View source for Korean–Jurchen border conflicts

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Korean–Jurchen border conflicts
| partof            = 
| image             = 북관유적도첩-척경입비도.jpg
| caption           = A historical painting depicting the scene of [[Yun Kwan]] of [[Goryeo]] conquering the Jurchens and erecting a monument to mark the border.
| date              = 10th century – 17th century
| place             = North-eastern [[Korean Peninsula]]
| casus             = 
| territory         = Korea annexed the entire peninsula with the conquest of [[Hamgyong Province|Hamgyong]].
| result            = Goryeo: Stalemate<br />Joseon: Initially victory then [[Later Jin invasion of Joseon|defeated by the Later Jin]]
| combatant1        = [[Goryeo]]<ref name="YiPak2005">{{cite book|author1=Hyŏn-hŭi Yi|author2=Sŏng-su Pak|author3=Nae-hyŏn Yun|title=New history of Korea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KO8MAQAAMAAJ&q=baekjeong+khitan+jurchen|year=2005|publisher=Jimoondang|isbn=978-89-88095-85-0|page=288}}</ref><br />[[Joseon]]
| combatant2        = [[Jurchens]]<br />[[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]<br />[[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin dynasty]]
| commander1        = [[Yun Kwan]]<br />[[Kim Jong-seo (general)|Kim Jong-seo]]
| commander2        = [[Wuyashu]]<br />[[Amin (Qing dynasty)|Amin]]
| strength1         = 
| strength2         = 
| casualties1       = 
| casualties2       = 
| notes             = 
}}

The '''Korean–Jurchen border conflicts''' were a series of conflicts from the 10th century to the 17th century between the Korean states of [[Goryeo]] and [[Joseon]] and the [[Jurchen people]].

==Background==
In 993, the land between the border of Liao and Goryeo was occupied by troublesome [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] tribes, but the Goryeo diplomat [[Sŏ Hŭi]] was able to negotiate with [[Liao dynasty|Liao]] and obtain that land up to the [[Yalu River]], citing that in the past it belonged to [[Goguryeo]], the predecessor to Goryeo.<ref>{{harvnb|Yun|1998}}, p.64: "By the end of the negotiation, Sô Hûi had ... ostensibly for the purpose of securing safe diplomatic passage, obtained an explicit Khitan consent to incorporate the land between the Ch’ôngch’ôn and Amnok Rivers into Koryô territory."</ref><ref>“自契丹东京至我安北府数百里之地,皆为生女真所据。光宗取之,筑嘉州、松城等城,今契丹之来,其志不过取 北二城,其声言取高勾丽旧地者,实恐我也”(高丽史)</ref>

Both Balhae remnants and miscellaneous tribal peoples like Jurchens lived in the area between the Yalu and [[Daedong river|Daedong]] rivers which was targeted for annexation by Goryeo.<ref name="TwitchettFranke1994">{{cite book|author1=Denis C. Twitchett|author2=Herbert Franke|author3=John King Fairbank|title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iN9Tdfdap5MC&pg=PA100|date=25 November 1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24331-5|pages=100–}}</ref>

== Goryeo period ==
[[File:북관유적도첩-척경입비도.jpg|200px|thumb|left|General Yun Kwan (1040–1111) and his army.]]

The Jurchens in the [[Yalu River]] region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of [[Taejo of Goryeo]] (r. 918-943), who called upon them during the wars of the [[Later Three Kingdoms]] period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat [[Later Baekje]]. The Jurchens switched allegiances between the Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications.<ref name="Breuker 2010">{{harvnb|Breuker|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wZx0VvujPqcC&dq=jurchen+sedentary&pg=PA221 220–221]}}. "The Jurchen settlements in the Amnok River region had been tributaries of Koryŏ since the establishment of the dynasty, when T'aejo Wang Kŏn heavily relied on a large segment of Jurchen cavalry to defeat the armies of Later Paekche. The position and status of these Jurchen is hard to determine using the framework of the Koryŏ and Liao states as reference, since the Jurchen leaders generally took care to steer a middle course between Koryŏ and Liao, changing sides or absconding whenever that was deemed the best course. As mentioned above, Koryŏ and Liao competed quite fiercely to obtain the allegiance of the Jurchen settlers who in the absence of large armies effectively controlled much of the frontier area outside the Koryŏ and Liao fortifications. These Jurchen communities were expert in handling the tension between Liao and Koryŏ, playing out divide-and-rule policies backed up by threats of border violence. It seems that the relationship between the semi-nomadic Jurchen and their peninsular neighbours bore much resemblance to the relationship between Chinese states and their nomad neighbours, as described by Thomas Barfield."</ref> These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by the Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship.{{sfn|Breuker|2010|p=221-222}} Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens.{{sfn|Breuker|2010|p=222}}

