View source for Kwaza language

{{Short description|Endangered language spoken in Brazil}}
{{redirect|Koaia language|the language of the Mato Grosso|Mato Grosso Arara language}}
{{distinguish| Kwʼadza language}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Kwaza
| nativename = Koaiá
| pronunciation = {{IPA|[kwaʔða]}}
| states = [[Brazil]]
| region = [[Rondônia]]
| speakers = 25
| date = 2014
| ref = e18
| familycolor = American
| family = [[unclassified language|unclassified]]
| iso3 = xwa
| glotto = kwaz1243
| glottorefname = Kwaza
| notice = IPA
}}
'''Kwaza''' (also written as '''Kwazá''' or '''Koaiá''') is an [[endangered language|endangered]] Amazonian language spoken by the [[Kwaza people]] of [[Brazil]].<ref name="PIB Socioambiental">{{Cite web |title=Kwazá |website=PIB Socioambiental |url=https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/Povo:Kwaz%c3%a1 |access-date=March 28, 2024}}</ref> Kwaza is an [[unclassified language]]. It has grammatical similarities with neighboring [[Aikanã language|Aikanã]] and [[Kanoê language|Kanoê]], but it's not yet clear if that is due to a genealogical relationship or to contact.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

Little is known about Kwaza people and language due to the minimal historical sources available; if mentioned in reliable documents, it is usually in reference to its neighbors.  What is known, is that the Kwaza people were at one point a nation of a few thousand people, which could be subdivided into various groups.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

The Kwaza language is threatened by extinction. In 2004, the language was spoken on a day-to-day basis by just 54 people living in the south of the state of [[Rondônia]], Brazil. Of those 54, more than half were children, and half were [[Multilingualism|trilingual]], speaking Kwaza, [[Aikanã language|Aikanã]], and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and some were [[Multilingualism|bilingual]], also speaking Portuguese.<ref name="PIB Socioambiental" /> They live south of the original home of the Kwaza, on the [[Tuba Rao-Latundê]] indigenous reserve.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005|p=368}}

==Classification==
Van der Voort (2005) observes similarities among Kwaza, [[Kanoê language|Kanoê]], and [[Aikanã language|Aikanã]], but believes the evidence is not strong enough to definitively link the three languages together as part of a single language family. Hence, Kwaza is best considered to be a [[language isolate]].{{sfn|van der Voort|2005}}

An automated computational analysis ([[Automated Similarity Judgment Program|ASJP]] 4) by Müller et al. (2013)<ref>Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ''[https://asjp.clld.org/enwiki/static/WorldLanguageTree-004.zip ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013)]''.</ref> also found lexical similarities between Kwaza and Aikanã. However, since the analysis was automatically generated, the grouping could be either due to mutual lexical borrowing or genetic inheritance.

==Language contact==
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the [[Taruma language|Taruma]], [[Arawak languages|Arawak]], [[Jeoromitxi language|Jeoromitxi]], [[Arawa languages|Arawa]], [[Jivaro languages|Jivaro]], [[Mura-Matanawi languages|Mura-Matanawi]], [[Nambikwara languages|Nambikwara]], [[Peba-Yagua languages|Peba-Yagua]], [[Aikanã language|Aikanã]], and [[Kanoe language|Kanoe]] language families due to contact.{{sfn|Jolkesky|2016}}

== Location ==

[[File:Brazil State Rondonia.svg|thumb|Rondônia is one of the smaller states of Brazil and shares a border with eastern Bolivia.]]

=== Historical ===
The history of the Kwaza people is one marked with tragedy, which may contribute to why their language is endangered. in the 1960s, the Kwaza people lost many of their members due to the opening of the [[BR-364]], an inter-state highway in Brazil connecting the southeast states to the western states. Today there are only about 40 individuals, Kwaza, Aikanã and [[Latundê|Latunde]] peoples, who have been living together for a number of decades in the south of Rondônia. These peoples also lived in the state of Rondônia  and were also expelled from the fertile lands that they originally lived on, which may be why they live together now.<ref name="PIB Socioambiental" /> The majority of the Kwaza have either been decimated or dispersed, and their culture destroyed by the national society which has been highly influenced by Western states. This may be the biggest conflict that the Kwaza people have faced, thus contributing to the endangerment and possible extinction of their language.

