View source for 1991 Russian presidential election

{{short description|none}}
{{expand Russian|date=September 2022|topic=gov}}
{{Infobox election
| country = Russian SFSR
| type = presidential
| next_election = 1996 Russian presidential election
| next_year = 1996
| election_date = 12 June 1991
| turnout = 74.67%
| image1 = Борис Николаевич Ельцин-1 (cropped) (cropped).jpg
| nominee1 = '''[[Boris Yeltsin]]'''
| running_mate1 = '''[[Alexander Rutskoy]]'''
| party1 = Independent
| alliance1 = [[Democratic Russia]]<br>[[Democratic Union (Russia)|Democratic Union]]
| colour1 = 0948B1
| popular_vote1 = '''45,552,041'''
| percentage1 = '''58.56%'''
| image2 = Nikolay Ryzhkov 1990.jpg
| nominee2 = [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]]
| running_mate2 = [[Boris Gromov]]
| party2 = [[Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Communist]]
| popular_vote2 = 13,359,335
| percentage2 = 17.22%
| image4 = Vladimir Zhirinovsky 01-03-1995 (cropped).jpg
| nominee4 = [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]]
| running_mate4 = Andrey Zavidiya
| party4 = Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union
| popular_vote4 = 6,211,007
| percentage4 = 7.98%
| image5 = Aman Tuleyev (council.gov.ru).jpg
| nominee5 = [[Aman Tuleyev]]
| running_mate5 = Viktor Bocharov
| party5 = Independent politician
| popular_vote5 = 5,417,464
| percentage5 = 6.96%
| map_image = 1991 Russian presidential election map by federal subjects.svg
| map_caption = Most voted-for candidate by federal subject<br> {{legend inline|#000074|Yeltsin}} {{legend inline|#AF1010|Ryzhkov}} {{legend inline|#AAAAAA|Tuleyev}}
| title = President
| after_election = [[Boris Yeltsin]]
| after_party = Independent
| registered = 106,484,518
}}

Presidential elections were held in the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR) on 12 June 1991.<ref name=NS>[[Dieter Nohlen]] & Philip Stöver (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', p1642 {{ISBN|978-3-8329-5609-7}}</ref> This was the first [[Russian presidential election]] in the country's history. The election was held roughly three months after Russians voted in favor of establishing [[President of Russia|a presidency]] and holding direct elections in [[1991 Russian presidential referendum|a referendum]] held in March that year. The result was a victory for [[Boris Yeltsin]], who received 58.6% of the vote.<ref>Nohlen & Stöver, p1659</ref>

==Background== 
In the election of the [[Supreme Soviet of Russia]]'s [[Congress of People's Deputies of Russia]] lower chamber members in the [[1990 Russian legislative election]], communist candidates won 86% of the seats.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McFaul |first=Michael |year=2000 |title=Yeltsin's Legacy |journal=The Wilson Quarterly |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=42–47, 50–58 |jstor=40260037 }}</ref> On 31 May 1990, Boris Yeltsin was elected Chair of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation in a vote by the body's members; this made him the ''de facto'' [[leader of the Russian SFSR]].<ref name=depoy>{{cite journal |last1=Depoy |first1=Eric |year=1996 |title=Boris Yeltsin and the 1996 Russian Presidential Election |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=1140–1164 |jstor=27551676 }}</ref> The vote had been relatively close, as Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] had unsuccessfully tried to convince enough members of the Supreme Soviet to vote against Yeltsin.<ref name=depoy/> Yelstin made an active effort to push for the creation of an office of president and for a popular election to be held to fill it.<ref name=depoy/> Many saw this as a desire by Yeltsin to have a mandate and power separate from the tensely divided legislature.<ref name=nyts/> He ultimately succeeded in having Russia hold [[1991 Russian presidential referendum|a referendum]] on 14 March 1991 on whether Russia should create offices of president and [[Vice President of Russia|vice president]], and hold elections to fill them.<ref name=definingmoment>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/1991-the-soviet-unions-end/2011/06/08/AGnsDdOH_story.html |title=A defining moment in the Soviet breakup |last=Englund |first=William |date=11 June 2011 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912165743/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/1991-the-soviet-unions-end/2011/06/08/AGnsDdOH_story.html |archive-date=12 September 2018}}</ref> Russians voted in favor of creating and holding elections to these offices.<ref name=definingmoment/>

