View source for Great Lakes Storm of 1913

{{Short description|Winter storm in North America}}
{{redirect|The Big Blow|a novel by Joe R. Lansdale|The Big Blow (novel)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox storm
|name=Great Lakes Storm of 1913
|image location=November gale.png
|image name=A surface analysis map showing the convergence of two systems to form a typical [[November gale]]
|stormtype=[[Extratropical cyclone]]<br />[[Winter storm]]<br />[[Blizzard]]
|date formed=November 6, 1913
|date dissipated=November 11, 1913
|lowest pressure=968.5 <ref name = 2013nwsreview/><ref name = usgovdata/>
|gusts=78.2078
|areas affected=The [[Great Lakes Basin]] in the [[Midwestern United States]] and the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian province]] of [[Ontario]]
}}

The '''Great Lakes Storm of 1913''', historically referred to as the '''Big Blow''',{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=201}}{{efn|Another storm called the "Big Blow" which sank the {{SS|Alpena}} was on October 15, 1880.}} the '''Freshwater Fury''' and the '''White Hurricane''', was a [[blizzard]] with [[hurricane]]-force winds that devastated the [[Great Lakes Basin]] in the [[Midwestern United States]] and [[Southwestern Ontario]], Canada, between November 7 and 10, 1913. The storm was most powerful on November 9, battering and overturning ships on four of the five [[Great Lakes]], particularly [[Lake Huron]].

The storm was the deadliest and most destructive [[natural disaster]] to hit the Great Lakes in recorded history. More than 250 people were killed.  Shipping was hard hit; nineteen ships were destroyed, and nineteen others were stranded. About [[United States dollar|US$]]1 million of cargo weighing about 68,300 tons—including coal, iron ore and grain—was lost. The storm impacted many cities, including [[Duluth, Minnesota|Duluth]], [[Minnesota]]; [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]; and [[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], which received {{convert|22|in|cm|abbr=on}} of snow combined with winds up to {{convert|79|mph|kph|abbr=on}} and was paralyzed for days.

The [[extratropical cyclone]] originated when two major [[Weather front|storm fronts]] fueled by the Great Lakes' relatively warm waters—a seasonal process called a "[[November gale]]"—converged. It produced [[wind gust]]s of {{convert|90|mph|kph|abbr=on}}, [[ocean surface wave|waves]] estimated at over {{convert|35|ft|m}} high and [[whiteout (weather)|whiteout]] [[snowsquall]]s. Winds exceeding hurricane-force occurred over four of the lakes for extended periods creating very large waves. The large size of the lakes provides [[wind fetch]]es (the length of water over which a given wind has blown without obstruction) of hundreds of miles, allowing huge waves to form. Rogue waves are known to occur on the Great Lakes, including waves reinforced by reflections from the vertical shores of some of the lakes.

The [[United States Weather Bureau]] failed to predict the intensity of the storm, and the process of preparing and communicating predictions was slow. These factors contributed to the storm's destructiveness.<ref name="Scott">{{Cite web |url=https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/-worst-storm-in-great-lakes-history-101-years-ago-this-weekend/15815 |title=The White Hurricane: The worst storm in Great Lakes history |last=Scott |first=Chris |date=November 10, 2014 |publisher=[[The Weather Network]] |access-date=March 23, 2017 |quote=The Great Storm of 1913, known as the 'White Hurricane'}}</ref> The contemporaneous weather forecasters did not have enough data, communications, analysis capability and understanding of [[atmospheric dynamics]] to predict the storm. They could not predict wind directions, which is key to the ability of ships to avoid or cope with the effects of storms.