The traditional habitat of the Kwaza was the high forest in the Amazon, living and settling around rivers.<ref name="PIB Socioambiental" />

Due to the extremely limited documentation, combined with the semi-nomadic lifestyles of the Kwaza speakers and the lack of permanent settlements from a slash and burn agriculture, the historical location of the people is largely unknown. In addition, disease brought by Western contact and the imposed culture actively worked to destroy the local materials and societies.  However, according to oral tradition and sporadic instances of documentation, the Kwaza lived along the [[São Pedro River (Guandu River)|São Pedro]] and [[Taboca River|Taboca rivers]] in addition to along the headwaters of the [[Pimenta Bueno River|Pimenta Bueno]] River.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005|p=366}}

[[File:BR-364.jpg|thumb|[[BR-364]] Highway from Vilhelna to Porto Velho]]

Before contact with the "national society", the Kwaza held various rituals and activities. These included a several month isolation of young girls, [[Human cannibalism|anthropophagy]], and the sport of head-ball. They decorated their bodies with shells, earrings, teeth, and painted their bodies with various dyes. Some of the Kwaza still plant bananas, [[Cassava|manioc]], peanuts, yams and tobacco. They also gather fruits and keep various types of animals such as monkeys, birds, and pigs as pets.<ref name="PIB Socioambiental" />

=== Modern Day ===
In the modern day, speakers live on the indigenous reserve of Tubarão - Latundě.  This lies on the headwaters of Apediá or Pimento Bueno River, in the southeast of the federal Brazilian state of [[Rondônia]].  Rondônia is part of the [[Guaporé, Rio Grande do Sul|Guaporé]] region, the most diverse linguistic region of South America.  Over 40 indigenous languages can be found here, including 8 unique macro-families, and possibly 10 isolates.  Kwaza is therefore set in extreme linguistic diversity.  However, like Kwaza, most of the languages here are endangered with extinction and are poorly documented.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

Only three families speak the Kwaza language today. Two are scattered among the [[Aikanã language|Aikanã]] within different indigenous terriroties, and one family is located in a Portuguese-speaking town. The Kwaza language is currently being transmitted to younger generations in two of the families.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Epps |editor-first=Patience |editor-last2=Michael |editor-first2=Lev |title=Amazonian Languages: Language Isolates. Volume II: Kanoé to Yurakaré |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin |date=2023 |isbn=978-3-11-043273-2}}</ref>{{rp|721}}

==Neighbors, Invaders, and Scientist Interactions==

===Neighbors and Invaders===
The Kwaza people neighbored the [[Mekéns language|Mekens]]/Sakurabiat, the [[Tupari language|Tupari]], Aikanã and the [[Kanoê language|Kanoê]], both with [[unclassified language]]s, the [[Salamai language|Salamai]] of the Monde language family, and various others, several of which have gone extinct.<ref name="PIB Socioambiental" /> Despite all the contact that the Kwaza people may have had with other indigenous peoples, Kwaza language not have a great amount of similarities to any other indigenous language.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005}} In fact, the [[Guaporé, Rio Grande do Sul|Guapore region]] (where the Kwaza people lived), is known as one of the most linguistically diverse regions of South America, with numerous language families represented such as [[Tacana language|Tacana]], [[Tupi language|Tupi]], Pano, as well as ten unclassified languages, one of which is Kwaza.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005}}

The most prominent neighbors of Alaina people groups lived along Tanaru tributary, 20&nbsp;km south, but all the groups in the area formed alliances across linguistic borders.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005|p=366}} The first contact with Euro-Americans is hypothesized to have been around the mid 16th century from Spanish expeditions.  The middle of the 17th century offered Jesuit missionaries in Northeast Bolivia.  A relationship of avoidance developed between Portuguese and indigenous people, flaring to hostility in cases of contact.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

The 19th century rubber boom caused non-Indians to settle permanently in Rondônia, and the posture of avoidance and indifference turned into one of enslavement for the Kwaza people.  The effects of this are seen in the turn of the language towards the Euro-Americans.  Increased contact also caused detrimental epidemics among the indigenous populations. Occasionally the native groups believed the cause of the epidemics were instigated by sorcery of other tribes, which caused violent clashes between the groups and further dwindled numbers to the extreme.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

