View source for Environmental impact of agriculture

{{Short description|Agricultural and environmental issues}}
The '''environmental impact of [[agriculture]]''' is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frouz|first1=Jan|last2=Frouzová|first2=Jaroslava|date=2022|title=Applied Ecology|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-83225-4|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-83225-4|isbn=978-3-030-83224-7 |s2cid=245009867 }}</ref> The environmental impact of [[agriculture]] varies widely based on practices employed by farmers and by the scale of practice. Farming communities that try to reduce environmental impacts through modifying their practices will adopt [[sustainable agriculture]] practices. The negative impact of agriculture is an old issue that remains a concern even as experts design innovative means to reduce destruction and enhance eco-efficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gołaś|first1=Marlena|last2=Sulewski|first2=Piotr|last3=Wąs|first3=Adam|last4=Kłoczko-Gajewska|first4=Anna|last5=Pogodzińska|first5=Kinga|date=October 2020|title=On the Way to Sustainable Agriculture—Eco-Efficiency of Polish Commercial Farms|journal=Agriculture|language=en|volume=10|issue=10|pages=438|doi=10.3390/agriculture10100438|doi-access=free}}</ref> Animal agriculture practices [[Environmental impact of meat production|tend to be more environmentally destructive]] than agricultural practices focused on fruits, vegetables and other biomass. The emissions of ammonia from cattle waste continue to raise concerns over environmental pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Naujokienė|first1=Vilma|last2=Bagdonienė|first2=Indrė|last3=Bleizgys|first3=Rolandas|last4=Rubežius|first4=Mantas|date=April 2021|title=A Biotreatment Effect on Dynamics of Cattle Manure Composition and Reduction of Ammonia Emissions from Agriculture|journal=Agriculture|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=303|doi=10.3390/agriculture11040303|doi-access=free}}</ref>

When evaluating environmental impact, experts use two types of indicators: "means-based", which is based on the farmer's production methods, and "effect-based", which is the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions to the environment. An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater, which is affected by the amount of nitrogen applied to the soil. An indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to groundwater would be effect-based.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal|last1=van der Warf|first1=Hayo|last2=Petit|first2=Jean|title=Evaluation of the environmental impact of agriculture at the farm level: a comparison and analysis of 12 indicator- methods|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment|date=December 2002|volume=93|issue=1–3|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00354-1}}</ref> The means-based evaluation looks at farmers' practices of agriculture, and the effect-based evaluation considers the actual effects of the agricultural system. For example, the means-based analysis might look at pesticides and fertilization methods that farmers are using, and effect-based analysis would consider how much {{CO2}} is being emitted or what the nitrogen content of the soil is.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" />

The environmental impact of agriculture involves impacts on a variety of different factors: the [[soil]], water, the air, animal and soil variety, people, plants, and the food itself. Agriculture contributes to a number larger of environmental issues that cause [[environmental degradation]] including: [[#Climate change|climate change]], [[#Deforestation|deforestation]], [[biodiversity loss]],<ref name="Garnett-et-al-2013">{{cite journal | last1=Garnett | first1=T. | last2=Appleby | first2=M. C. | last3=Balmford | first3=A. | last4=Bateman | first4=I. J. | last5=Benton | first5=T. G. | last6=Bloomer | first6=P. | last7=Burlingame | first7=B. | last8=Dawkins | first8=M. | last9=Dolan | first9=L. | last10=Fraser | first10=D. | last11=Herrero | first11=M. | last12=Hoffmann | first12=Irene | author12-link=Irene Hoffmann | last13=Smith | first13=P. | last14=Thornton | first14=P. K. | last15=Toulmin | first15=C. | last16=Vermeulen | first16=S. J. | last17=Godfray | first17=H. C. J. | title=Sustainable Intensification in Agriculture: Premises and Policies | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS) | volume=341 | issue=6141 | date=2013-07-04 | issn=0036-8075 | doi=10.1126/science.1234485 | pages=33–34 | pmid=23828927 | bibcode=2013Sci...341...33G | hdl=10871/19385 | s2cid=206547513| hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]], [[#Genetic engineering|genetic engineering]], [[#Irrigation|irrigation]] problems, [[#Pollutants|pollutants]], [[#Soil degradation|soil degradation]], and [[#Waste|waste]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tilman|first1=David|last2=Balzer|first2=Christian|last3=Hill|first3=Jason|last4=Befort|first4=Belinda L.|date=2011-12-13|title=Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=108|issue=50|pages=20260–20264|doi=10.1073/pnas.1116437108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3250154|pmid=22106295|doi-access=free}}</ref> Because of agriculture's importance to global social and environmental systems, the international community has committed to increasing sustainability of food production as part of [[Sustainable Development Goal 2|Sustainable Development Goal 2: “End hunger, achieve]] [[food security]] and improved [[nutrition]] and promote [[sustainable agriculture]]".<ref>United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1])</ref> The [[United Nations Environment Programme]]'s 2021 "Making Peace with Nature" report highlighted agriculture as both a driver and an industry under threat from [[environmental degradation]].<ref>United Nations Environment Programme (2021). ''Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies''. Nairobi. https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature</ref>