== Background ==
The water in the five [[Great Lakes]] holds heat that allows them to remain relatively warm late into the year and postpones the cooling and first frosts in the region.<ref name="weatherdoctor">Heidorn, Keith C. (2001). [https://web.archive.org/web/20011117134044/www.suite101.com/article.cfm/science_sky/84988 "The Great Lakes: Storm Breeding Ground"]. ''Science of the Sky''. Published online November 16, 2001. Retrieved February 5, 2005.</ref> During the autumn, two major weather tracks converge over the area. Cold, dry air moves south and southeast from northern Canada as an [[Alberta clipper]] while warm, moist air moves north and northeast from the [[Gulf of Mexico]] along the [[leeward|lee]] of the central [[Rocky Mountains]] as a [[Colorado low]]. The collision of these air masses forms large storm systems in the middle of the North American continent, including the Great Lakes.<ref name="weatherdoctor"/> When the cold air from these storms moves over the lakes, it is warmed by the waters below<ref name="weatherwise">{{Cite magazine | last1= Bentley|first1=Mace|last2= Horstmeyer |first2= Steve |title= The witch of November |magazine=[[Weatherwise Magazine|Weatherwise]] |date=November–December 1998 |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=29–35 |doi= 10.1080/00431672.1998.9926174}}</ref> and picks up a spin.<ref name="weatherdoctor"/> As the [[cyclone|cyclonic]] system continues over the lakes, its power is intensified by the [[jet stream]] above and the warm waters below.<ref name="weatherdoctor"/><ref name = weathergov1>{{Cite web |url= https://www.weather.gov/media/greatlakes/1913Retrospective.pdf |title=The White Hurricane Storm of 1913 A Numerical Model Retrospective |first1= Richard |last1= Wagenmaker |first2= Greg |last2= Mann |publisher = National Weather Service |access-date= November 2, 2021}}</ref>

The resulting storm, which is commonly called a "[[November gale]]" or "November witch", can maintain [[hurricane]]-force [[wind gust]]s, produce waves over {{convert|50|ft|m|0}} high and dump significant falls of rain or snow. Fueled by the warm waters, these powerful storms may remain over the Great Lakes for days.<ref name="weatherdoctor"/> November gales have caused several [[List of storms on the Great Lakes|large storms over the Great Lakes]], with at least twenty-five killer storms affecting the region since 1847.<ref name="weatherdoctor"/> During the [[Mataafa Storm]] in 1905, twenty-seven wooden vessels were lost. During a November gale in 1975, the giant bulk carrier {{SS|Edmund Fitzgerald}} sank suddenly without sending a [[distress signal]] and with all crew still on board.<ref name="weatherwise"/>{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=246}} The large size of the lakes provides [[wind fetch|fetches]] of hundreds of miles allowing huge waves to be developed.{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|pages=31–32}} Their large unobstructed spaces result in [[wind speed]]s higher than nearby inland areas.{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|page=43}} [[Rogue wave]]s (including a phenomenon named the "Three Sisters") are known to occur on the Great Lakes, including waves reinforced by reflections from the vertical shores of some of the lakes.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=47–48}} Waves on the lakes (especially the shallower ones) can be steeper and closer together than on the ocean, allowing less recovery time between waves.{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|pages=31–32}} Compared to the ocean, the Great Lakes also have less maneuvering "sea room" and closer proximity to shores, making it more difficult for ships to weather storms.{{sfn|Ratigan|1960|page=14}}

== Prelude==
The Great Lakes Storm of 1913 was first noticed on Thursday, November 6 on the western side of [[Lake Superior]], moving rapidly toward northern [[Lake Michigan]]. The weather forecast in ''[[The Detroit News]]'' predicted "moderate to brisk" winds at the Great Lakes with occasional rain on Thursday night or Friday for the upper lakes (except southern [[Lake Huron]]) and fair-to-unsettled conditions for the lower lakes.<ref>Weather forecast, ''The Detroit News'', Detroit, Michigan, November 5, 1913.</ref> Around midnight on November 6–7, the [[steamboat|steamer]] ''Cornell'', which was {{convert|50|mi|km}} west of [[Whitefish Point]] in Lake Superior, ran into a sudden northerly gale and was severely damaged. This gale lasted until late November 10 and almost forced ''Cornell'' ashore.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.maritimehistoryofthegreatlakes.ca//documents/1913Storm/default.asp?ID=s15 |title=Steamer Cornell Detailed Account Of Captain Noble's Experiences In Storm On Lake Superior, November 7th, 8th & 9th, 1913 |work=Maritime History of the Great Lakes |access-date=June 8, 2021}}</ref>

== Storm ==
At the time of the storm, the [[United States Weather Bureau]] did not have enough data, communications, analysis capability and understanding of [[atmospheric dynamics]] to predict or understand the storm. They also were unable to predict wind directions to allow ships to avoid or cope with the storm's conditions. More modern studies of the available information and data from the storm provide better descriptions of its weather mechanisms and treat it as two storms.<ref name = Scott/>