When the highway B-364 opened, impoverished Brazilians, logging companies, and cattle ranchers infiltrated the area and forced the indigenous people off the best lands and onto reserves, further encouraging them to let go of their native language. By 2004, the indigenous population barely hits 5,000 out of a total population of 1.5 million.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

==Language==

=== Language Family ===
Kwaza is referred to as an isolate, however, it is truer to refer to it as an unclassified language. Research has not been able to prove Kwaza's connection to any other language, but there have been attempts to identify possible linguistic relationships with unclassified neighboring languages.{{sfn|van der Voort|2000}} Kanoê and Aikanã, neighboring languages of Kwaza, appear to have [[Classifier (linguistics)|classifier]]s, a trait they share with Kwaza.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005}}

Kwaza shares the [[Inclusive language|inclusive]] vs exclusive distinction in subject reference with Tupi languages.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005}} The most striking evidence of Kwaza possibly being related to languages in the area is [[Lexical semantics|lexical]]. The long history of contact between the peoples of Rondônia has caused cultural similarities and the occurrence of linguistic similarities. Van der Voort, in a paper submitted to the Leiden Research School, demonstrated similarities between Kwaza, Kanoê, and Aikanã (all three unclassified) with the Tupari Languages [[Akuntsu]], Koaratira and [[Mekéns language|Mekens]].{{sfn|van der Voort|2000}}

=== Documentation History ===
Before 1995, data on Kwaza was not properly gathered and analyzed.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005}} Knowledge on its grammar did not exist in written form.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005}} Outside of its native speakers, lexical knowledge from early scientists and explorers of the Rondônia  territory did not exist.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005}} The first documentation of the Kwaza people was made in 1913 by [[Cândido Rondon|Candido Rondon]] because of his expeditions with telegraph lines in areas of Rondônia. In the 1930s, the first written sources of Kwaza words were taken by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Claude Levi-Strauss]], an anthropologist. Levi-Strauss was on a reconnaissance expedition documented words on standardised enquiry forms developed for this purpose.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

The standardised forms used allowed for easy lexical comparisons between different languages explorers encountered. Levi-Strauss's 1938 glossary is the oldest source of data from Kwaza and is available in van der Voort's book. The glossary contained fifty-one French words with their equivalent in Kwaza. In 1942, Lieutenant Estanislau Zack created a 222-comparative word list of four languages, including Kwaza. Kwaza was forgotten until Harvey Carlson rediscovered the language in 1984. The third recorded documentation of Kwaza was taken as an unpublished word-list by Carlson. During linguistic fieldwork as an M.A. student from Berkley, he took down fifty Kwaza words, which is available in "A Grammar of Kwaza". The present description of Kwaza is the result of Carlson's word list, as he brought the language to the attention of the linguistic world.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

Linguist Hein van der Voort's involvement in the [[Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research|Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research]] (NOW) in 1994 led to the first modern [[grammar]] of Kwaza. In his book "A Grammar of Kwaza", Van der Voort presented the first [[descriptive grammar]] of the language. The descriptive grammar included phoneme inventory describing the [[oral vowels]], [[nasal vowel]]s, and place of articulation. Van der Voort provides a complex description of the [[vowel]]s, with descriptions on [[minimal pair]]s, contextual pairs and [[Variation (linguistics)|variation]]. [[Consonant]]s were also recorded with their matching [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcriptions, places of [[Articulation (phonetics)|articulation]], and [[Classification of languages|classification]]. He provides an interpretation of [[Glides (linguistics)|glides]], descriptive rules of [[syllable structure]], [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], length, and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]. Kwaza loan phonology is described with examples. A comprehensive section on [[Part of speech|parts of speech]] of Kwaza is available with information on [[noun phrase]]s, [[verb phrase]]s, types of [[morpheme]]s, and word order. Van der Voort includes texts of tales translated from Kwaza to English to bring attention to Brazilian indigenous culture in an effort to preserve it. These texts include traditional tales, historical personal accounts, modern personal accounts, and translated songs. The last section of van der Voort's book is a dictionary of Kwaza to English. Hein van der Voort's work on the language has given the Kwaza the ability to preserve the language through making it available for others to learn, including non-indigenous people.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