Following the referendum, there was a period of more than a week in which a stalemate had caused the Congress of People's Deputies to go without deciding whether or not to vote on whether the Russian Federation should have a directly elected president.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910402.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=No. 63, 02 April 1991 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2 April 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105408/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910402.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910403.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=RSFSR Congress Puts Off Debate on Presidential System |last=Teague |first=Elizabeth |date=3 April 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105144/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910403.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 4 April the Congress of People's Deputies ordered the creation of legislation to authorize the election.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910402.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=No. 65, 04 April 1991 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=4 April 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105408/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910402.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> While still failing to set an official date for the election, the Congress of People's Deputies provisionally scheduled the election for 12 June.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910405.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Provisial Date Set for Popular Election of RSFSR President |last=Wishnevsky |first=Julia |date=5 April 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215402/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910405.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> This provisional date would later become the official date of the election. Ultimately, the Congress of People's Deputies would approve for an election to be held, scheduling its initial round of voting to be held roughly three months after the referendum had been decided.<ref name=definingmoment/> The election would jointly elect individuals to serve five-year terms as president and vice-president of the RSFSR.<ref name=depoy/><ref name=definingmoment/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.csce.gov/sites/helsinkicommission.house.gov/files/russianelections2000.pdf  |title=Report on the Russian Presidential Elections March 26, 2000 |author=<!--Not stated--> |year=2000 |publisher=CSCE |access-date=September 4, 2018 }}</ref>

Several sub-national elections were scheduled to coincide with the first round of the presidential election. This included mayoral elections in [[Moscow]] and [[Leningrad]],<ref name=F&Pmay27/><ref name=April30>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910430.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=No. 83, 30 April 1991 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=30 April 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105428/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910430.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=sobchak1>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910610.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Sobchak Campaigns |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=10 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 21, 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921074517/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910610.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> and executive elections in [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]] such as [[Tatarstan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/articles/2010/01/29/29110shamiyev.html |title=The man behind the Tatarstan model |last=Markedonov |first=Sergei |date=January 29, 2010 |website=www.rbth.com |publisher=Russia Beyond |access-date=September 17, 2018 }}</ref><ref name=guard1>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1991/jun/14/russia.jonathansteele |title=Yeltsin races to victory in Russian poll |last=Steele |first=Jonathan |date=14 June 1991 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=September 26, 2018 }}</ref> There were also sub-national referendums scheduled to coincide with the presidential election. These included a number of referendums in which cities were determining whether or not residents wanted to revert to their historic city names, such as in Sverdlovsk (historically [[Yekaterinburg]]) and Leningrad (historically Saint Petersburg).<ref name=April30/><ref name=sobchak1/><ref name=guard1/><ref name=may29/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910605.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Leningrad Versus St. Petersburg |last=Tolz |first=Vera |date=5 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 21, 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921074521/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910605.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Electoral system===
[[File:Voter invitation RF 1991.jpg|thumb|Voter invitation card for the election]]
In a difference to subsequent Russian presidential elections, a vice-presidential candidate stood for election along with the presidential candidate. Similarly to the [[United States presidential election]] system, the candidature of [[Vice President of the RSFSR]] was exhibited along with the candidacy of the [[President of the RSFSR]] as [[Ticket (election)|a joint entry]] on the ballot paper. Preliminary legislation outlining the rules of the election was passed on 24 April by the Supreme Soviet of Russia;<ref name=april25>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910425.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=No. 80, 25 April 1991 |date=April 25, 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105434/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910425.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> however, it ultimately took the Supreme Soviet until three weeks before the day of the election to finalize the rules that would govern the election.<ref name=rpn/><ref name=adopts/>

Any citizen of the RSFSR between the ages of 35 and 65 were eligible to be elected president.<ref name=april25/> Any citizen of the RSFSR over the age of 18 was eligible to vote.<ref name=april25/> 50% turnout was required in order to validate the election.<ref name=april25/> The winner would need to have captured 50% of the votes cast.<ref name=may14/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910521.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=RSFSR Congress of People's Deputies Opened in Moscow |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=21 April 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 20, 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920045904/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910521.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> The president would be elected to a five-year term, and could serve a maximum of two terms.<ref name=april25/> Originally, the election law stipulated that, once sworn in, the president would be required to renounce their membership of any political parties. On 23 May, the parliament voted to remove this requirement.<ref name=may24>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910524.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Yeltsin Suffers Setback at Congress |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=24 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 23, 2018 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235639/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910524.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref>