By November 7, a string of low-pressure centers in Canada had consolidated into a low-pressure center southwest of Lake Superior which became "Storm #1". At the same time, warm air pushed into the central Great Lakes from the south.<ref name = 2013nwsreview/> By November 8, this storm was moving east through northern Lake Huron while strong northerly winds developed behind it over Lake Superior. By November 9, "Storm #2" had formed over [[the Carolinas]] and [[Virginia]]. The northern portion of this storm began sweeping warm moist Atlantic air over colder air in the Ohio area producing heavy snows.<ref name = 2013nwsreview/> The northwest portion of this extremely powerful storm began creating strong winds from the north along the long axis of Lake Huron, building large waves. By November 10, twenty-four hours of such building had created immense waves which ships were subjected to along with the high winds as the center of the storm crossed north/northwest over [[Lake Erie]] near [[Toronto]].<ref name = 2013nwsreview/> Surface pressures went as low as 968.5 [[millibar]]s, the lowest of the 1913 storm.<ref name = 2013nwsreview>{{Cite web |url=https://www.weather.gov/media/apx/spotter/1913Storm.pdf |title=Great Lakes Hurricane of 1913: A Meteorological Review 100 Years Later |publisher= National Weather Service |last=Gaylord |first=MI |work= Winter Talk Series |date=2013  |access-date= November 3, 2020}}</ref><ref name = usgovdata>{{Cite web |url= https://www.weather.gov/dtx/strm_1913 |title= Snowstorms |publisher= National Weather Service |access-date= November 3, 2010}}</ref>

Winds exceeding hurricane-force occurred over four of the Great Lakes for extended periods.<ref name =weathergov1/> Wave heights observed during the storm were estimated by observation rather than measurement; observations of regular waves exceeding {{convert|35|ft|m|abbr=on}} were corroborated by modern-day simulations which estimate these at {{convert|38|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name =weathergov1/> Interaction between waves (such as those reflected from vertical shorelines) can nearly double wave heights;{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|pages=31–32}} observations of such waves during the storm estimated some as high as {{convert|50|ft|m|abbr=on}}, including the one that crushed the bridge of ''L. C. Waldo''.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=47}}{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|page=40}}

{| class="center toccolours"
|+ '''US weather maps showing the progression of the storm'''
|<gallery mode="packed" heights="140" style="line-height:130%">
File:US weather map, 5 Nov 1913.png|November 5
File:US weather map, 6 Nov 1913.png|November 6
File:US weather map, 7 Nov 1913.png|November 7
File:US weather map, 8 Nov 1913.png|November 8
File:US weather map, 10 Nov 1913.png|November 10
</gallery>
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 
|}

=== November 7 ===
On Friday, the weather forecast in the [[Port Huron, Michigan|Port Huron]], [[Michigan]], ''[[The Times Herald|Times-Herald]]'' described the storm as "moderately severe."<ref name = PHT1>Front page,''The Weather'' ''Port Huron Times-Herald'', Port Huron, Michigan. November 7, 1913.</ref> The forecast predicted increased winds and falling temperatures over the next twenty-four hours.<ref name = PHT1/> At 10:00&nbsp;a.m., [[United States Coast Guard]] stations and all 112 Weather Bureau signal stations on the Great Lakes received a directive to hoist a [[Storm warning|square, red signal flag with a black center]] and a red, triangular [[maritime flags|maritime pennant]] below it, indicating a storm with winds of {{Convert|55|mph|kph|abbr=on}} that would blow from the southwest.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=33–34}} After dark, a red lantern over a white one was displayed to warn of storm winds from the west.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=33–34}} The winds on Lake Superior had already reached {{convert|60|mph|kph|abbr=on}}, with gusts to {{convert|80|mph|kph|abbr=on}} and an accompanying blizzard was moving toward Lake Huron.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=40}} Sustained wind speeds reached {{Convert|62|mph|kph|abbr=on}} and gusts to {{Convert|68|mph|kph|abbr=on}} at [[Duluth]].{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=38}}

=== November 8 ===
[[File:1913 Great Lakes storm wave.jpg|thumb|A wave breaking on the shore of [[Lake Michigan]] in [[Chicago]] while a man watches from a bridge|alt=See caption]]
By Saturday, the storm's status had been upgraded to "[[Severe weather|severe]]." At 10:00&nbsp;a.m., Coast Guard stations and Weather Bureau offices at Lake Superior ports raised white pennants above red and black storm warning flags, indicating a storm warning with northwesterly winds.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=56}} The storm was centered over eastern Lake Superior, covering the entire lake basin. The weather forecast of the ''Times-Herald'' stated southerly winds had remained "moderate to brisk."<ref>Front page, ''Port Huron Times-Herald'', Port Huron, Michigan, November 8, 1913.</ref> Northwesterly winds had reached gale strength on northern Lake Michigan and western Lake Superior.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=59}} Gale wind flags were raised at more than a hundred ports, but many captains continued their journeys. [[Lake freighter|Long ships]] traveled through the [[St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario)|St. Marys River]] all that day, through the [[Straits of Mackinac]] all night and up the [[Detroit River|Detroit]] and [[St. Clair River|St. Clair]] rivers early the following morning.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=44–67}}