The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under the reign of Jurchen leader [[Wuyashu]] (r. 1103–1113) of the [[Wanyan]] clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region.{{sfn|Breuker|2010|p=223}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tillman|first1=Hoyt Cleveland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IdYGiGan4o8C&pg=PA27|title=China Under Jurchen Rule|last2=West|first2=Stephen H|year=1995|publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-2273-1|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Twitchett|Fairbank|Franke|1994|p=221}}

As the geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens.<ref name="거란의 고려침입">{{cite web |script-title=ko:거란의 고려침입 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/kc/main.do?levelId=kc_i200300 |website=한국사 연대기 |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean History]] |access-date=22 April 2019 |language=ko}}</ref> In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages.<ref>{{cite web |last1=신천식 |script-title=ko:김단(金旦) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0008888 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko}}</ref> In 1080, [[Munjong of Goryeo]] led a force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached [[Chongju]] while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Im Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Im Gan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by [[Yun Kwan]], but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace.<ref nam"여진정벌">{{Cite encyclopedia |script-entry=ko:여진정벌 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |entry-url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0066626}}</ref>{{sfn|Lee|1984|p=127}}

Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the [[Byeolmuban]] (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. It existed apart from the main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a ''Hangmagun'' ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch'on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue, the Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the [[Wanyan|Wanyan clan]].{{sfn|Breuker|2010|p=224}}{{sfn|Brown|2014|p=793}}{{sfn|Lee|1984|p=127-128}} It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of the region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju ([[Uiju County|Uiju]]), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain.{{sfn|Breuker|2010|p=225-226}}

Later, Wuyashu's younger brother [[Emperor Taizu of Jin|Aguda]] founded the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)]]. When the Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ".{{sfn|Breuker|2010|p=137}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-61576-2|page=126|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&q=%22they+looked+upon+Koryo+in+particular+as+their+parent+country%22|access-date=30 July 2016|language=en|year=1984}}</ref> The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the [[Balhae]] people in the [[Liao dynasty]].{{sfn|Kim|2011b|p=173}} The Jin went on to conquer the Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of [[Kaifeng]] in 1127 ([[Jingkang incident]]). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, [[Yi Cha-gyŏm]] was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself a Jin vassal (tributary).{{sfn|Lee|1984|p=128}}<ref name="Franke">{{harvnb|Twitchett|Fairbank|Franke|1994|p=229}}: "the king of Koryŏ declared himself a vassal of Chin in the summer of 1126."</ref><ref name="EWJ">{{harvnb|Ebrey|Walthall|2014}}, {{Google books|6F2XLmIVAaYC||page=171}}: "In the case of the Jurchen Jin, the [Goryeo] court decided to transfer its tributary relationship from the Liao to Jin before serious violence broke out." Also p.172: "Koryŏ enrolled as a Jin tributary".</ref> However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable.{{sfn|Breuker|2010|p=229-230}}

== Joseon period ==

The Joseon Koreans tried to deal with the Jurchens by using both forceful means and incentives. Sometimes the military was dispatched, in tandem with appeasement with titles and degrees, and allowing Jurchens to sell furs for Joseon crops to make up for Jurchens' lack of food. Starting with Lee Ji-ran's recommendation and example, attempts were started to acculturate Jurchens by having Koreans marry them to integrate them into Korea. Despite the tributary relations and gifting and acculturating, many Jurchen tribes were submissive one year and rebellious the next.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe4PoOd89XIC&pg=PA138 Seth 2006], p. 138.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=WJtMGXyGlUEC&pg=PA144 Seth 2010], p. 144.</ref> By the 1400s, the Ming [[Yongle Emperor]] was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead.<ref>[http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/5/4/0/3/pages254039/p254039-29.php Zhang 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420101750/http://citation.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/5/4/0/3/pages254039/p254039-29.php |date=2014-04-20 }}, p. 29.</ref><ref name="Dardess2012">{{cite book|author=John W. Dardess|title=Ming China, 1368-1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vLn_IZZVMUC&q=ming+yunnan+liaodong&pg=PA18|year=2012|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-0490-4|pages=18–}}</ref> 

A key Jurchen leader named [[Mengtemu]] (Möngke Temür), chief of the Odoli Jurchens, who had always claimed he had been a servant of the [[Taejo of Joseon]] since Taejo's days as a border general of Goryeo, and even following him ([[Lee Seong-gye King Taejo|Taejo Lee Seong-gye]]) to his wars, because he fed Mengtemu's family and provided land for him to live during his impoverished youth. Mengtemu was asked by Joseon to reject Ming's overtures, but was unsuccessful since Mengtemu folded and submitted to the Ming in 1412.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=JWpF-dObxW8C&dq=menggetimur&pg=PA1066 Goodrich 1976], p. 1066.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA13 Peterson 2002], p. 13.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&dq=menggetimur&pg=PA287 Twitchett 1998], pp. 286-287.</ref><ref>[http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/5/4/0/3/pages254039/p254039-30.php Zhang 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420070321/http://citation.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/5/4/0/3/pages254039/p254039-30.php |date=2014-04-20 }}, p. 30.</ref>