All candidates needed to be nominated before they could achieve ballot registration. Candidates could be nominated by RSFSR political parties, trade unions, and public organizations.<ref name=april25/> There were two ways for candidates to achieve ballot registration. The first was by providing proof of having the support of 100,000 voters (a signature drive).<ref name=april25/><ref name=may13/> The second way for candidates to obtain registration was if they received the support of 25% of the members of the Congress of People's Deputies, which would vote on whether or not to add such candidates to the ballot.<ref name=april25/><ref name=adopts>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910523.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=RSFSR Congress Adopts Law on Presidency |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=23 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920083925/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910523.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=may13/> On 6 May, it was announced that the deadline for nominations would be 18 May.<ref name=may13/> This was also the deadline for nominating a vice-presidential running mate.<ref name=may13/> Candidates were provided 200,000 rubles in public financing for their campaigns.<ref name=aq/>

In May 1991, there were some calls to postpone the election, rescheduling it for September. Those urging the postponement of the elections argued that the time before the scheduled 12 June election day provided too brief of a period for nominating candidates and campaigning. In response to these calls, election commission chairman [[Vasilii Kazakov]]<!--[[:ru:Казаков, Василий Иванович (государственный деятель)]], according to wiki transliteration guidelines the name should be romanized as Vasily instead of Vasilii, but there's already an article on a different [[Vasily Kazakov]]--> argued that the law stipulated that the election would be held on 12 June and that the proposed postponement of the election would only serve to "keep Russia seething" for another three months.<ref name=may14>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910514.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=RSFSR CP Wants Elections Postponed |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=14 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011105/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910514.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=may13>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910513.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=No. 90, 13 May 1991 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=13 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920045359/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910513.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> In mid-May, election commission chairman Vasilii Kazakov announced that the election would be budgeted at 155 million rubles.<ref name=may13/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910516.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new)|title=RSFSR Presidential Election Campaign Budget |author=<!--Not stated-->  |date=16 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 19, 2018 }}</ref>

The results of the first round were to be counted and announced by a 22 June deadline.<ref name=aq>[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/jspui/bitstream/10603/21060/9/09_chapter%25204.pdf "Democracy in Russia : a study of 1991 and 1996 presidential elections"].</ref> It had ultimately been determined that, if needed, a runoff would be scheduled to be held within two weeks after the first round.<ref name=aheadeve/>

===Presidential authority===
Due to the rushed circumstances behind the creation of the office and organization the election, many aspects of the office of President were not clear.<ref name=depoy/> Sufficient legislative debates were not held to outline the scope of presidential powers.<ref name=depoy/> It was unclear, for example, whether the president or the Congress of People's Deputies would hold ultimate legislative authority.<ref name=depoy/> One of the few stipulations that was made was that a two-thirds vote in the Congress of People's Deputies had the power, only if such a vote were recommended by the newly created constitutional court, to remove the president if they violated the constitution, laws, or oath of office.<ref name=depoy/> Work on drafting a law to outline the presidency itself began on 24 April, with approximately two months until the inaugural holder was set to occupy the office.<ref name=april25/> Under the initial draft the president was the chief executive in the RSFSR, but did not have the right to dismiss the Supreme Soviet or the Congress of People's Deputies or suspend their activities. The president could not be a people's deputy and, once elected, would have needed to suspend their membership in all political parties.<ref name=april25/>

On 25 May, the newly founded conservatives group in the Congress of People's Deputies blocked legislation championed by Yeltsin that would have explicitly allowed the president to remove local executives from office if the RSFSR Constitutional Court found them guilty of violating Russian Federation laws.<ref name=F&Pmay27>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910527.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=No. 99, 27 May 1991 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=27 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105119/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910527.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Supreme Soviet committee that had been tasked with redrafting the Russian Constitution deadlocked over the powers of the presidency. Attempts to reach a single resolution would continue after the election.<ref name=rpn>{{cite book |last=Nichols |first=Thomas M. |title=The Russian Presidency: Society and Politics in the Second Russian Republic }}</ref> By November, the committee would give up on reaching a single resolution, and opted to instead present two different drafts, one created by Yeltsin allies and one created by Yeltsin opponents. Neither of these would be approved.<ref name=rpn/> The failure to resolve these matters would ultimately contribute to the later eruption of the [[1993 Russian constitutional crisis]].<ref name=depoy/>