The 472-foot steel [[bulk carrier|bulk freighter]] ''L. C. Waldo'', eighteen hours out of [[Two Harbors, Minnesota]], was overrun by monster waves out of the northwest on Lake Michigan. Approximately forty-five miles northeast of the [[Keweenaw Peninsula]], an estimated 50' rogue wave smashed the [[bridge (nautical)|wheelhouse]]; bent the steel floor of the compass room; swept the wheelsman out of the wheelhouse; and tore three of the walls from the "[[Texas (steamboat)|texas]]", the level of the deck house below the wheelhouse.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=47–48}} The captain ordered that the ship be turned around to try to reach shelter behind the Keweenaw Peninsula. As recounted by second mate Feeger: "The wind sent on gigantic wave after another over parts of the ship...The snow was so blinding that none of us could see 50 feet ahead".{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=47–48}} ''L. C. Waldo''{{'}}s [[rudder]] then failed; helpless without it, 70mph winds drove the ship aground on Gull Rock near [[Manitou Island (Lake Superior)|Manitou Island]]. With the bow wedged in the rocks, the hull shredded and a crack forming in the deck, the captain ordered everyone to the bow and that the ship be flooded to prevent her from being washed back into the depths of the lake.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=59–61}} The steward's wife and her mother were reluctant to leave the stern and the crew struggled to carry them over hundreds of feet of open deck in the storm, including traversing a now-widening crack. During the process the [[chief engineer]] and two stokers ran the ship at full power to try to wedge the bow further onto the shore. They then abandoned the stern and took shelter with the others in the unheated [[Anchor windlass|windlass room]].{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=59–61}}

=== November 9 ===
By noon on Sunday, weather conditions on lower Lake Huron were close to normal for a November gale. [[Barometric pressure]]s in some areas began to rise, bringing hopes of an end to the storm. The [[low pressure area]] that had moved across Lake Superior was moving northeast, away from the lakes.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=80}} The Weather Bureau issued the first of its twice-daily reports at approximately 8:00&nbsp;a.m.; it did not send another report to [[Washington, D.C.]], until 8:00&nbsp;p.m. This proved to be a serious problem; the storm would have most of the day to build up hurricane-force winds before the Bureau headquarters in Washington would have detailed information.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=80}}{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=12}}

[[File:Cleveland blizzard 1913, poles down.png|thumb|left|East 105th Street, [[Cleveland]] (photo of downed power lines taken on November 11)|alt=A man stands in the middle of a street while pole lines lean over him.]]
Along southeastern Lake Erie near [[Erie, Pennsylvania|Erie]], [[Pennsylvania]], a southern low-pressure area was moving toward the lake. This low had formed overnight so was absent from Friday's weather map. It had been moving northward but turned northwestward after passing over Washington.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=99–101}} The low's intense, [[clockwise and counterclockwise|counterclockwise]] rotation was made apparent by the changing wind directions around its center. In [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[New York (state)|New York]], morning northwest winds had shifted to the northeast by noon and to the southeast by 5:00&nbsp;p.m., with gusts of up to {{convert|80|mph|kph|abbr=on}} occurring between 1:00&nbsp;p.m. and 2:00&nbsp;p.m. In [[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], {{convert|180|mi|km}} to the southwest, winds remained northwest during the day, shifting to the west by 5:00&nbsp;p.m., and maintaining speeds of more than {{convert|50|mph|kph|abbr=on}}. The fastest gust in Cleveland, {{convert|79|mph|kph|abbr=on}}, occurred at 4:40&nbsp;p.m. At Buffalo, barometric pressure dropped from 29.52&nbsp;[[Pressure|inHg]] (999.7&nbsp;[[hPa]]) at 8:00&nbsp;a.m. to 28.77&nbsp;inHg (974.3&nbsp;hPa) at 8:00&nbsp;p.m.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=99–101}}

