View source for 1996 Japanese general election

{{Short description|none}}
{{Infobox election
| country = Japan
| flag_year = 1870
| type = parliamentary
| previous_election = 1993 Japanese general election | previous_year = 1993 | election_date = 20 October 1996 | next_election = 2000 Japanese general election | next_year = 2000
| previous_mps =  | elected_mps = 
| seats_for_election = All 500 seats in the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]]
| majority_seats = 251
| turnout = 59.65% ({{decrease}}7.61pp; Const. votes)<br />59.62% (''New''; PR votes)
| 1blank = Constituency&nbsp;vote | 2blank = % and swing
| 3blank = Regional vote          | 4blank = % and swing

| image1 = {{CSS image crop|Image = Ryutaro Hashimoto 19960111.jpg|bSize = 130|cWidth = 120|cHeight = 160|oTop = 0|oLeft = 0}}
| leader1 = [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]]
| party1 = Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)
| last_election1 = 223 seats
| seats1 = '''239'''
| seat_change1 = {{increase}} 16
| 1data1 = '''21,836,096''' | 2data1 = '''38.63%''' ({{increase}}2.01pp)
| 3data1 = '''18,205,955''' | 4data1 = '''32.76%''' (''New'')

| image2 = {{CSS image crop|Image = Ichiro Ozawa cropped 2 Yoshitaka Kimoto and Ichiro Ozawa 20010718 colorized (cropped).png|bSize = 120|cWidth = 120|cHeight = 160|oTop = 0|oLeft = 0}}
| leader2 = [[Ichirō Ozawa]]
| party2 = New Frontier Party (Japan)
| last_election2 = ''Did not exist''
| seats2 = 156
| seat_change2 = ''New''
| 1data2 = 15,812,326 | 2data2 = 27.97% (''New'')
| 3data2 = 15,580,053 | 4data2 = 28.04% (''New'')

| image3 = {{Multiple candidates images|{{CSS image crop|Image = Naoto Kan 20071221.jpg|bSize = 150|cWidth = 60|cHeight = 160|oTop = 5|oLeft = 40}}|{{CSS image crop|Image = Hatoyama Yukio (cropped).jpg|bSize = 140|cWidth = 60|cHeight = 160|oTop = 5|oLeft = 35}}}}
| leader3 = {{ublist|class = nowrap|[[Naoto Kan]]|[[Yukio Hatoyama]]}}
| party3 = Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)
| last_election3 = ''Did not exist''
| seats3 = 52
| seat_change3 = ''New''
| 1data3 = 6,001,666 | 2data3 = 10.62% (''New'')
| 3data3 = 8,949,190 | 4data3 = 16.10% (''New'')

| image4 = {{CSS image crop|Image = The-Zenei-1967-January-Special-1.png|bSize = 125|cWidth = 120|cHeight = 160|oTop = 0|oLeft = 0}}
| leader4 = [[Tetsuzo Fuwa]]
| party4 = Japanese Communist Party
| last_election4 = 15 seats
| seats4 = 26
| seat_change4 = {{increase}} 11
| 1data4 = 7,096,766 | 2data4 = 12.55% ({{increase}}4.85pp)
| 3data4 = 7,268,743 | 4data4 = 13.08% (''New'')

| image5 =  {{CSS image crop|Image = Takako Doi in Tokyo congressist election 2.jpg|bSize = 135|cWidth = 120|cHeight = 160|oTop = 0|oLeft = 0}}
| leader5 = [[Takako Doi]]
| party5 = Social Democratic Party (Japan)
| last_election5 = 70 seats{{efn|as [[Japan Socialist Party]]}}
| seats5 = 15
| seat_change5 = {{decrease}} 55
| 1data5 = 1,240,649 | 2data5 = 2.19% ({{decrease}}13.24pp)
| 3data5 = 3,547,240 | 4data5 = 6.38% (''New'')

| map = [[File:1996 Japanese House of Representatives election.svg|400px]]
| map_caption = [[List of Districts of the House of Representatives of Japan|Districts]] shaded according to winners' vote strength

| title = [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]]
| before_election = [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]] | before_party = Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)
| after_election = [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]]  | after_party = Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)
}}

{{Politics of Japan}}
General elections were held in Japan on 20 October 1996. A coalition of the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]], [[New Party Sakigake]] and the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democratic Party]], led by incumbent Prime Minister [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]] of the LDP won the most seats.