==Candidates==
{{main|Candidates in the 1991 Russian presidential election}}

{| class="wikitable"
!
!colspan=2|[[President of Russia|Presidential]] candidate
!colspan=2|[[Vice President of Russia|Vice presidential]] candidate
!Party
!Campaign
|-
| style="background-color:{{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| {{center|[[File:Вадим Бакатин (cropped).jpg|175x175px]]}}
| '''[[Vadim Bakatin]]'''
|{{center|[[File:Абдулатипов Р.Г 1.jpg|175x175px]]}}
|[[Ramazan Abdulatipov]]
| {{center|[[Independent politician|Independent]]}}
|([[Vadim Bakatin presidential campaign, 1991|campaign]])
|-
| style="background-color:#0948B1;" |
| {{center|[[File:Boris Yeltsin in 1994.PNG|175x175px]]}}
| '''[[Boris Yeltsin]]'''
|{{center|[[File:Evstafiev-alexander-rutskoy-w.jpg|175x175px]]}}
|[[Alexander Rutskoy]]
| {{center|[[Independent politician|Independent]]}}
|([[Boris Yeltsin presidential campaign, 1991|campaign]])
|-
| style="background-color:{{party color|Liberal Democratic Party of Russia}};" |
| {{center|[[File:Vladimir Zhirinovsky-1 (cropped).jpg|175x175px]]}}
| '''[[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]]'''
|{{center|[[File:Sin foto.svg|175x175px]]}}
|[[Andrey Zavidiya]]
| {{center|[[Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union|Liberal Democratic Party]]}}
|([[Vladimir Zhirinovsky presidential campaign, 1991|campaign]])
|-
| style="background-color:{{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| {{center|[[File:Albert Makashov.jpg|175x175px]]}}
| '''[[Albert Makashov]]'''
|{{center|[[File:Sin foto.svg|175x175px]]}}
|[[Alexey Alexeyevich Sergeyev|Alexey Sergeyev]]
| {{center|[[Independent politician|Independent]]}}
| ([[Albert Makashov#1991 presidential campaign|campaign]])
|-
| style="background-color:#CD0000;" |
| {{center|[[File:Nikolay Ryzhkov 1990.jpg|175x175px]]}}
| '''[[Nikolai Ryzhkov]]'''
|{{center|[[File:Evstafiev-general-gromov.jpg|175x175px]]}}
|[[Boris Gromov]]
| {{center|[[Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Communist Party]]}}
|([[Nikolai Ryzhkov presidential campaign, 1991|campaign]])
|-
| style="background-color:{{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| {{center|[[File:Aman Tuleyev (council.gov.ru).jpg|175x175px]]}}
| '''[[Aman Tuleyev]]'''
|{{center|[[File:Viktor Bocharov in 2015 (sakha.gov.ru).jpg|175x175px]]}}
|[[Viktor Bocharov]]
| {{center|[[Independent politician|Independent]]}}
| ([[Aman Tuleyev#1991 presidential campaign|campaign]])
|}

==Campaigning==
Although Yeltsin ran as an independent, he was supported by [[Democratic Russia]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20120707182857/http://english.ruvr.ru/elections_history/ Presidential elections in Russia] Voice of Russia</ref> Despite the fact that four candidates were members of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]] was the only one who was officially nominated by the party. The other communists participating in the election ran as self-nominated candidates.

Yeltsin was the vast favorite to win the election.<ref name=urban1/> Rather than coalescing around a single candidate to challenge Yeltsin, the forces of the Soviet Communist establishment instead fielded a number of candidates, with Ryzhkov being their official candidate.<ref name=urban1/> Since no candidate was believed to have a chance of outright defeating Yeltsin in the first round of the election, Communists hoped that a wider field of candidates would increase the odds that they could siphon enough support away from Yeltsin that they could force the election into a runoff (which would occur if no candidate captured more than 50% of the votes cast).<ref name=urban1/> Communists believed that the political climate in Russia might be different by the fall, and perhaps less favorable to Yeltsin. Thus, they wagered that, by the time that a runoff vote might be held, Yeltsin might be in a weaker position as a candidate.<ref name=urban1/> Ultimately, Yeltsin succeeded in capturing a majority of the votes cast in the first round, negating the need for a runoff to be held.<ref name=urban1/>