The rotating low continued northward into the evening, bringing its counterclockwise winds in phase with the northwesterly winds already hitting Lakes Superior and Huron. This resulted in a dramatic increase in northerly wind speeds and swirling snow.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=99–101}} Ships on Lake Huron that were south of [[Alpena, Michigan]]—especially around [[Harbor Beach, Michigan|Harbor Beach]] and Port Huron in Michigan, and [[Goderich, Ontario|Goderich]] and [[Sarnia, Ontario|Sarnia]] in [[Ontario]]—experienced massive waves moving southward toward St. Clair River.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=68–103}} Some ships sought shelter along the Michigan shore or between Goderich and [[Point Edward, Ontario]]. Three of the larger ships were found [[capsizing|capsized]], indicating extremely high winds and tall waves.<ref name="Scott"/> From 8:00&nbsp;p.m. to midnight, the storm became a "[[weather bomb]]" with sustained hurricane-force winds of more than {{convert|70|mph|kph|abbr=on}} on the four western lakes. The worst damage was done on Lake Huron as ships sought shelter along its southern end. Gusts of {{convert|90|mph|kph|abbr=on}} were reported off Harbor Beach. The lake's shape allowed northerly winds to increase unimpeded because water has less [[surface friction]] than land and because the wind followed the lake's length.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=101}}

Weather forecasters of the time did not have enough data or understanding of atmospheric dynamics to predict or comprehend the events of Sunday November 9. [[Weather front|Frontal]] mechanisms, which were then referred to as "squall lines", were not yet understood. Surface observations were only collected twice daily at stations around the country; by the time these data were collected and maps were hand-drawn, the information was no longer representative of the actual weather conditions.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=13, 19, 68}}

=== November 10 and 11 ===
The storm had moved northeast of [[London, Ontario]], on the morning of Monday November 10, with [[lake effect snow|lake effect blizzards]] behind it. An additional {{convert|17|in|cm}} of snow fell on Cleveland that day, filling the streets with snowdrifts {{convert|6|ft|m}} high. [[Streetcar]] operators stayed with their stranded, powerless vehicles for two nights, eating food provided by local residents. Travelers were forced to take shelter and wait for the storm to pass.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=127}}

By Tuesday, the storm was rapidly moving across eastern Canada. Without the warm lake waters, it quickly lost strength. The system carried less snowfall because of its speed and the lack of lake effect snow.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=163}} All shipping along the [[St. Lawrence River]] around [[Montreal]], was halted on Monday and part of Tuesday.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=163}}

== Aftermath ==
The storm was the deadliest, most destructive [[natural disaster]] in recorded history to hit the Great Lakes, killing more than 250 people, destroying nineteen ships and stranding nineteen others.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=208, 222}}{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=xvii}}<ref>Annual Report of the Lake Carriers' Association. 1913.</ref> About [[United States dollar|US$]]1 million of cargo—including coal, iron ore and grain—weighing about 68,300&nbsp;[[tonnage|tons]] was lost.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=203, 225}}

=== Surrounding shoreline ===
[[File:DetroitNews-11-13-1913.png|thumb|alt=The front page of a newspaper with the headline "Death Toll on Lakes May Be 273"|''[[The Detroit News]]'' storm headlines, November 13, 1913]]
[[File:Wexford victims ashore, 1913.png|thumb|alt=see caption|Bodies from ''Wexford'' washed ashore near [[Goderich, Ontario]]]]
Along the shoreline, blizzards stopped traffic and communication, causing hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage. Cleveland received {{convert|22|in|cm}} of heavy snow combined with sustained winds of {{convert|62|mph|kph|abbr=on}} with gusts to {{convert|79|mph|kph|abbr=on}} and ice formation.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=144–145}} There were {{convert|4|ft|cm|adj=on|spell=in}} snowdrifts around Lake Huron. Electricity supply was disrupted for several days across Michigan and Ontario, cutting off telephone and [[telegraphy|telegraph]] communications. A recently-completed US$100,000 [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwater]] at Chicago, which was intended to protect the [[Lincoln Park, Chicago|Lincoln Park]] basin from storms, was swept away in a few hours.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=94}} The [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]], harbor lost its south breakwater and much of the surrounding South Park area that had been recently renovated.{{sfn|Barcus|1986|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GGOxIAzg-m0C&pg=PA6 6]}}

After the final blizzards hit Cleveland, the city was paralyzed under feet of ice and snow, and was without power for days. Telephone poles were broken and power cables lay in tangled masses. Nearly all rail traffic was halted. The November 11 ''[[The Plain Dealer|Plain Dealer]]'' described the aftermath: "Cleveland lay in white and mighty solitude, mute and deaf to the outside world, a city of lonesome snowiness, storm-swept from end to end, when the violence of the two-day blizzard lessened late yesterday afternoon."{{efn|Reprinted in Brown (2002).{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=162}}}}  William H. Alexander, Cleveland's chief weather forecaster, commented:

<blockquote>Take it all in all—the depth of the snowfall, the tremendous wind, the amount of damage done and the total unpreparedness of the people—I think it is safe to say that the present storm is the worst experienced in Cleveland during the whole forty-three years the U.S. Weather Bureau has been established in the city.{{efn|Reprinted in Brown (2002).{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=163}}}}</blockquote>

There was a small death toll in Cleveland considering the severity of the storm.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=146–147}} Sources describe one freezing death, plus some deaths from accidents. One death and one near-death were from downed power lines.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=146–147}} Immediately following the blizzard, the city began a campaign to move all [[Utility pole|utility cable]]s [[undergrounding|underground]] in tubes beneath major streets. The project took five years.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=162}}

=== On the lakes ===
The greatest damage was done on the Great Lakes. [[List of shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm|Major shipwrecks occurred on all but Lake Ontario]], with most happening on southern and southwestern Lake Huron. Captains reported waves reaching at least {{convert|35|ft|m|abbr=on}} in height.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=223}} These waves were shorter in length than waves usually formed by gales and occurred in rapid succession. Rocky shores prevalent on the lakes reflect rather than absorb waves. Reflected waves can combine with incoming waves to create [[rogue wave]]s of up to {{Convert|50|ft|m|abbr=on}}.

In the late afternoon of November 10, an unknown vessel was spotted floating upside-down in about {{convert|60|ft|m}} of water on the eastern coast of Michigan, within sight of Huronia Beach and the mouth of the St. Clair River. Determining the identity of this "mystery ship" became a national interest, resulting in daily front-page newspaper coverage. The ship eventually sank and was identified on November 15 as ''Charles S. Price''.{{sfn|Minnich|1989|page=218}} The front page of that day's ''Times-Herald'' extra edition read: "BOAT IS PRICE—DIVER IS BAKER—SECRET KNOWN."<ref>Front page, ''Port Huron Times-Herald'' EXTRA edition, Port Huron, Michigan, November 15, 1913.</ref> Milton Smith, an assistant engineer who decided at the last moment not to join his crew on premonition of disaster, helped identify bodies from the wreck.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=196–199}} Among the debris cast up by the storm was the wreckage of the [[tugboat]] ''Searchlight'', which was lost in April 1907.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gendisasters.com/michigan/16028/harbor-beach-mi-lake-huron-fishing-tug-searchlight-lost-apr-1907 |title=Harbor Beach, MI (Lake Huron) Fishing Tug Searchlight Lost, Apr 1907 |newspaper=[[Daily Chronicle (Michigan)|Daily Chronicle]] |location=Marshall, Michigan |date=April 25, 1907 |access-date=July 19, 2019| via=Gendisasters.com}}</ref>

The final tally of financial loss was approximately US$4,780,000 ({{Inflation|US|4780000|1913|fmt=eq|r=-4}}). This included US$2,332,000 for totally lost vessels, US$830,900 for vessels that became constructive total losses, US$620,000 for vessels stranded but returned to service and approximately US$1,000,000 in lost cargoes. This figure excludes financial losses in coastal cities.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=245}}

While the storm was the main cause of damage on the lakes, human factors, including measures that could have reduced the storm's effects but were not taken, also contributed. Post-storm conversations mostly focused on placing blame but served to highlight weaknesses.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=205–226}} The Weather Bureau did not have the ability to predict the storm but hesitated to admit its limitations because it wanted to secure higher budgets. Instead, it focused on the terminology and nature of warnings.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=205–210}} Another factor was the underpowering of large ships that affected their ability to travel, maneuver and hold steady in severe storms. Even with both anchors dropped and steaming full power into the wind, several were unable to avoid being carried backward. For example, the {{Convert|504|foot|meter|abbr=out|adj=mid|-long}} ''Charles S. Price'' had a single 1,760 horsepower engine. Three years after the storm, the same shipyard built a {{convert|587|ft|m|adj=mid|-long}} freighter with only 1,800 horsepower.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=217–219}}