These were the first elections held after the [[1994 Japanese electoral reform|1994 electoral reforms]]. Previously, each district was represented by multiple members, sometimes from the same party, causing intra-party competition. Under the new rules, each district nominated one [[House of Representatives of Japan|representative]], elected using [[first-past-the-post voting]]. A separate [[Party-list proportional representation|party-list]] vote was introduced for voters to choose their favored party in addition to votes for individual candidates, as a way to more accurately approximate the seats in the [[House of Representatives of Japan]] to the actual party votes, in an effort to achieve more proportional representation.

==Background==
The 41st general election of members of the House of Representatives took place on 20 October 1996. A general election for the House of Representatives was not supposed to be due until July 1997, but on 27 September 1996, Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto dissolved the parliament, thus calling for a snap-election. This move to call premature elections had been widely expected as the Prime Minister's last effort to sustain power in the midst of a controversial sales hike.<ref name=":0">Inter-Parliamentary Union, 1996. ''Japan Parliamentary Chamber: Shugiin - Elections held in 1996.'' [online] Available at: http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2161_96.htm</ref>

[[1993 Japanese general election|The last election in July 1993]] ended the 38-year-long rule of Japanese politics by the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)]], and no party had a majority in parliament since then. During the following three years, Japan had a succession of four coalition governments, which hampered effective government policy making and implementation. Furthermore, the constant replacement also slowed down the process of economic recovery. There were expectations that the 1996 election would restore political stability.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Tabusa|first=Keiko|date=1997|title=The 1996 General Election in Japan|jstor=20634762|journal=The Australian Quarterly|volume=69|issue=1|pages=21–29|doi=10.2307/20634762}}</ref>

The election was the first election under the new electoral system established in 1993. The multi-member constituencies were replaced with single member districts, and separate party list seats chosen proportionately.<ref name=":7" /> Prior to 1993, each district was represented by multiple members, sometimes from the same party, leading to severe corruption and intra-party competition. The latter consequence resulted in defections from the LDP and the creation of opposition parties that advocated for a new electoral system. As a result, a new system emerged, adopting both the [[Single-member district|single member district (SMD)]] competition and [[Proportional representation|proportional representation (PR)]].<ref name=":7" /> Under the new system, each district has only one [[House of Representatives (Japan)|representative]] portraying a wide range of interests for his or her district. A separate [[Party-list proportional representation|party-list]] was introduced for voters to choose their favored party (in addition to votes for individual candidates) as a way to more accurately approximate the seats in the [[House of Representatives (Japan)|House of Representatives of Japan]] to the actual party votes in an effort to achieve more proportional representation.

==Contesting parties==
=== Ruling coalition ===
The ruling coalition was the coalition formed between the LDP, New Party Sakigake and Social Democratic Party of Japan.

The LDP was led by Ryutaro Hashimoto, who became [[Prime Minister of Japan]] after the election. The party was pro-business at the time, thus its campaign focused on policies countering Japanese economic slump.<ref name=":0" />

The [[New Party Sakigake]] was led by {{ill|Shoichi Ide|ja|井出正一}}, a political party formed as a defect of LDP on 22 June 1993. In September 1996, Sakigake and [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Japan Socialist Party]] (JSP) politicians who did not support their respective parties alliances with the LDP broke away to found the [[Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)|Democratic Party]]. The party was later dissolved in 1998.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The logic of Japanese politics : leaders, institutions, and the limits of change|last=Curtis|first=Gerald L.|date=1999|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0231502540|location=New York|oclc=50321999}}</ref>

The [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Japan Socialist Party]] (JSP) was led by Takako Doi. The party formed a coalition government with the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)]] from 1994 to January 1996. The LDP coaxed the Social Democrats into this coalition by forgoing the Prime Minister title. Consequently, the office of Prime Minister was given to JSP's leader, [[Tomiichi Murayama|Murayama Tomiichi]].<ref>Christen, R., n.d. ''Liberal-Democratic Party of Japan.'' [online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Liberal-Democratic-Party-of-Japan [Accessed 17 December 2017].</ref> He was the 81st Prime Minister of Japan.