== By agricultural practice ==

=== Animal agriculture ===
{{Excerpt|Environmental impact of meat production}}

=== Irrigation ===
[[File:Share Of Water Withdrawal By Agriculture In Total Withdrawal, Top Countries (2020).svg|thumb|440x440px|Countries with the highest share of water withdrawal by agriculture in total withdrawal.]]
{{Excerpt|Environmental impact of irrigation}}

=== Pesticides ===
{{Excerpt|Environmental impact of pesticides}}

=== Plastics ===
{{Excerpt|Plasticulture}}

==By environmental issue==
{{Excerpt|Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture}}

===Deforestation===
{{Main|Deforestation}}
Deforestation is clearing the Earth's forests on a large scale worldwide and resulting in many land damages. One of the causes of deforestation is clearing land for pasture or crops. According to British environmentalist [[Norman Myers]], 5% of deforestation is due to [[cattle ranching]], 19% due to over-heavy [[logging]], 22% due to the growing sector of [[palm oil]] plantations, and 54% due to [[slash-and-burn]] farming.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0515-hance_myers.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529015553/http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0515-hance_myers.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 29, 2012 |title=Tropical deforestation is 'one of the worst crises since we came out of our caves' |first=Jeremy |last=Hance |work=Mongabay.com / A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face |date=May 15, 2008 }}</ref>

[[Deforestation and climate change|Deforestation]] causes the loss of habitat for millions of species, and is also a driver of climate change. Trees act as a [[carbon sink]]: that is, they absorb carbon dioxide, an unwanted greenhouse gas, out of the atmosphere. Removing trees releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and leaves behind fewer trees to absorb the increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air. In this way, deforestation exacerbates climate change.  When trees are removed from forests, the soils tend to dry out because there is no longer shade, and there are not enough trees to assist in the [[water cycle]] by returning water vapor back to the environment.  With no trees, landscapes that were once forests can potentially become barren deserts. The tree's roots also help to hold the soil together, so when they are removed, [[mudslides]] can also occur. The removal of trees also causes extreme fluctuations in temperature.<ref>{{cite web|title=Deforestation|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/deforestation|website=National Geographic|access-date=24 April 2015}}</ref>

In 2000 the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organisation]] (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a combination of [[population pressure]] and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions."<ref name=population1>{{cite web | url=http://www.fao.org/sd/WPdirect/WPan0050.htm | title=Population and deforestation | author=Alain Marcoux | date=August 2000 | work=SD Dimensions | publisher=Sustainable Development Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184520/http://www.fao.org/sd/WPdirect/WPan0050.htm | archive-date=2011-06-28 }}</ref>

===Genetic engineering===

{{See also|Genetically modified food controversies}}

===Pollutants===
{{Excerpt|Agricultural pollution}}

===Soil degradation===
[[File:World Farm-gate Greenhouse Gas Emissions By Activity.svg|thumb|World farm-gate greenhouse gas emissions by activity]]