=== Phonology ===

Kwaza has eight oral and seven nasal vowel [[phoneme]]s, which are all attested in a minimal pair set, despite the rare /œ/ occurrence. The consonant inventory consists of 19 phonemes.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

==== Vowels ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Vowels in Adapted{{sfn|van der Voort|2000|p=40}} IPA{{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=45}}
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |[[Oral vowels|Oral Vowels]]
! colspan="3" |[[Nasal vowel|Nasal Vowels]]
|-
![[Front vowel|Front]] !! [[Central vowel|Central]] !! [[Back vowel|Back]]
![[Front vowel|Front]] !! [[Central vowel|Central]] !! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
| {{IPA link|ĩ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ũ}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}}
| {{IPA link|ɘ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ẽ}}
| {{IPA link|ɘ̃}}
|
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| {{IPA link|œ}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
| {{IPA link|ɛ̃}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɔ̃}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|a}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ã}}
|
|}

* /a/ can sometimes be heard as [ɑ] when before back vowels /u, ɔ/.
* /ɛ/ can also be heard as [æ] free variation.
* /ɘ/ can be heard as [ɨ̞] in free variation, as [ə] in unstressed position, or as a glide [ɨ̯] in syllable-final position. /ɘ̃/ can be heard as [ɨ̞̃] in free variation.
* /œ/ can be heard as [œ̈] in free variation.

==== Consonants ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Consonants in IPA{{sfn|van der Voort|2000|p=41}}{{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=46}}
!colspan=2|
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Lamino-alveolar consonant|Lamino-<br>alveolar]]
![[Apico-alveolar consonant|Apico-<br>alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Plosive]]
!{{small|[[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
| {{IPA link|t̠̺}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
!{{small|[[Implosive consonant|Implosive]]}}
| {{IPA link|ɓ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɗ}}
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[Affricate]]
|
| {{IPA link|ts}}
|
| {{IPA link|tɕ}}
|
|
|-
!Colspan="2"|[[Fricative]]
|
| {{IPA link|s}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|s̠̺}}
|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
!colspan=2|[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
|
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
|
|
|-
!colspan=2 | [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|}

* Implosives /ɓ, ɗ/ can also be heard as voiced plosives [b, d] in free variation.
* /h/ can be heard as voiced [ɦ] in intervocalic positions.
* /w, ɾ, j/ are nasalized as [w̃, ɾ̃, j̃] within nasal vowels.
* Sounds /s̠̺, w/ are heard as [ɕ, w̜] before front vowels.

=== Morphology ===

====Personal Pronoun System====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal pronouns{{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=235}}
! Person !! Associate !! Pronoun !! Meaning
|-
| 1 || - || si || Example
|-
| 2 || - || xyi || Example
|-
| 1 || 2 || txa'na || Example
|-
| 1 || 3 || tsi'tsɛ || Example
|-
| 2 || 3 || xyi'tsɛ || Example
|-
| 3 || - || ĩ || Example
|}

Examples:
{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|indent=2
|'si-da-ki
|I-1S-DEC
|'it's me' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=236}}
}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|indent=2
|'xyi-xa-ki
|you-2-DEC
|'it's you' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=236}}
}}
{{columns-end}}

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|indent=2
|txa'na 'ɛ-a-ki |c1=(*txana ɛ? axaki)
|we.IN go-1P-DEC
|'we go' (including addressee) {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=236}}
}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|indent=2
|tsi'tsɛ 'ɛa-xa-ki |c1=(*tsitsɛ ɛ? aki)
|we.EX. go-1P-AS-DEC
|'we go' (excluding addressee) {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=236}}
}}
{{columns-end}}

{{interlinear|indent=2
|zjwãu 'mɛ̃-hata-Ø-ki xyitsɛ-'wã
|João beat-3S.2O-3-DEC you.PL-AO
|'It was João who beat you' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=246}}
}}

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|indent=2
|'ĩ-ki
|he-DEC
|'it is he himself' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=236}}
}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|indent=2
|'ĩ-tsy-nãi
|he-GER-NOM
|'(the words) of himself, his own (words)' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=236}}
}}
{{columns-end}}