=== Other parties ===
Other opposition parties to the ruling coalition came from the right-wing [[New Frontier Party (Japan)|New Frontier Party (NFP)]] led by [[Ichirō Ozawa|Ichiro Ozawa]]. It was formed in December 1994 by defectors of the [[Japan Renewal Party]], [[Komeito]], [[Democratic Socialist Party (Japan)|Democratic Socialist Party]] and a couple of other small groups.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Contemporary Japanese politics : institutional changes and power shifts|last=Shinoda|first=Tomohito|isbn=978-0231528061|location=New York|oclc=859182680|date = 2013-09-24 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref>

Another rival party was the [[Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)|Democratic Party]]. The Democratic Party was formed officially in September 1996 with [[Yukio Hatoyama]] and [[Naoto Kan]] as co-leaders. The move for formation began in June 1996 when Hatoyama announced his idea of organizing a third force in Japanese politics against the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|LDP]] and the [[New Frontier Party (Japan)|New Frontier Party]]. The idea was supported by his brother [[Kunio Hatoyama|Kunio]], then a member of the [[New Frontier Party (Japan)|New Frontier Party]], and many members of the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democratic Party of Japan]], but opposed by leaders of the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democratic Party of Japan]] and [[New Party Sakigake]] who had been discussing the organizational merger of the two parties.<ref name=":7" />

== Campaign ==
Prior to the election, there was a frenzy of creation and destruction of parties, and the public's interest in politics was on the decline. However, the few campaign issues that were of the public's interest included the electoral reforms, potential raise in consumption tax, and how the large coalitions will play out. From the perspective of the voters, the most important issue was the potential raise in consumption tax. According to scholar Ichiro Miyake, voter's opinion possession rate, party position perception rate, personal importance cognition rate of "tax increase" exceeded that of "regime change."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miyake|first=Ichiro|date=1999-02-28|title=Incomplete Policy Voting|journal=Japanese Journal of Electoral Studies|language=en|volume=14|doi=10.14854/jaes1986.14.50|issn=0912-3512}}</ref>

=== Liberal Democratic Party ===
In the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|LDP]] manifesto, administrative reform is given top priority over any other campaign issues. While reflecting on the past 50-years of administrative policy prioritizing production and supply with strong centralization and bureaucratization as an effective method in simultaneously achieving economic growth and tackling social inequality, the LDP admits this system is "at a deadlock" considering the situation regarding women, increasing urban-rural disparities and the issue of [[:ja:少子高齢化|low-birth rate]]. To tackle these issues, the LDP introduced the "[[Ryutaro Hashimoto|Hashimoto]] Administrative Reform Vision (橋本行革ビジョン)", which included changes such as;<ref name=":2">Manifesto Project. 1996 House of Representatives Election (1996年衆議院選挙). 慶應義塾大学大学院政策・メディア研究科曽根泰教研究室, http://www.pac.sfc.keio.ac.jp/manifesto/senkyo/1996hr.html. Accessed 18 Dec. 2017.</ref>
# "Slimming" the Power of government
# Deregulation of the economy
# Decreasing the power of [[bureaucrat]]s
# Reduction of income/residence tax, while raising [[consumption tax]] to 5%
# Tackling deficit financing, etc.

Hashimoto reform vision strays far from previous LDP reforms, notably under [[Yasuhiro Nakasone|Nakasone]].<ref name=":4" /> While previous reforms focused on the privatization of public corporations and abstained from challenging the power of the bureaucrats, Hashimoto marched towards shifting bureaucratic power to the hands of political leaders, effectively giving policy-making power to the Prime Minister's Office. His ambition was, without doubt, met with strong resistance from the bureaucrats, who stood almost unchallenged at the center of public life during the [[Japanese economic miracle|high growth period]]. Despite his short tenure, he was not forced out of office before he had gotten a law outlining the reforms passed.