[[Soil degradation]] is the decline in [[soil quality]] that can be a result of many factors, especially from agriculture. Soils hold the majority of the world's biodiversity, and healthy soils are essential for food production and adequate water supply.<ref>{{cite web|title=Soil Degradation|url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/soildegradation/|website=Office of Environment Heritage|access-date=23 April 2015}}</ref> Common attributes of soil degradation can be salting, waterlogging, compaction, pesticide contamination, a decline in soil structure quality, loss of fertility, changes in soil acidity, alkalinity, salinity, and [[erosion]]. Soil erosion is the wearing away of topsoil by water, wind, or farming activities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Soil Erosion – Causes and Effects|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/12-053.htm|access-date=2018-04-11|website=www.omafra.gov.on.ca|language=en-ca}}</ref> Topsoil is very fertile, which makes it valuable to farmers growing crops.<ref name=":1" /> Soil degradation also has a huge impact on biological degradation, which affects the microbial community of the soil and can alter nutrient cycling, pest and disease control, and chemical transformation properties of the soil.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agricultural Land Use Issues|url=http://nerrs.noaa.gov/doc/siteprofile/acebasin/html/modules/landuse/lmagrlnu.htm#soil|website=National Estuarine Research Reserve System|access-date=23 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424054141/http://nerrs.noaa.gov/doc/siteprofile/acebasin/html/modules/landuse/lmagrlnu.htm#soil|archive-date=24 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Soil erosion ===
[[File:Occurrences_of_Soil_erosion.jpg|thumb|An example of drastic [[soil erosion]] as a result of agriculture.]]
Large scale farming can cause large amounts of [[soil erosion]]. 25 to 40 percent of eroded soil ends up in water sources. Soil that carries pesticides and fertilizers pollutes the bodies of water it enters.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ruhl, JB |date=2000 |title=Farms, Their Environmental Harms, and Environmental Law. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24113926 |journal=Ecology Law Quarterly |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=263–349 |jstor=24113926}}</ref> In the [[United States]] and [[Europe]] especially, large-scale agriculture has grown and small-scale-agriculture has shrunk due to financial arrangements such as contract farming. Bigger farms tend to favour monocultures, overuse water resources, and accelerate [[deforestation]] and [[soil quality]] decline. A study from 2020 by the [[International Land Coalition]], together with [[Oxfam]] and World Inequality Lab, found that 1% of land owners manage 70% of the world's farmland. The highest discrepancy can be found in [[Latin America]], where the poorest 50% own just 1% of the land. Small landowners, as individuals or families, tend to be more cautious in land use compared to large landowners. As of 2020, however, the proportion of small landowners has been decreasing since the 1980s. Currently, the largest share of smallholdings can be found in [[Asia]] and [[Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 November 2020 |title=1% of farms operate 70% of world's farmland |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/24/farmland-inequality-is-rising-around-the-world-finds-report |access-date=25 November 2020 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

==== Tillage erosion ====
{{Excerpt|Tillage erosion}}

=== Waste ===
[[Plasticulture]] is the use of [[plastic mulch]] in agriculture. Farmers use plastic sheets as mulch to cover 50-70% of the soil and allow them to use drip irrigation systems to have better control over [[soil nutrient]]s and [[soil moisture|moisture]]. Rain is not required in this system, and farms that use plasticulture are built to encourage the fastest runoff of rain. The use of [[pesticides]] with plasticulture allows pesticides to be transported easier in the [[surface runoff]] towards wetlands or tidal creeks. The runoff from pesticides and chemicals in the plastic can cause serious deformations and death in shellfish as the runoff carries the chemicals toward the oceans.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kidd|first1=Greg|title=Pesticides and Plastic Mulch Threaten the Health of Maryland and Virginia East Shore Waters|journal=Pesticides and You|date=1999–2000|volume=19|issue=4|pages=22–23|url=http://www.beyondpesticides.org/Pesticides%20and%20Plastic%20Mulch%20Threaten%20the%20Health%20of%20Maryland%20and%20Virginia%20Eastern%20Shore%20Waters.pdf|access-date=23 April 2015}}</ref>