==== Parts of Speech ====
Kwaza has four parts of speech: [[Particle (linguistics)|particles]], [[verb]]s, [[adverb]]s, and [[noun]]s. No [[adjective]]s occur in the language. In Kwaza, the majority of the bound grammatical morphemes are [[suffix]]es. Kwaza is morphologically complex in its verbs. Word order is relatively free, but [[Subject–object–verb|SOV]] and [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]] are more dominant. In the language, it is mandatory to [[Inflection|inflect]] verbs to express mood and subject person. First and second person singular are distinguished by subject agreement marking, as are first person inclusive and exclusive, and the second persona plural. The third person is not pronounced. There is no difference between third person singular and plural, or between feminine and masculine.{{sfn|van der Voort|2000}}

===== Pro-Drop Language =====
Hein van der Voort (2000) categorizes Kwaza as a '[[Pro-drop language|pro-drop]]' language because subject agreement is obligatory, while [[pronominal]] reference is optional. Definite argument morphemes can agree with explicit lexical arguments, but overt pronouns have a contrastive effect by emphasizing them.{{sfn|van der Voort|2000}}

===== Verb Morphology =====
Verb morphology in Kwaza can express numerous moods. These moods include [[exhortative]], [[Interrogative word|interrogative]], [[Declarative sentence|declarative]], [[Imperative sentence|imperative]], and negative. The imperative only happens with second person subjects. The second person singular usually has no expression. There are several verbal-final elements in Kwaza, which exist as [[subordinate clause]] mood markers. In [[adverbial clause]] construction, subordinate clause mood markers are used, for example in concessive and [[conditional clause]]s. The same [[Object (linguistics)|object]] and [[Subject (linguistics)|subject]] morphemes are used, while the third person is not expressed. There is also a [[Semantics|semantically]] abstract 'mood' marker used to connect clauses that are both [[Coordinated clause|coordinated]] and subordinated.{{sfn|van der Voort|2000}}

===== Verb Derivation =====
Verbal derivation in Kwaza includes [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]] and valency change, negation, [[Modality (linguistics)|modality]], [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], and [[Grammatical tense|tense]] which are marked with various optional verbal morphemes. Some modality morphemes, according to van der Voort, could be grammatically related to mood markers. Verbs can be turned into adverbs or nouns through stem-final nominalizing morphemes. Kwaza has two subdivisions of derivational morphemes, directional and classifiers. While verb morphology in Kwaza is complex, nominal morphology is not. Kwaza has no gender or number inflection. Nouns can have animate object case marking. They can also have one of the oblique case markers: [[Grammatical case|beneficiary]], [[Locative case|locative]], [[Comitative case|comitative]], and [[Instrumental case|instrumental]]. Nouns are turned into verbs through attaching mood marking. As mentioned, Kwaza does not have adjectives.{{sfn|van der Voort|2000}}

===== Nouns and Classifiers =====
Attributive modification of nouns occurs by comparing them with other nouns. Kwaza also has many classifying morphemes that only 'agree' with specific nouns. Classifiers are used widely. They can be used in verb stems, attach to [[bare nouns]], and also modify adverbs. Classifiers are used in the position of nominalizers. Classifiers in Kwaza support van der Voorts statement of the language being pro-drop as they have functions similar to the functions of verbal agreement morphemes. These properties of classifiers rely heavily on the environment in which they are used, and according to van der Voort are not as dynamic as the properties of cross-reference morphemes. In complex nominalized clauses, specific classifiers cannot replace the nominalizer.{{sfn|van der Voort|2000}}

==== Morphological Aspect: Morpheme {{lang|xwa|-ry-}} ====
In the Kwaza language, the morpheme {{lang|xwa|-ry-}} is used to describe a grammatical number for words in contexts where a few of their referents are described or referred to, also known as paucal. In both nouns and verbs of Kwaza, the morpheme {{lang|xwa|-ry-}} is associated with paucal number, but does not occur in word-final position, and is always followed by a nominaliser (formation of a noun from a verb or adjective).{{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=534}}

For example:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|'hai?arakaru ỹnỹ-''''ry'''-hỹ
|Hai?arakaru call-PAU-NOM
|'the people of / called Hai?arakaru' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=540}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|etohoi-'''ry'''-'rai
|child-PAU-damn
|'those (my, your, his) children' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=540}}
}}