Hashimoto sought to focus power in the hands of the prime minister and subsequently political leadership by combining former bureaucratic agencies (twenty-three ministerial level organizations to twelve) and replacing the Prime Minister's Office with a new [[Cabinet Office (Japan)|Cabinet Office]].<ref name=":4" /> The implementation of such changes allowed the prime minister, for the first time ever, the authority by law to initiate basic policymaking, the power which previously was solely allocated only to powerful bureaucracies. Additionally, the new Cabinet Office was composed with advisory councils, appointed from both within and outside the government, to the prime minister on economic and fiscal policies. Hashimoto, furthermore, used exactly the same method by which the powerful bureaucracies maintained their authority. If the economic bureaucracy in the 1960s and 1970s imposed on the Prime Minister's office and the Diet their own members as a method to secure supremacy over policy-making decision,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mitijapanesemira00chal|title=MITI and the Japanese miracle : the growth of industrial policy, 1925-1975|last=Johnson|first=Chalmers|date=1982|publisher=Stanford University Press|others=Rogers D. Spotswood Collection|isbn=0804712069|location=Stanford, Calif.|oclc=8310848|url-access=registration}}</ref> then Hashimoto also increased the power of political leaders by replacing vice ministers with Diet members whom he trusted.<ref name=":4" />

=== New Frontier Party ===
The leader of the opposing coalition NFP's manifesto was directly against that of the LDP, introducing the "5 contracts with the people (国民との５つの契約)", aimed at "revitalizing the lives of citizens" for the coming 21st century. The 5 promises were as follows.<ref name=":2" />
# Keeping the consumption tax at 3% and an ¥18 trillion tax cut based on reducing the income and residence tax in half 
# Administrative reform, decentralization, and abolition of regulations for a reduction of ¥20 trillion in national and regional expenses 
# Reducing utility charges by 20-50% 
# Guaranteeing pension and nursing care to eliminate anxiety of old age 
# Excluding bureaucratic dependence and holding politicians accountable

=== Democratic Party ===
The Democratic party introduced the following "7 major issues" as the backbone of their manifesto.<ref name=":2" />
# Enforcement of political and administrative reform 
# Promotion of civic activities and creation of a civic-centric society   
# Implementation of economic structural reform and improvement of infrastructure for creative industrial activities 
# Restructuring of the social security system and realization of symbiotic welfare society  
# Fundamentally review and reform of public works  
# Development of autonomous active diplomacy and promotion of non-military international cooperation  
# Creating and implementing a future-oriented fiscal reconstruction plan

=== Communist Party ===
The Communist party's manifesto is centered around three key issues: stopping the consumption tax raise, the abolishment of US military bases in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] following the abandonment of the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|US-Japan security treaty]], and to increase social security and welfare.<ref name=":2" /> In the manifesto, the party gives a national outlook, summarized in three parts;
# Democratically regulating large enterprises and prioritizing the lives of citizens
# To protect the [[Constitution of Japan|Constitution]] (with an emphasis on [[Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution|Article 9]]), contribute to the peace of [[Asia]] and the world
# To maintain and cherish freedom and democracy

=== Social Democratic Party ===
The Social Democratic Party proposed three slogans - "Yes, let's go with SDP", "A new dynamism, SDP", and "What can only be done by the SDP" - and fought the election. The following 5 manifestos were considered the cornerstones of the election.<ref name=":2" />
# [[National security]] for creating a peaceful Japan and the world, with respect to the spirit of the [[Constitution of Japan|Constitution]] and reflections and lessons learnt from history
# Creating a simple and efficient government with rich autonomy, with fundamental administrative reform that breaks down the adhesion between the government and the private sector
# Creating prosperous lifestyles with economic structural reforms that bring out competitive effects, with emphasis on the environment, safety, and employment
# Undertaking fiscal structural reforms while fundamentally reviewing taxes and finances, to create a high-quality [[Welfare state|welfare society]]
# Preserving human dignity and [[human rights]], for a coexisting society that is gentle and caring for [[Feminism|men and women]]

==Results==
[[File:41st Japanese General Election Cartogram.svg|thumb|right|350px|Constituency Cartogram]]
Voter turnout fell below 60% for the first time in a general election. The last election was the lowest of all previous elections, at 67.26%. The ruling coalition (LDP, SDP, NPH) gained a majority seating in the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]] with 256 seats, but the SDP and NPH lost most of their seats for forming a coalition with LDP. While the opposing coalition (NFP, DPJ, JCP, and others) gained 235 seats, their total local constituency votes were larger than the ruling coalition, at 53.45%.

