>{{cite web |author=Betty Nelander |title=The Hurricane of 1928: Category 4 hurricane scarred Palm Beach |year=2008 |access-date=June 27, 2008 |url=http://www.palmbeachdailynews.com/news/content/specialsections/HURRICANE1928page.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080920065230/http://www.palmbeachdailynews.com/news/content/specialsections/HURRICANE1928page.html |archive-date = September 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Flood control ===
[[File:Army CoE sign Hoover Dike.jpg|thumb|left|A sign advertising the completion of the [[Herbert Hoover Dike|Hoover Dike]]]]
To prevent a recurrence of disasters like this one and the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926, the Florida State Legislature created the [[Okeechobee Flood Control District]], which was authorized to cooperate with the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] in flood control undertakings.<ref name="USArmyCorps">{{cite web|url=http://www.saj.usace.army.mil/sfoo/index.html |title=Lake Okeechobee and The Okeechobee Waterway |publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers South Florida Operations Office |access-date=August 3, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609125358/http://www.saj.usace.army.mil/sfoo/index.html |archive-date=June 9, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> After a personal inspection of the area by President [[Herbert Hoover]], the Corps of Engineers drafted a plan to provide for the construction of floodway channels, control gates, and major [[levee]]s along the shores of Lake Okeechobee. A long-term system was designed for the purpose of flood control, water conservation, prevention of [[saltwater intrusion]], and preservation of fish and wildlife populations.<ref name="USArmyCorps" /> One of the solutions was the construction of the [[Herbert Hoover Dike]].

In the early 21st century, there are concerns related to the dike's stability because studies have indicated long-term problems with "piping" and [[erosion]]. Leaks have been reported after several heavy rain events. Proposed solutions to the dike's problems have included the construction of a [[soil mechanics|seepage]] [[berm]] on the landward side of the dike, with the first stage costing approximately $67&nbsp;million (US$).<ref name="USArmyCorps2">{{cite web |url=http://www.saj.usace.army.mil/cco/docs/hhd/LakeOandHHDike.pdf |title=Lake Okeechobee and the Herbert Hoover Dike |publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Jacksonville District |access-date=August 3, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081003192524/http://www.saj.usace.army.mil/cco/docs/hhd/LakeOandHHDike.pdf |archive-date = October 3, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Name ==
{{See|Calendar of saints#Connection to tropical cyclones}}
The storm was named the ''San Felipe II'' hurricane in [[Puerto Rico]] because the eye of the cyclone made landfall there on September&nbsp;13, the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[calendar of saints|feast day]] of [[September 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)#Pre-Schism Western Saints|Saint Philip]],<ref name=Mujica/> father of Saint [[Eugenia of Rome]]. (King [[Philip II of Spain]] happened to die on this day.) It was named "Segundo", Spanish for "the Second", because of the weaker but destructive "[[1876 San Felipe hurricane|San Felipe hurricane]]" that had struck Puerto Rico on that same day in 1876.

In Puerto Rico, since [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]], storms and hurricanes were named after the name of the saint's day that the storm hit the island. For example, they named the [[Great Hurricane of 1780]] as ''San Calixto'', after [[Pope Callixtus I|Saint Callixtus]], whose feast day is October&nbsp;14; the [[1867 San Narciso hurricane]], the [[1899 San Ciriaco hurricane]], and the [[1932 San Ciprián hurricane|1932 San Ciprian hurricane]] were also named after the saints' feast days on which they occurred (respectively, Saint [[Narcissus of Jerusalem]] on October&nbsp;29, [[Cyriacus|Saint Cyriacus]] on August&nbsp;8, and [[Cyprian and Justina|Saint Cyprian]] on September&nbsp;26).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ecu.edu/renci/StormsToLife/SanCiriaco/index.html|title=San Ciriaco Hurricane|work=East Carolina University, RENCI Engagement Center|access-date=2018-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019002209/https://www.ecu.edu/renci/StormsToLife/SanCiriaco/index.html|archive-date=2019-10-19|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1953, the [[National Weather Service|United States Weather Bureau]] (now the National Weather Service) started [[History of tropical cyclone naming|naming hurricanes]] by human female names until 1978. That year both gender names began to be used after control over naming was relinquished to the [[World Meteorological Organization]]. It was not until 1960 that Puerto Rico stopped naming hurricanes after saints. Two cyclones have been given both women's and saint's names: [[Hurricane Betsy (1956)|Hurricane Betsy]] ([[Clare of Assisi|Santa Clara]], August&nbsp;12, 1956) and [[Hurricane Donna]] ([[Lawrence Justinian|San Lorenzo]], September&nbsp;5, 1960).<ref name=Mujica/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Tropical cyclones|Puerto Rico|Caribbean|United States|Canada}}
* [[List of disasters in the United States by death toll]]
* [[Lists of Atlantic hurricanes]]
* [[List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes]]
* [[List of Florida hurricanes]]
* [[1899 San Ciriaco hurricane]] –  A destructive, long-lived Category&nbsp;4 hurricane that took a similar path, devastating Puerto Rico and the Bahamas and later affecting Florida
* [[1926 Miami hurricane]] – A catastrophic Category&nbsp;4 hurricane that caused numerous fatalities and widespread destruction
* [[Hurricane Irma]] (2017) – An extremely intense Category&nbsp;5 hurricane that followed a similar path, causing widespread devastation
* [[Hurricane Maria]] (2017) – A Category&nbsp;5 hurricane that was eleventh most intense Atlantic hurricane on record and the second most intense hurricane to hit Puerto Rico
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/search/sfl-ahurricane14sep14,0,6237828.story Florida's Forgotten Hurricane] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916110210/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/search/sfl-ahurricane14sep14%2C0%2C6237828.story |date=2012-09-16 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160809045013/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mfl/?n=okeechobee NOAA Okeechobee Hurricane Memorial]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121012192839/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/search/sfl-1928hurricanefootage%2C0%2C2081554.realvideo Footage of storm damage]
* [https://www.weather.gov/mfl/okeechobee National Weather Service Memorial Web page]
{{Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes}}
{{Featured article}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
 | before = [[1926 Miami hurricane|1926 Great Miami]]
 | title  = [[List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes|Costliest Atlantic hurricanes on Record]] 
 | years  = [[1928 Atlantic hurricane season|1928]] '''(Tied with 1926 Great Miami)'''
 | after  = [[1938 New England hurricane|1938 New England]]<br>(Long Island Express)  
}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1928 Okeechobee Hurricane}}
[[Category:1920s Atlantic hurricane seasons|O (1928)]]
[[Category:1928 in Florida|Okeechobee Hurricane, 1928]]
[[Category:1928 in Puerto Rico|San Felipe II Hurricane, 1928]]
[[Category:1928 meteorology|Okeechobee Hurricane, 1928]]
[[Category:1928 natural disasters|Okeechobee Hurricane, 1928]]
[[Category:Cape Verde hurricanes|1928 Okeechobee]]
[[Category:Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in the Leeward Islands]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Îles des Saintes]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Dominica]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Montserrat]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in the United States Virgin Islands]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Puerto Rico]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in the Turks and Caicos Islands]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in the Bahamas]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Florida]]
[[Category:Lake Okeechobee|O (1928)]]
[[Category:1928 in the Caribbean]]
[[Category:1928 natural disasters in the United States]]
[[Category:1928 in the Bahamas]]
[[Category:September 1928 events]]
[[Category:Mar-a-Lago]]
[[Category:Environmental racism]]