It is also important to note that the paucal morpheme {{lang|xwa|-ry-}} applies only to humans and animals in Kwaza. For example:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|xo'ro 'ki-ỹ-'''ry'''-hỹ
|ant red-ATT-PAU-NOM
|'that (type of) red ant ({{gcl|PL}}, *{{gcl|SG}})' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=540}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|tala-'mɛ-'''ry'''-rai
|uncle-ASS-PAU-damn
|'(my) uncles' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=540}}
}}

==== Negation Morpheme {{lang|xwa|-he-}} ====
In Kwaza, the morpheme {{lang|xwa|-he-}} is one of the [[Negation (linguistics)|negation morphemes]], which creates the negative in [[Predicate (grammar)|predicates]] and propositions when bound together. In this negation morpheme, the negative usually comes before the person and mood marking.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}} For example:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|awỹi-''''he'''-da-ki ti-hỹ-'re
|see-NEG-1S-DEC what-NOM-INT
|'I haven't seen him, where is he?' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=520}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|areta-''''he'''-da-ki
|know-NEG-1S-DEC
|'I don't know' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=520}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(3)
|awỹi-'''he'''-ta-ki
|see-NEG-1O-DEC
|'He didn't see me' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=520}}
}}

However, if the clause in the sentence is declarative, and there is no clear argument cross-reference, the declarative mood marker is {{lang|xwa|-tse}}.

{{interlinear|number=(4)
|kẽi?ỹ-'he-'''tse'''
|smooth-NEG-DEC
|'It isn't smooth' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=521}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(5)
|ja-'he-'''tse'''
|eat-NEG-DEC
|'He did not eat' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=521}}
}}

====Reduplication====

Reduplication in the language is very common, and occurs in many contexts, some of which include lexical roots, constituent syllables of roots, verbal person inflections and other parts of morphemes. In Kwaza, reduplication can also represent a past tense construction, if the person cross-reference morpheme is reduplicated. This is particularly interesting since in the Kwaza language, there is zero specific marking of past and present.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}} An example of this is shown here:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|kukui'hỹ-da-da-ky-hỹ-ki
|ill-1S-1S-PAST-NOM-DEC
|'I was ill' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=390}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|'masju kukui'hỹ-da-da-ky-hỹ-ki{{=}}da'mỹ-tse
|Marcio ill-1S-1S-PAST-NOM-DEC{{=}}want-DEC
|'Marcio is going to say he was ill' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=390}}
}}

Whereas something involving pain in the present tense would take this form:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|Kukui-sitoko'rõ-da-ki
|Hurt-CL:elbow-1S-DEC
|'I have pain in my elbow' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=165}}
}}

In these examples, we see the reduplication of the first person singular, which in the language presents a first person past tense state. Another form of reduplication is root reduplication, which occurs with the repetition of the entire root which can occur with repetitive, progressive, durative and intensifying meaning which is attested both with verbal and adverbial roots . For example:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|Hãidi{{=}}hãi'di-tse
|drip{{=}}drip-DEC
|'It is dripping' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=560}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|haka{{=}}ha'ka-hỹ-tɛ
|old{{=}}old-NOM-NOM
|'Very old thing' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=560}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(3)
|hy{{=}}hy-'dwa-ki
|go{{=}}go-DR:onto-DEC
|'He is walking (on) the path' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=560}}
}}

There is also another way in the Kwaza language where reduplication occurs to intensify meaning. Repetition of a syllable of the lexical root may also occur with repetitive and intensifying meaning, oftentimes it is the first syllable which is reduplicated:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|do-do'te-ki
|RED-shed-DEC
|'It is leaking' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=561}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|ca-ca'ri-ki dutu're
|RED-shoot-DEC pig
|'He killed many pigs' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=561}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(3)
|tsitsɛ-'wã e-e'sa-eteja-ki
|we.EX-AO RED-sting-1PO-DEC
|'many wasps stung us' (t) {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=561}}
}}
====Periodic tense====
Kwaza has two [[periodic tense]] markers, nocturnal <i>sile-</i> and matutinal <i>kore-</i>.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=340}}<ref>{{cite journal|author=[[Guillaume Jacques|Jacques, Guillaume]]|year=2023|title=Periodic tense markers in the world’s languages and their sources.|journal=Folia Linguistica |volume=57|issue=3|pages=539–562|doi=10.1515/flin-2023-2013|url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04239547 |ref=GJ2023}}</ref>