{{Election results
|image=[[File:Japanese_House_of_Representatives_election_1996.svg]]
|firstround=Proportional|secondround=Constituency
|party1=[[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]]|votes1=18205955|seats1=70|votes1_2=21836096|seats1_2=169|totseats1=239|sc1=+16
|party2=[[New Frontier Party (Japan)|New Frontier Party]]|votes2=15580053|seats2=60|votes2_2=15812326|seats2_2=96|totseats2=156|sc2=New
|party3=[[Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)|Democratic Party]]|votes3=8949190|seats3=35|votes3_2=6001666|seats3_2=17|totseats3=52|sc3=New
|party4=[[Japanese Communist Party]]|votes4=7268743|seats4=24|votes4_2=7096766|seats4_2=2|totseats4=26|sc4=+11
|party5=[[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democratic Party]]|votes5=3547240|seats5=11|votes5_2=1240649|seats5_2=4|totseats5=15|sc5=–55
|party6=[[New Party Sakigake]]|votes6=582093|seats6=0|votes6_2=727644|seats6_2=2|totseats6=2|sc6=–11
|party7={{ill|Democratic Reform Party (Japan)|ja|民主改革連合|lt=Democratic Reform Party}}|votes7=18844|seats7=0|votes7_2=149357|seats7_2=1|totseats7=1|sc7=New
|party8=Other parties|votes8=1417077|seats8=0|votes8_2=1155108|seats8_2=0|totseats8=0|sc8=0
|party9=Independents|votes9_2=2508810|seats9_2=9|totseats9=9|sc9=–21
|total_sc=–11
|invalid=2670219|invalid2=1734508
|electorate=97680719|electorate2=97680719
|source=[http://electionresources.org/jp/representatives.php?election=1996 Election Resources]
}}

=== By prefecture ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 0.9em;"
! rowspan="3" |Prefecture
! rowspan="3" |Total<br>seats
! colspan="8" |Seats won
|-
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|LDP]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[New Frontier Party (Japan)|NFP]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)|DPJ]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|SDP]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[Japanese Communist Party|JCP]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[New Party Sakigake|NPS]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |DRP
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |Ind.
|-
! style="background:{{party color|Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|New Frontier Party (Japan)}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Japan)}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|Japanese Communist Party}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|New Party Sakigake}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|Democratic Reform Party (Japan)}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|Independent}};" |
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]]
!15
|4
|10
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Akita Prefecture|Akita]]
!3
|2
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Aomori Prefecture|Aomori]]
!4
|3
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]]
!12
|9
|2
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Ehime Prefecture|Ehime]]
!4
|4
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Fukui Prefecture|Fukui]]
!3
|1
|1
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Fukuoka Prefecture|Fukuoka]]
!11
|7
|3
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Fukushima Prefecture|Fukushima]]
!5
|3
|2
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Gifu Prefecture|Gifu]]
!5
|5
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Gunma Prefecture|Gunma]]
!5
|4
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Hiroshima Prefecture|Hiroshima]]
!7
|6
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Hokkaido]]
!13
|6
|2
|5
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Hyōgo Prefecture|Hyōgo]]
!12
|3
|7
|
|1
|
|
|1
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Ibaraki Prefecture|Ibaraki]]
!7
|6
|
|
|
|
|
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Ishikawa Prefecture|Ishikawa]]
!3
|2
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Iwate Prefecture|Iwate]]
!4
|1
|3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Kagawa Prefecture|Kagawa]]
!3
|3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Kagoshima Prefecture|Kagoshima]]
!5
|5
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa]]
!17
|9
|7
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Kōchi Prefecture|Kōchi]]
!3
|2
|
|
|
|1
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Kumamoto Prefecture|Kumamoto]]
!5
|1
|3
|
|
|
|1
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Kyoto Prefecture|Kyoto]]
!6
|4
|1
|
|
|1
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Mie Prefecture|Mie]]
!5
|2
|3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Miyagi Prefecture|Miyagi]]
!6
|4
|1
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Miyazaki Prefecture|Miyazaki]]
!3
|3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]]
!5
|2
|3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Nagasaki Prefecture|Nagasaki]]
!4
|3
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Nara Prefecture|Nara]]
!4
|2
|2
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Niigata Prefecture|Niigata]]
!6
|6
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Ōita Prefecture|Ōita]]
!4
|1
|1
|
|2
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Okayama Prefecture|Okayama]]
!5
|5
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]
!3
|
|2
|
|1
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Osaka Prefecture|Osaka]]
!19
|3
|15
|
|
|
|
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Saga Prefecture|Saga]]
!3
|2
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]]
!14
|6
|7
|
|
|
|
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Shiga Prefecture|Shiga]]
!3
|
|1
|
|
|
|1
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Shimane Prefecture|Shimane]]
!3
|3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Shizuoka Prefecture|Shizuoka]]
!9
|4
|3
|1
|
|
|
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Tochigi Prefecture|Tochigi]]
!5
|4
|
|
|
|
|
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Tokushima Prefecture|Tokushima]]
!3
|1
|1
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Tokyo]]
!25
|14
|6
|4
|
|
|
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Tottori Prefecture|Tottori]]
!2
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Toyama Prefecture|Toyama]]
!3
|3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Wakayama Prefecture|Wakayama]]
!3
|1
|2
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Yamagata Prefecture|Yamagata]]
!4
|2
|1
|
|
|
|
|
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Yamaguchi Prefecture|Yamaguchi]]
!4
|4
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Yamanashi Prefecture|Yamanashi]]
!3
|3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- class="sortbottom"
! style="text-align: left;" |Total
!300
!169
!96
!17
!4
!2
!2
!1
!9
|}