In addition to the increased runoff that results from plasticulture, there is also the problem of the increased amount of waste from the plastic mulch itself. The use of plastic mulch for vegetables, strawberries, and other row and orchard crops exceeds 110 million pounds annually in the United States. Most plastic ends up in the landfill, although there are other disposal options such as disking mulches into the soil, on-site burying, on-site storage, reuse, recycling, and incineration. The incineration and recycling options are complicated by the variety of the types of plastics that are used and by the geographic dispersal of the plastics. Plastics also contain stabilizers and dyes as well as heavy metals, which limits the number of products that can be recycled. Research is continually being conducted on creating biodegradable or [[photodegradable]] mulches. While there has been a minor success with this, there is also the problem of how long the plastic takes to degrade, as many biodegradable products take a long time to break down.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hemphill|first1=Delbert|title=Agricultural Plastics as Solid Waste: What are the Options for Disposal?|journal=HortTechnology|date=March 1993|volume=3|issue=1|pages=70–73|doi=10.21273/HORTTECH.3.1.70|url=http://horttech.ashspublications.org/content/3/1/70.full.pdf+html|access-date=23 April 2015|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Issues by region===
The environmental impact of agriculture can vary depending on the region as well as the type of agriculture production method that is being used. Listed below are some specific environmental issues in various different regions around the world.

*[[Hedgerow removal]] in the United Kingdom.
*[[Soil salinisation]], especially in [[Salinity in Australia|Australia]].
*[[Phosphate mining in Nauru]]
*[[Methane emissions]] from livestock in New Zealand. ''See [[Climate change in New Zealand]].''
*Environmentalists attribute the [[hypoxic zone]] in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] as being encouraged by nitrogen fertilization of the [[algae bloom]].
*Coupled systems from agricultural trade leading to regional effects from cascading effects and spillover systems. [[Environmental factor]] (Socioeconomic Drivers Section)

==Sustainable agriculture==
{{Main|Sustainable agriculture}}
[[Sustainable agriculture]] is the idea that agriculture should occur in a way such that we can continue to produce what is necessary without infringing on the ability for future generations to do the same.

The exponential population increase in recent decades has increased the practice of agricultural [[land conversion]] to meet the demand for food which in turn has increased the effects on the environment. The global population is still increasing and will eventually stabilize, as some critics doubt that food production, due to lower yields from global warming, can support the global population.

Agriculture can have negative effects on biodiversity as well.<ref name="Garnett-et-al-2013" /> [[Organic farming]] is a multifaceted [[sustainable agriculture]] set of practices that can have a lower impact on the environment at a small scale. However, in most cases organic farming results in lower yields in terms of production per unit area.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Seufert|first1=Verena|last2=Ramankutty|first2=Navin|last3=Foley|first3=Jonathan A.|title=Comparing the yields of organic and conventional agriculture|journal=Nature|date=25 April 2012|volume=485|issue=7397|pages=229–232|doi=10.1038/nature11069|pmid=22535250|bibcode=2012Natur.485..229S|s2cid=2702124}}</ref> Therefore, widespread adoption of organic agriculture will require additional land to be cleared and water resources extracted to meet the same level of production. A European meta-analysis found that organic farms tended to have higher [[soil organic matter]] content and lower nutrient losses (nitrogen leaching, [[nitrous oxide]] emissions, and ammonia emissions) per unit of field area but higher ammonia emissions, nitrogen leaching and nitrous oxide emissions per product unit.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tuomisto|first1=H.L.|last2=Hodge|first2=I.D.|last3=Riordan|first3=P.|last4=Macdonald|first4=D.W.|title=Does organic farming reduce environmental impacts? – A meta-analysis of European research|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|date=December 2012|volume=112|pages=309–320|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.08.018|pmid=22947228}}</ref>  It is believed by many that conventional farming systems cause less rich biodiversity than organic systems. [[Organic farming]] has shown to have on average 30% higher species richness than conventional farming. Organic systems on average also have 50% more organisms. This data has some issues because there were several results that showed a negative effect on these things when in an organic farming system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtsson|first1=Janne|last2=Ahnström|first2=Johan|last3=Weibull|first3=Ann-Christin|date=2005-04-01|title=The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|language=en|volume=42|issue=2|pages=261–269|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01005.x|issn=1365-2664|doi-access=free}}</ref> The opposition to organic agriculture believes that these negatives are an issue with the organic farming system. What began as a small scale, environmentally conscious practice has now become just as industrialized as conventional agriculture. This industrialization can lead to the issues shown above such as climate change, and deforestation.