Having an immensely comfortable lead, Yeltsin ran a relatively low-intensity campaign. Rather than heightening rhetoric and rallying voters, Yeltsin took a far more relaxed approach, taking very few shots at his challengers and offering very little specifics in regards to policy.<ref name=urban1/> In contrast, his opponents, trailing Yeltsin's gargantuan lead and having very little time left to decrease their deficit, took many shots at him and at each other.<ref name=urban1/>

==Conduct==
The election had around 98,000 polling locations, and ballot papers were hand-counted.<ref name="schmemann">{{cite web |last1=Schmemann |first1=Serge |title=YELTSIN IS HANDILY ELECTED LEADER OF RUSSIAN REPUBLIC IN SETBACK FOR COMMUNISTS |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/14/world/yeltsin-is-handily-elected-leader-of-russian-republic-in-setback-for-communists.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=9 May 2022 |date=14 June 1991}}</ref>

While widely celebrated both in Russia and abroad as a breakthrough in Soviet/Russian [[democratization]], the election was not entirely free and fair.<ref name=definingmoment/> Nevertheless, many commentators have regarded the 1991 elections to have been more free and fair than all subsequent [[Russian presidential elections]].<ref name=definingmoment/>

===Campaign law violations===
Several candidates' campaign apparatuses continued to campaign after the time limit on election day, after which they were supposed to cease campaign activities.<ref name=aq/> [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky presidential campaign, 1991#Contesting the results|Zhirinovsky unsuccessfully attempted to contest the results of the election]], accusing Yeltsin of using the resources of his office to assist his own campaign effort. He alleged that such resources went above what candidates could afford using the permitted public financing, and thus should be considered a campaign finance violation serious enough to nullify Yeltsin's victory.<ref name=aq/>

===Interventions by Mikhail Gorbachev's government===
Despite officially remaining neutral and endorsing no candidate, Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] sought to prevent a victory by frontrunner [[Boris Yeltsin]].<ref name=definingmoment/><ref name=guard1/> Gorbachev attempted to convince more candidates to run. He did this in a hope that a greater number of candidates would increase the likelihood that other candidates would be able to siphon enough support away from Yeltsin that his vote share would be under 50%, thus ensuring that a runoff vote to be held.<ref name=definingmoment/>

Despite the fact that the military was supposed to have been depoliticized, its decisions were still orchestrated by the CPSU, and the military was utilized in the CPSU's attempt to stop Yeltsin from winning the election.<ref name=No.88/> On 30 April, Colonel General [[Nikolai Shlyaga]], chief of the Main Political Administration, told representatives of that body that the army should be working to influence the outcome of the RSFSR presidential
election.<ref name=No.88>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910508.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=No. 88, 08 May 1991 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=8 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=19 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920045408/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910508.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |archive-date=20 September 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Shlyaga called for the establishment of election committees and urged that servicemen
be briefed on the relative merits of the presidential candidates.<ref name=No.88/> This was perceived to be an army-sponsored campaign against Boris Yeltsin.<ref name=No.88/> In early June, the [[Ministry of Defense (Soviet Union)|Defense Ministry]] issued a directive to commanders in the city of [[Arkhangelsk]] forbidding "spy-democrats" from campaigning for the RSFSR presidency among military units. This blocked pro-Yeltsin forces from conducting campaign activities directly targeting military votes. Meanwhile, such campaigning in support of Ryzhkov continued to be allowed.<ref name=jun4>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910604.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Defense Ministry: No Campaigning by Democrats |last=Foye |first=Stephen |date=4 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920234648/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910604.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On the eve of the election, in what was seen as a politically motivated move, the chief Soviet prosecutor announced that he was looking into currency violations by Yeltsin.<ref name=definingmoment/> The 11 June edition of ''[[Sovetskaya Rossiya]]'' featured a front-page article written by [[Nikolai Trubin]], the [[Procurator General of the Soviet Union]], which denounced Yeltsin for illegal offers to sell millions of rubles for dollars at several times the official rate.<ref name=conservatives>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910612.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Conservatives Attack Yeltsin |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=12 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty |access-date=23 September 2018 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235442/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910612.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Schodolski1>{{cite web |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1991-06-12-9102220122-story.html |title=Election-Eve Sacandal Hits Yeltsin |last=Schodolski |first=Vincent J. |date=12 June 1991 |website=www.chicagotribune.com |publisher=Chicago Tribune |access-date=30 September 2018 }}</ref> This was a deal that was never implemented but for which then-RSFSR Deputy Prime Minister Gennadii Fil'shin had resigned the previous February.<ref name=conservatives/><ref name=Schodolski1/>