=== By PR block ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 0.9em;"
! rowspan="3" |PR block
! rowspan="3" |Total<br>seats
! colspan="5" |Seats won
|-
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|LDP]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[New Frontier Party (Japan)|NFP]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)|DPJ]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[Japanese Communist Party|JCP]]
! class="unsortable" style="width:30px;" |[[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|SDP]]
|-
! style="background:{{party color|Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|New Frontier Party (Japan)}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|Japanese Communist Party}};" |
! style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Japan)}};" |
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Chūgoku proportional representation block|Chūgoku]]
!13
|6
|3
|2
|1
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Hokkaido proportional representation block|Hokkaido]]
!9
|3
|2
|3
|1
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |Hokuriku–Shinetsu 
!13
|5
|4
|2
|1
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |Kinki
!33
|10
|10
|5
|6
|2
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Kyushu proportional representation block|Kyushu]]
!23
|9
|7
|3
|2
|2
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Northern Kanto proportional representation block|Northern Kanto]]
!21
|8
|6
|4
|2
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Shikoku proportional representation block|Shikoku]]
!7
|3
|2
|1
|1
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Southern Kanto proportional representation block|Southern Kanto]]
!23
|7
|7
|5
|3
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Tohoku proportional representation block|Tohoku]]
!16
|6
|6
|2
|1
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |Tokai
!23
|8
|8
|3
|3
|1
|-
! style="text-align: left;" |[[Tokyo proportional representation block|Tokyo]]
!19
|5
|5
|5
|3
|1
|- class="sortbottom"
! style="text-align: left;" |Total
!200
!70
!60
!35
!24
!11
|}

==Aftermath==
=== Criticisms ===
Three aspects of the new electoral system drew serious criticisms after the first election in 1996, two of which had been curbed through law enactments.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The politics of electoral systems|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press |editor1=Gallagher, Michael |editor2=Mitchell, Paul |isbn=0199257566|location=Oxford|oclc=68623713}}</ref> Immediately after the 1996 election, double candidacy became a major concern of the media and the most controversial aspect of the new system. In the new system, candidates are allowed to transfer between tiers, running for both the [[single-member district]] (SMD) and the [[proportional representation]] (PR) tier. This provision was met with harsh commentary from the press who criticized the system as a method through and around which incompetent candidates move in their search for a Diet position. Candidates who 'died' in the SMD were then to be 'revived' in the PR as 'zombie Diet members.'<ref name=":4" /> Despite no major laws were enacted to address the controversy, press complaints declined with the 2000 electoral law revision in which candidates who failed to collect at least one-tenth of the effective vote in an SMD election are immediately disqualified.<ref name=":3" />