The [[geometry]] of the lakes and [[lock (water navigation)|locks]], combined with operational economics, dictated the use of slimmer, shallower ships than comparable ocean-going vessels, reducing stability and structural strength.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=221–222}} The "straight deck" ship design was becoming prevalent, requiring more and larger hatch covers, which increased vulnerability to storms.{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|page=5}}  Insufficient strength of the hatches and their fastenings was also noted, as well as the shortness of the {{Convert|12|inch|cm|abbr=on}} hatch [[coaming]]s.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=221}} The limited compartmentalization of cargo holds meant the flooding of one compartment was sufficient to sink the ship.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=195}} The practice of not "[[Bulk carrier#Stability problems|trimming]]" or leveling the pyramid-shape piles of bulk solid cargo made them more prone to shifting and causing a capsize.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=220}} Many raised concerns about the practice of shipping companies incentivizing or pressuring captains to sail during the dangerous November season and during dangerous weather. These concerns continued and were echoed sixty-two years later after the sinking of ''Edmund Fitzgerald''.{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=215}}{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|pages=31–32}}{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|page=155}} Few of these factors were acted upon.{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|pages=66–68}} One change was that the Weather Bureau clarified their previous ambiguity and said that they would post a higher-than-gale level warning for the most severe predicted storms.{{sfn|Brown|2002|pages=217–221}}

== Ships foundered ==
{{Main article|List of shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm}}
{{wide image|Great Lakes 1913 Storm Shipwrecks.png|500px|Geographical diagram of ships wrecked during the storm{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|alt=See caption}}
{{GeoGroup}}
The ships that sank during the storm with all hands are ordered in the table below by the number of victims. The table does not include the three victims from the freighter ''William Nottingham'', who had volunteered to leave the ship on a [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]] in search of assistance.{{Efn|While the boat was being lowered into the water, a breaking wave smashed it into the side of the ship. The men disappeared into the near-freezing waters below.}}{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=223}} Most of the bodies were recovered on the Canadian shores of southern Lake Huron.{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|page=145}} The lost ships included some of the newest and largest ships on the Great Lakes.{{sfn|Schumacher|2013|pages=31–32}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name !! Body of water !! Number of victims !! Year located !! Approximate coordinates !! Ship Length !! Ship beam !!{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}
|-
|[[SS Isaac M. Scott|''Isaac M. Scott'']]|| [[Lake Huron]]|| 28{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| 1976<ref name="NOAA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.regions.noaa.gov/great-lakes/index.php/highlights-archive/centennial_anniversary_storm_of_1913/shipwrecks-damages-casualties/|title=Shipwrecks of the 1913 storm|work=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=December 1, 2019}}</ref>|| {{coord|45.065333|-83.039217|name=Isaac M. Scott}}||{{convert|504|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|54|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS Charles S. Price|''Charles S. Price'']]|| Lake Huron|| 28{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| 1913<ref name="NOAA"/>|| {{coord|43.1529|-82.3529|name=Charles S. Price}}||{{convert|504|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|54|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS John A. McGean|''John A. McGean'']]|| Lake Huron|| 28{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| 1985<ref name="NOAA"/>|| {{coord|43.953267|-82.528617|name=John A. McGean}}||{{convert|432|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|52|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS Argus|''Argus'']]|| Lake Huron|| 28{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| 1972<ref name="NOAA"/>|| {{coord|44.2355|-82.7917|name=Argus}}||{{convert|436|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|50|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS Hydrus|''Hydrus'']]|| Lake Huron|| 25{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| 2015<ref name="Hydrus">{{Cite news |first=Jim |last=Schaefer |title=Man discovers Lake Huron shipwreck missing since 1913 |date=November 9, 2015 |work=[[Detroit Free Press]] |url=http://www.freep.com/story/news/2015/11/09/shipwreck-hunter-finds-ghost-great-storm-1913/75332346/ |access-date=November 9, 2015}}</ref>|| {{coord|43.283333|-82.433333|name=Hydrus}}||{{convert|436|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|50|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS Henry B. Smith|''Henry B. Smith'']]|| [[Lake Superior]]|| 23{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| 2013<ref name="NOAA"/><ref>{{Cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610142647/http://www.duluthnewstribune.com/event/article/id/269445/|archive-date=June 10, 2013|url=https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/news/100-years-after-ore-boat-disappeared-lake-superior-storm-searchers-locate-wreck-2|title=100 years after ore boat disappeared in Lake Superior storm, searchers locate wreck|date=June 9, 2013|newspaper=[[Duluth News Tribune]]|first=Andrew|last=Krueger}}</ref>|| {{Coord|46.914|-87.333|name=Henry B. Smith}}||{{convert|545|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|55|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS James Carruthers|''James Carruthers'']]|| Lake Huron|| 22{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| Not located || Unknown ||{{convert|550|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|58|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS Regina (1907)|''Regina'']]|| Lake Huron|| 20{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| 1986<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shipwrecks.com/1913-shipwreck-regina/|title=History & Salvage of the SS Regina|work=Shipwrecks.com|access-date=December 1, 2019}}</ref>|| {{coord|43.337|-82.446|name=Regina}} ||{{convert|249.25|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|42.5|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS Wexford|''Wexford'']]|| Lake Huron|| 20{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| 2000<ref name="NOAA"/>|| {{coord|43.416667|-81.916667|name=Wexford}}||{{convert|250|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|40|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[SS Leafield|''Leafield'']]|| Lake Superior|| 18{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| Not located || Unknown || {{convert|249|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|35.5|ft|m|abbr=on}}|| 
|-
|[[SS Plymouth|''Plymouth'']]|| [[Lake Michigan]]|| 7{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}|| Not located || Unknown || {{convert|213|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|32|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|-
|[[United States lightship Buffalo (LV-82)|LV-82 ''Buffalo'']]|| [[Lake Erie]]|| 6{{sfn|Brown|2002|page=203}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vogel |first1=Michael N. |first2=Paul F. |last2=Redding |title= Maritime Buffalo |date= 1990 |publisher= Western New York Heritage Institute |isbn= 978-1878097019}} As excerpted with authors' permission by [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305024543/http://www.buffalohistoryworks.com/light/introduction.htm Buffalohistoryworks.com] at [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305192049/www.buffalohistoryworks.com/light/light-vessel.htm Maritime Buffalo, Buffalo History, Lightship LV 82] on March 5, 2016. Retrieved November 4, 2021.</ref>|| 1914<ref name="NOAA"/>|| Raised and later scrapped || {{convert|95.2|ft|m|abbr=on}}||{{convert|21|ft|m|abbr=on}}||
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Lakes|Weather}}
* [[October 2010 North American storm complex]]
* [[List of storms on the Great Lakes]]