Actions to sway the election against Yeltsin were not perpetrated solely by officials in Soviet Union government. Conservative members of the RSFSR government also took similar actions. On the eve of the election, RSFSR Foreign Minister [[Andrei Kozyrev]] (a conservative government figure) came forward to claim that allegations that Yeltsin had appointed an alleged Italian ''[[Mafia|mafioso]]'' as RSFSR honorary consul were true.<ref name=conservatives/>

===Media bias===
There was a significant media bias in favor of Ryzhkov.<ref name=urban1>{{cite journal |last=Urban |first=Michael E. |year=1992 |title=Boris El'tsin, Democratic Russia and the Campaign for the Russian Presidency |journal=Soviet Studies |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=187–207 |doi= 10.1080/09668139208412008|jstor=152022 }}</ref> CPSU media outlets, particularly towards the end of the campaign, attacked Yeltsin, accusing him of [[authoritarianism]] and incompetence.<ref name=guard1/> Many newspapers also had a strong bias favoring Ryzhkov;<ref name=may29/> two days before the election, ''[[Pravda]]'' published a strong attack on Yeltsin, calling him "disloyal, authoritarian and incompetent."<ref name=june11>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910611.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Update on Yeltsin's Campaign for Presidency |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=11 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=23 September 2018 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235331/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910611.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=latpravda>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-06-11-mn-533-story.html |title=Pravda Article Calls Yeltsin Power-Hungry, Unstable : Election: World chess champion Gary Kasparov urges a massive turnout for the presidential candidate Wednesday |last=Parks |first=Michael |date=11 June 1991 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=30 September 2018 }}</ref> Pro-Yeltsin publications, and occasionally anti-Yeltsin publications, were critical in their coverage of Zhirinovsky. They belittled his candidacy and characterized him variably as "[[Spirit possession|possessed]]" as well as a "[[Brownshirt]]" ([[Nazi]]), [[fascist]], [[chauvinist]], and [[Stalinist]].<ref name=solok/>

The coverage varied between Russia's two major television channels. The RSFSR-run [[Russia-1|RTR]] gave positive coverage to Yeltsin, while the central Soviet government-run [[Channel One Russia|ORT]] criticized him and provided broad coverage to the views of his opponents.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/BCSIA/Library.nsf/pubs/RE24 |date=August 1, 1996 |title=Russian Election Watch, Aug. 1, 1996|access-date=2018-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000128024246/http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/BCSIA/Library.nsf/pubs/RE24|archive-date=2000-01-28}}</ref> ORT cast biased coverage of proceedings in the Russian legislature, broadcast a lengthy documentary on Ryzhkov shortly before the election, and also broadcast many anti-Yeltsin programs.<ref name=definingmoment/><ref name=urban1/><ref name=No.88/> It also largely disregarded the candidacy of Zhirinovsky in its coverage, allotting him just 2.5 hours of coverage to him against the 24 hours of coverage given to Yeltsin.<ref name=solok/>

On 27 April, [[Leonid Kravchenko]], Chairman of the Soviet State Committee on Television and Radio Broadcasting and the All-Union State Broadcasting Company, banned a scheduled broadcast by [[All-Russia State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company|RSFSR TV]] (operator of RTR), a media entity of the RSFSR government which had been irregularly broadcasting since the previous year. It was soon reported that Kravchenk might possibly try to violate his agreement with the Russian government and block regular broadcasts by RTR during the campaigning period, depriving Yeltsin's government of their own state media outlet to utilize as a campaign tool;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910507.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=New Problems with RSFSR TV |last=Tolz |first=Vera |date=7 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=19 September 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011137/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910507.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> however, the station was allowed to launch its regular broadcasts on 13 May.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910515.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Makashow Agrees to Run for Russian Presidency |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=15 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=19 September 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011353/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910515.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nevertheless, in many places local Communist authorities [[Interference (communication)|interfered]] with the signals of pro-Yeltsin broadcasts by the network.<ref name=urban1/><ref name="TMT1">{{cite web |title=On This Day in 1991 Boris Yeltsin Elected President |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/06/13/on-this-day-in-1991-boris-yeltsin-elected-president-a65982 |website=The Moscow Times |access-date=10 May 2022 |language=en |date=13 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203005040/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/06/13/on-this-day-in-1991-boris-yeltsin-elected-president-a65982 |archive-date=3 February 2023}}</ref> There was no signal interference experienced by ORT's anti-Yeltsin broadcasts.<ref name=urban1/>