On another note, the 1996 election saw a higher incidence of [[by-election]]s.<ref name=":3" /> Under the old system, by-elections were held only if two seats became vacant; however, the number of by-elections rose rapidly in the SMD system. Between 1947 and 1993, there were only eighteen incidents of by-election; whereas in the first two [[Mixed-member proportional representation|mixed-member elections]], there were twelve by-elections. The Diet responded to this unanticipated consequence by holding by-elections on the same day twice a year for both [[House of Councillors (Japan)|upper]] and [[House of Representatives (Japan)|lower]] houses. It is important to know that by-elections can have interesting political consequences such as that of a minority party looking to win one or more seats in order to earn official party status or the balance of power in a minority or [[coalition]] situation.

The new electoral system, furthermore, did not produce what was initially hoped – a [[Two-party system|two-party parliamentary system]].<ref name=":3" /> In spite of different views in regard to the number of seats being reduced, a major referendum was approved, thus deflating the original 200 seats allocated to the PR tier to 180 before the second election.

=== LDP's Strategies ===
==== Role of the Policy Affairs Research Council ====
The double candidacy system preserved incentives for personal votes and, thus, also incentives for individual candidates to maintain their [[Koenkai]] and for new candidates to form their own.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofjapans00krau|title=The rise and fall of Japan's LDP : political party organizations as historical institutions|last=Krauss|first=Ellis S.|date=2011|publisher=Cornell University Press|others=Pekkanen, Robert.|isbn=978-0801449321|location=Ithaca|oclc=732957153|url-access=registration}}</ref> Unrevised campaign restrictions meant that candidates running in the SMD tier were still permitted to mobilize votes by means of a provision of constituency services and benefits to their district.<ref name=":3" /> Meanwhile, the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) imposed "[[Sekihairitsu|best loser rule]]" for resurrection encouraged candidates to gain a certain number of personal votes in the SMD tier to 'qualify' for Proportional Representation tier.<ref name=":4" />

The Policy Affairs Research Council (PARC), originally a strategic instrument for vote-gaining in the [[Single non-transferable vote|single non-transferable vote system]] (SNTV), could still be used to gain votes in the new election system.<ref name=":4" /> In the old system, PARC was used by candidates to distinguish themselves amongst fellow same-party rivals. To win in a multiple-seats [[Electoral district|constituency]], it was important for candidates to hold expertise and influence in a policy-sector in the district they were running for. This is not to say that under the new electoral system, candidates had less need for specialization because of the increasing diversity of their smaller constituency. Those running in the PR tier needed to increase party vote, as such found it necessary to specialize in order to serve a large-scale and more diverse audience across an extensive geographical area. Consequently, the PARC was modified to provide representatives with information on many fields of policy.

==== Use of coalition ====
In the first election of 1996, the LDP relied on the strategy of coalition to oust the ruling [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Japan Socialist Party]] (JSP) from power. Later on, coalition became "the only one way of getting back into power."<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=The Routledge handbook of Japanese politics|date=2011|publisher=Routledge|editor=Gaunder, Alisa |isbn=9780415551373|location=London|oclc=659306335}}</ref> Under the new system of one representative per district, the LDP forge coalitions with different parties to gain a majority in the Diet. After the 1993 election, the LDP remained the largest party in the Diet, hence the Japan Socialist Party had no choice but to enter in a coalition with the LDP. This arrangement proved as a gateway to death for the JSP, whom repudiated many of its defining principles, namely the anti-[[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Self Defense Forces]] and anti-[[Japan–United States relations|US alliance]] stances, in exchange for prime-minister's office. Core leftist supporters of the JSP rebuked the coalition and the JSP's leaders remained unimpressed with the deal, as policymaking, the main instrument of power, was in the hands of the LDP. As a result, the JSP fell apart soon after.<ref name=":5" />

Coalition further proved to be instrumental to LDP prolonging power in further elections until 2009. After the coalition with the JSP fell apart, the LDP turned to the [[Liberal Party (Japan, 1998)|Liberal Party]] led by [[Ichirō Ozawa|Ozawa Ichiro]] a leader of one of the new parties that was formed from a defection of the LDP, now merged with the [[Democratic Party (Japan, 1996)|Democratic Party]] (DPJ). This coalition, similarly, did not last long. It was the coalition with the [[Komeito]] after which proved enduring and strategic until the 2009 election.<ref name=":5" />