=== Regenerative agriculture ===
{{Excerpt|Regenerative agriculture}}

=== Techniques ===

==== Conservation tillage ====
{{Further|No-till farming|Conservation tillage}}
Conservation tillage is an alternative tillage method for farming which is more sustainable for the soil and surrounding ecosystem.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/conservation-tillage|title=Conservation tillage {{!}} ClimateTechWiki|website=www.climatetechwiki.org|language=en|access-date=2017-05-04|archive-date=2017-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505154812/http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/conservation-tillage|url-status=dead}}</ref> This is done by allowing the residue of the previous harvest's crops to remain in the soil before tilling for the next crop. Conservation tillage has shown to improve many things such as soil moisture retention, and reduce erosion. Some disadvantages are the fact that more expensive equipment is needed for this process, more pesticides will need to be used, and the positive effects take a long time to be visible.<ref name=":0" /> The barriers of instantiating a conservation tillage policy are that farmers are reluctant to change their methods, and would protest a more expensive, and time-consuming method of tillage than the conventional one they are used to.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holland|first=J. M.|date=2004-06-01|title=The environmental consequences of adopting conservation tillage in Europe: reviewing the evidence|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment|volume=103|issue=1|pages=1–25|doi=10.1016/j.agee.2003.12.018}}</ref>

==== Biological pest control ====
{{Excerpt|Biological pest control}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=35em}}
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Agricultural pollution]]
* [[Saltmod|Agro-hydro-salinity model]] (for environmental impacts of irrigated agriculture)
* [[Cultured meat]]
* [[Digital Product Passport]]
* [[Ethical eating]]
* [[Fermentation]]
* [[Meat analogue]]
* [[Soybean#Environmental issues|Environmental effects of soybean imports to EU]]
* [[Single cell protein]]
* [[Stranded asset#Agriculture and forestry|Stranded assets in the agriculture and forestry sector]]
* [[Concentrated animal feeding operations]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[Habitat]]
* [[Holistic management]]
* [[Livestock's Long Shadow|''Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental Issues and Options'']]
:  Report by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]]''
* [[Principles of Organic Agriculture]]
* [[Research Institute for Organic Agriculture]]
* [[Stock-free agriculture]]
* [[Tillage erosion]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |author=HLPE |title=Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security |url=http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] |location=Rome, Italy |date=June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212075812/http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |archive-date=12 December 2014}}
* {{citation
 |year            = 2014
 |author          = IPCC AR5 WG3
 |editor          = Edenhofer, O.
 |title           = Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
 |url             = http://mitigation2014.org/report/final-draft/
 |publisher       = Cambridge University Press
 |display-editors = etal
 |url-status      = dead
 |archive-url     = https://web.archive.org/web/20141029121005/http://mitigation2014.org/report/final-draft
 |archive-date    = 29 October 2014
}}.

==Further reading==
*Miller, G. T., & Spoolman, S. (2012). Environmental science. Cengage Learning. {{ISBN|978-1-305-25716-0}} 
*{{cite journal | last=Qaim | first=Matin | title=Benefits of genetically modified crops for the poor: household income, nutrition, and health | journal=New Biotechnology | volume=27 | issue=5 | year=2010 | issn=1871-6784 | doi=10.1016/j.nbt.2010.07.009 | pages=552–557 |pmid=20643233}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.holisticmanagement.org Holistic Management International]
*[https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food Environmental Impacts of Food Production] – Our World in Data
*[http://www.choicesmagazine.org/2006-3/animal/2006-3-11.htm Environmental Issues in Animal Agriculture] – ''Choices'' magazine article
*[http://www.waterlog.info Waterlog.info] Website with free articles and software on environmental impacts of irrigated agriculture like [[Watertable control|waterlogging]] and [[Soil salinity control|salinization]]
*[http://www.extension.org/pages/Environmental_Planning_on_Livestock_and_Poultry_Operations Environmental Planning on Livestock and Poultry Operations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209071751/http://www.extension.org/pages/Environmental_Planning_on_Livestock_and_Poultry_Operations |date=2011-02-09 }} describes several different planning processes that can be used on farms. It also includes links to several webcasts. Part of the [http://www.extension.org/animal+manure+management Livestock and Poultry Environmental Learning Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227124550/http://www.extension.org/animal+manure+management |date=2010-12-27 }}

{{World topic|Environmental impact of agriculture in|title=Environmental impact of agriculture|noredlinks=yes}}
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