== References ==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{Notelist|30em}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== General and cited references ===
* {{Cite book |last1=Barcus |first1=Frank|title=Freshwater Fury: Yarns and Reminiscences of the Greatest Storm in Inland Navigation |year=1986 |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |series=Great Lakes Books Series |location=Detroit, Michigan |page=166 |isbn=0-8143-1828-2}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Brown |first1=David G. |year=2002 |title=White Hurricane: A Great Lakes November Gale and America's Deadliest Maritime Disaster |publisher=International Marine/ [[McGraw-Hill]]|isbn=0-07-138037-X}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Minnich |first1=Jerry |title=The Wisconsin Almanac: Being a Loosely Organized Compendium of Facts, History, Lore, Remembrances, Puzzles, Recipes, and Both Household and Gardening Advice with Which to Offer Elucidation, Assistance, and Occasional Amusement to the Conscientious Reader |location=Madison, Wisconsin |publisher=[[North Country Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=0-944133-06-1}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Ratigan|first1=William |year=1960 |title=Great Lakes Shipwrecks and Survivals |location=Grand Rapids |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. |isbn=0-88365-243-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schumacher |first=Michael |date=2013 |title= November's Fury: The Deadly Great Lakes Hurricane of 1913 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0816687206}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last1=Hemming |first1=Robert J. |year=1992 |title=Ships Gone Missing: The Great Lakes Storm of 1913 |location=Chicago |publisher=Contemporary Books |isbn=0-8092-3909-4}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Shipley|first1=Robert |first2=Fred |last2=Addis |year=1992 |title=Wrecks and Disasters: Great Lakes Album Series |location=St. Catharines, Ont. |publisher=Vanwell Publishing Limited |isbn=0-920277-77-2}}

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.maritimehistoryofthegreatlakes.ca/documents/1913Storm/ Personal experiences of Captains of the Lake Fleet]
{{1913 shipwrecks}}{{Greatlakes}}
{{United States winter storms}}

[[Category:1913 disasters in Canada]]
[[Category:1913 in Michigan]]
[[Category:1913 in Ohio]]
[[Category:1913 in Ontario]]
[[Category:1913 meteorology]]
[[Category:1913 natural disasters in the United States]]
[[Category:1913 natural disasters]]
[[Category:Blizzards in Canada|1913-11]]
[[Category:Blizzards in the United States|1913-11]]
[[Category:Great Lakes]]
[[Category:History of Cleveland]]
[[Category:Lake Huron]]
[[Category:Natural disasters in Ontario]]
[[Category:November 1913 events in North America]]
[[Category:Shipwrecks in the Great Lakes]]