Post-2009 and until present, however, coalition strategy remains inextricable from electoral success. Coalition with Komeito still proves strategic, as Komei continues to instruct supporters to vote for LDP candidates in the SMD tier in exchange for greater power in the coalition.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Japan's security renaissance : new policies and politics for the twenty-first century|last=Andrew|first=Oros|isbn=9780231172615|location=New York|oclc=953258554|year = 2017 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Komei's support arguably contributed greatly to LDP's landslide win in the 2012 and 2014 elections. The statistics of the 2012 election verifies the uniqueness of the LDP-Komei coalition. In that election, Komei redirected 10.34 percent of the SMD vote it could have won to the LDP, allowing for overwhelming vote differential between DPJ and the LDP to emerge. If the Komei's vote had gone to the DPJ, the LDP and DPJ gap in share of the vote in the SMD tier would not have been significant.<ref name=":6" />

===Comparison with pre-reform elections===
====Koenkai====
Although the significance of Koenkai had diminished as compared to pre-reform, the Koenkai withstood the electoral reform fairly well. The electoral reform initially hoped to relegate the role of the Koenkai by moving politicians away from their original electoral district in which they had invested years cultivating personal networks. In theory, this tactic should prompt candidates to rely on the party branch and party label for electoral success instead of personal networks.<ref name=":4" /> Yet, the scholars Krauss and Pekkanen show that politicians, in spite of such incentive, concentrated on spreading their Koenkai to the new district.<ref name=":4" /> Since the very first 1996 election, there was little evidence that party branches were replacing Koenkai in the assistance of daily activities, electoral mobilization and campaign funding.

Nevertheless, the Koenkai did diminish in strength; however, not because of the increasingly party-centered system. Rather, voters are becoming progressively less interested in joining kōenkai and instead become a floating or an independent voter, despite the politicians' efforts in providing benefits.<ref name=":4" />

====Withering factional influence====
[[Factions in the Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Factional]] influence, the endemic corruption that plagued the SNTV system, seems to be similarly on progressive decline.<ref name=":4" /> The incorporation of a PR system has helped shift the previous solely candidate-centred to an increasingly party-centred system, what the previous Prime Minister [[Takeo Miki|Miki Takeo]] had hoped to accomplish earlier on.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/japanesewayofpol00gera|title=The Japanese way of politics|last=Curtis|first=Gerald L.|date=1988|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0231066813|location=New York|oclc=16805800|url-access=registration}}</ref> By 2005, the number of representatives elected on the LDP PR list who were not also dual listed dropped to twenty-six from forty-nine in the 1996 election.<ref name=":4" />

The Diet also passed a campaign finance bill that allowed for greater public financial assistance of campaigns and simultaneously imposed severe restrictions on donations to individual politicians or factions.<ref name=":3" /> Distribution of money now has to go through political parties, while responsibility for illegal campaign activities are more strictly monitored. Individual Diet members who carry out illegal campaign activities are now subjected to prosecution by the courts, including a possibility of being banned from elections.<ref name=":3" />

There has also been a tendency of younger Diet members to be less loyal to their faction leaders. A notable case is Prime Minister [[Junichiro Koizumi]]'s effort to reduce faction's power in cabinet formation and party leader selection. Koizumi has made it almost a de facto rule that national popularity be the basis of leadership selection. The Mori faction to which Koizumi himself belongs, for instance, won twice the party presidential primaries as a result of Koizumi's popularity.<ref name=":3" />

====Enhanced authority of the Prime Minister====
The new advisory councils within the [[Cabinet Office (Japan)|Cabinet Office]] later proved to be instrumental for succeeding prime ministers in their quest for policy-making authority. Prime Minister Koizumi well maneuvered the Councils to exert greater political leadership. Furthermore, the Councils made sure to maintain their stronghold by providing the cabinet with both political and support staff.<ref name=":4" />

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Japanese elections}}

[[Category:1996 elections in Asia|Japan general]]
[[Category:1996 elections in Japan|General election]]
[[Category:General elections in Japan]]
[[Category:October 1996 events in Japan|General]]
[[Category:Election and referendum articles with incomplete results]]