RTR and a few print sources were the only outlets that provided Yeltsin with positive coverage.<ref name=TMT1/>

===Procedural irregularities===
A number of procedural irregularities were reported by the Russian press. Some ballots were distributed which had mistakenly been printed without a seal containing the signature of an electoral commission member on their reverse sides. Consequentially, votes cast with such errant ballots were deemed void.<ref name=aq/> Additionally, one ballot printing location in the Moscow Oblast printed 25,000 ballots which had mixed up presidential and vice-presidential candidate pairings.<ref name=aq/>

===Sabotage===
Several campaigns saw acts of sabotage during the campaign period. On May 16, an explosion occurred in the room being used to store the signatures being gathered for Yeltsin's candidacy at the Democratic Russia headquarters in Moscow.<ref name=urban1/><ref name="Tolz">{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910429.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Democratic Russia Nominates Yeltsin for President |last=Tolz |first=Vera |date=April 29, 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105402/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910429.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |archive-date=September 17, 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[The Baltimore Sun]] called it "the first political bombing in the capital for more than a decade".<ref name="Tolz"/> [[Sovetskaya Rossiya]] placed blame on the Libertarian (Radical) Party of the Soviet Union for perpetrating the attack, however, they denied involvement.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910521.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Libertarian Party Denies Responsibility for Explosion |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=April 21, 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 20, 2018 |archive-date=September 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920045904/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910521.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> A stand at the building of Orenburg's socio-political information centre containing Ryzhkov campaign material was destroyed.<ref name=aq/>

===Voter boycotts===
On 28 May, the Tatarstan Supreme Soviet declared that [[Tatarstan]] would not "officially take part" in the election.<ref name=may29>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910529.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=No. 101, 29 May 1991 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=29 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty |access-date=16 September 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105110/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910529.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> This came following two weeks of public protests against the election in Tatarstan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910528.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Tatarstan Supsov Meets Against Background of Protests |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=28 May 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917071432/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/05/910528.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> There was strong political opposition in Tatarstan to the election, as it was regarded as infringing upon Tatarstan's claim to sovereignty.<ref name=jun14>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910614.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Elections in Tatarstan |last=Ann |first=Sheehy |date=14 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=23 September 2018 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235552/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910614.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> As a consequence, turnout in Tatarstan was 36.6%.<ref>Raphael Khakimov, "Prospects of Federalism in Russia: A View from Tatarstan," Security Dialogue 27, no. 1 (1996), 75</ref> Meanwhile, the election for [[President of Tatarstan]], which was held the same day, saw turnout surpassing 60%.<ref name=jun14/>

A boycott of the election in [[Bashkortostan]] was encouraged by the newly founded group A Movement for a Sovereign Bashkortistan.<ref name=may29/> The group was jointly formed by the Bashkir People's Party and the Tatar Democratic Party of the Bashkir ASSR.<ref name=may29/>

==Debates==
Televised debates were held featuring some of candidates. Despite having originally agreed to participate in the debates, Yeltsin ultimately chose not to.<ref name=rpn/><ref name=urban1/>

==Opinion polls==
Opinion polls indicated a strong likelihood of a Yelstin victory. On the day of the election, an analysis by [[The Times]] indicated that even the opinion polls that were the most pessimistic of Yeltsin's support still showed him garnering between 36% and 52% of the vote.<ref name=aheadeve>{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=0eMPAAAAIBAJ&pg=6989%2C1946079 |title=Yeltsin ahead on eve of elections |last=Imse |first=Ann |date=11 June 1991 |website=news.google.com |publisher=The Free-Lance Star |agency=Associated Press |access-date=30 September 2018  }}</ref> Less pessimistic polls showed him garnering an even greater share of the vote.<ref name=conservatives/> Most opinion polls showed Yeltsin far ahead of other candidates.<ref name=latpravda/> Many showed him receiving more than 60% of the vote.<ref name=aheadeve/>