Joseon under [[Sejong the Great]] engaged in military campaigns against the Jurchen and after defeating the [[List of Jurchen chieftains|Odoli]], [[List of Jurchen chieftains|Maolian]] and [[List of Jurchen chieftains|Udige]] clans, Joseon managed to take control of [[Hamgyong Province|Hamgyong]]. This shaped the modern borders of Korea around 1450, when several border forts were established in the region.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haywood|first1=John|last2=Jotischky|first2=Andrew|last3=McGlynn|first3=Sean|title=Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600-1492|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQMUNgAACAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Barnes & Noble|isbn=978-0-7607-1976-3|pages=3.24}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
[[File:清 佚名 《清太祖天命皇帝朝服像》.jpg|thumb|[[Nurhaci]]]]
[[Nurhaci]], who was originally a [[vassalage]] to the Ming dynasty,<ref>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank, p. 29</ref> made efforts to [[Jurchen unification|unify the Jurchen tribes]] including the [[Jianzhou Jurchens|Jianzhou]], [[Haixi Jurchens|Haixi]] and [[Wild Jurchens]].<ref name="Kang2006">{{cite book|author=Jae-eun Kang|title=The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iB8R0oEH3kEC&pg=PA319|year=2006|publisher=Homa & Sekey Books|isbn=978-1-931907-37-8|pages=319–}}</ref> He offered the Ming dynasty to send Jianzhou Jurchen troops into Korea to fight against the Japanese forces during the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasions of Korea]] in the 1590s. The Ming dynasty was still fully recognized by Nurhaci as his overlord since he did not send this message to Joseon and only to the Ming. Nurhaci's offer to fight against the Japanese was denied due to misgivings from the [[Koreans]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Seonmin Kim|title=Ginseng and Borderland: Territorial Boundaries and Political Relations Between Qing China and Choson Korea, 1636-1912|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLkyDwAAQBAJ&dq=korean+jurchens+zhongguo&pg=PA169|date=19 September 2017|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-29599-5|pages=169–}}</ref> but the Ming awarded Nurhaci the title of dragon-tiger general (龍虎將軍) along with another Jurchen leader.<ref>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank, p. 30</ref>

Nurhaci later established the [[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin dynasty]] and openly renounced Ming overlordship with the [[Seven Grievances]] in 1618.<ref>{{cite book|author=Huiyun Feng|title=China's Challenges and International Order Transition|year=2020|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=9780472131761|pages=149}}</ref> A 30,000-strong Jurchen force led by Nurhaci's nephew [[Amin (Qing dynasty)|Amin]] overran Joseon's defenses during the [[Later Jin invasion of Joseon]] in 1627. The Jurchens pushed Joseon to adopt "brotherly relations" with the Later Jin through a treaty. In 1636, Nurhaci's son and Qing emperor [[Hong Taiji]] dispatched a [[Qing invasion of Joseon|punitive expedition to Joseon]] because [[Injo of Joseon]] persisted in his anti-Jurchen (anti-Manchu) policies. Having been defeated, Joseon was compelled to sever ties with the Ming and instead recognized the Qing as suzerain according to the [[Tributary system of China|imperial Chinese tributary system]].<ref>{{cite book|title=World History|year=2018|publisher=EDTECH|isbn=9781839472800|pages=75}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Goryeo–Khitan War]]
* [[Mongol invasions of Korea]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
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* {{citation |last = Breuker |first = Remco E. |year = 2010 |title = Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea, 918-1170: History, Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty |volume = 1 of Brill's Korean Studies Library |publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location = [[Leiden]], [[South Holland]] |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wZx0VvujPqcC |isbn=978-9004183254 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wZx0VvujPqcC&dq=jurchen+sedentary&pg=PA221 220]-221 }}
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{{refend}}

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{{Goryeo topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Korean-Jurchen border conflicts}}
[[Category:History of China–Korea relations|*History]]
[[Category:Wars involving Imperial China]]
[[Category:Wars involving Goryeo]]
[[Category:Wars involving Joseon]]
[[Category:Military history of Korea]]
[[Category:Jurchen history]]
[[Category:Military history of Manchuria]]
[[Category:10th century in Korea]]
[[Category:11th century in Korea]]
[[Category:12th century in Korea]]
[[Category:13th century in Korea]]
[[Category:14th century in Korea]]
[[Category:15th century in Korea]]
[[Category:16th century in Korea]]
[[Category:17th century in Korea]]
[[Category:Invasions of Korea]]
[[Category:Invasions by Korea]]