On the eve of the election, many polls incorrectly indicated that Bakatin was going to place third.<ref name=aheadeve/> Polls failed to reflect Zhirinovsky's strong performance. Three weeks prior to the election polls showed him with only 0.5% support.<ref name=solok>{{cite book |last1=Solovyov |first1=Vladimir |last2=Klepikova |first2=Elena |date=June 1995 |title=Zhirinovsky |url=https://archive.org/details/zhirinovskyrussi00solo|url-access=registration |publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Company |isbn=9780201409482 }}</ref>

{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! Date !! Agency !! Yeltsin || Ryzhkov !! Zhirinovsky !! Tuleyev !! Makashov !! Bakatin !! Other !! Undecided !! Would not vote
|-
| Early May<ref name=poll1>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910607.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Latest Opinion Poll on RSFSR Presidential Candidates |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=7 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty |access-date=21 September 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921074103/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910607.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> || RSI || style="background:#C0DBFC"| '''60%''' || 23% || || || || || || || 
|-
| Early June<ref name=poll1/> || RSI || style="background:#C0DBFC"| '''44%''' || '''31%''' || || || 10% || 2% || || ||
|}

==Results==
Yeltsin decisively won a majority of the vote in the first round of the election, thus forgoing the need for a second round. On 13 June, he was reported to have won the election by Soviet media.<ref name=june13>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910613.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Telstin Elected RSFSR President |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=13 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty |access-date=September 23, 2018 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235637/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910613.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> Vasilii Kazakov, Chairman of the Central Election Commission, confirmed Yeltsin's victory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910614.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=Yeltsin Officially Wins, Incited to US |last=Rahr |first=Alexander |date=14 June 1991 |website=www.friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 23, 2018 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235552/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/06/910614.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |url-status=dead }}</ref> Official results were certified on 19 June.<ref name=aq/>

Yeltsin became the first popularly elected leader in the history of Russia.<ref name=nyts>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/14/world/yeltsin-is-handily-elected-leader-of-russian-republic-in-setback-for-communists.html |title=Yeltsin is Handily Elected Leader of the Russian Republic in Setback for Communists |last=Schmemann |first=Serge |date=June 14, 1991 |website=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=September 16, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/general/2008/02/2008525173653419897.html |title=I Knew Boris Yeltsin |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=October 19, 2009 |website=www.aljazeera.com |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=September 30, 2018 }}</ref> [[First inauguration of Boris Yeltsin|His inauguration]] was held 10 July.<ref name=depoy/>

{{Election results
|cand1=[[Boris Yeltsin]]|vp1=[[Alexander Rutskoy]]|party1=Independent|votes1=45552041|color1=#0948B1
|cand2=[[Nikolai Ryzhkov]]|vp2=[[Boris Gromov]]|party2=[[Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Communist Party]]|votes2=13395335
|cand3=[[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]]|vp3=[[Andrey Zavidiya]]|party3=[[Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union|Liberal Democratic Party]]|votes3=6211007
|cand4=[[Aman Tuleyev]]|vp4=[[Viktor Bocharov]]|party4=Independent|votes4=5417464
|cand5=[[Albert Makashov]]|vp5=[[Aleksei Alekseyevich Sergeyev|Alexey Sergeyev]]|party5=Independent|votes5=2969511
|cand6=[[Vadim Bakatin]]|vp6=[[Ramazan Abdulatipov]]|party6=Independent|votes6=2719757
|row7=Against all|votes7=1525410
|invalid=1716757
|electorate=106484518
|source=Nohlen & Stöver, [https://web.archive.org/web/20041010050340/http://www2.essex.ac.uk/elect/database/indexElections.asp?country=RUSSIA&election=ru91presidential University of Essex], [https://web.archive.org/web/20010225132057/http://www.fci.ru/archive/vyb91.htm/ FCI]
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Russian elections}}
{{Candidates in the Russian presidential election, 1991}}

[[Category:1991 Russian presidential election| ]]
[[Category:1991 elections in the Soviet Union|Russia]]
[[Category:Dissolution of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:June 1991 events in Russia|Presidential]]
[[Category:Presidential elections in Russia]]
[[Category:Elections in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]]