=== Syllable Structure ===
All syllables in Kwaza are vowel-final and generally adhere to the /(C)V/ syllable structure.  The exceptions occur in glides and glottal stops.  Any syllables that could begin with a vowel instead are preceded by a voiceless glottal stop.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

===Basic Word Classes and Order===
Since the language  is so morphologically complex it is often described as a non-configurational language.  The flexibility in word order is possible due to almost every word in the sentence having case inflection.  However, generally the structures are head-final, with SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) being most common in instances of two over arguments.  Otherwise, both SV and OV occur frequently.{{sfn|van der Voort|2005|p=371-372}}

=== Case and Agreement ===
Van der Voort, in his "Grammar of Kwaza", states that in Kwaza, there is no required morphological distinction in how pronouns and nouns function as objects and subjects. However, in certain cases, case inflection of nouns occurs. There is one case van der Voort describes a syntactic government relation between verb and argument. The suffix {{lang|xwa|-wã}} conveys this case, which is called the "animate object" case. Kwaza displays a small number of "oblique" or "local" [[case marker]]s which display semantic relations amongst verbs and possible nominal satellites. The suffix {{lang|xwa|-ko}} expresses "instrumental" case, {{lang|xwa|-na}} expresses "locative", {{lang|xwa|-dynỹ}} expresses "comitative" and {{lang|xwa|-du}} expresses "beneficiary".{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

==== Animate Object {{lang|xwa|-wã}} ====
In some transitive verbs, specific animate non-subjects of verbs are marked by {{lang|xwa|-wã}}.  {{lang|xwa|-wã}} is applied under situations not completely understood. What is known is {{lang|xwa|-wã}} often places stress on the animate non-subjects.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}} {{lang|xwa|-wã}} is necessary for most verbs with animate nouns that have a direct object function:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|jere'xwa 'kay-ki natau-''''wã'''
|jaguar scratch-DEC Natal-AO 
|'the jaguar scratched Natal' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=106}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|'ay-hỹ 'kay-ki
|that-NOM scratch-DEC
|'that one scratched (him)' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=106}}
}}

Other than elucidating which animate argument is the object, {{lang|xwa|-wã}} also disambiguates the subject from the object. It is especially useful when they are both third person arguments:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|wã zjwãu-''''wã''' e'xyi-ki
|bee João-AO sting-DEC
|'a wasp stung João' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=106}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|hiri'ni zjwãu-''''wã''' isi'xwe-ki
|shaman João-AO medicate-DEC
|'the shaman is treating João' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=106}}
}}

{{lang|xwa|-wã}} is not always necessary to differentiate between object and subject, because verbal cross-reference obligatorily expresses the subject. For first and second person, subject cross-reference is not zero, but it is in third person. Even though cross-reference agreement is enough to distinguish subjects and objects, {{lang|xwa|-wã}} is still obligatory in some cases:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|zjwãu-''''wã''' tsa'si-da-ki
|João-AO follow-1S-DEC 
|'I went after João' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=107}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|wã si-''''wã''' e'xyi-ta-ki
|bee I-AO sting-1O-DEC 
|'(a) wasp stung me' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=107}}
}}

Without {{lang|xwa|-wã}}, syntactic ambiguity occurs. But in cases with differences in animacy, no semantic-pragmatic ambiguity occurs. This can be seen in the following third person examples of an animate subject and inanimate object:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|uru'hu xare'ja-ki au ho-'tε
|vulture search-DEC flesh rotten-NOM
|'the vulture is looking for rotten meat' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=109}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|Zjwãu ywynwỹ-ko'ro to'wε-ki
|João tree-CL:arm break-DEC
|'João broke a branch off the tree' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=109}}
}}

==== Transitivised Verbs ====
When verbs with the [[Transitive verb|transitivising]] morpheme {{lang|xwa|-ta-}} occur with animate objects, they must be marked with {{lang|xwa|-wã}}:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|zjuze-''''wã''' oja-'ta-da-ki
|José-AO go-TRA-1S-DEC
|'I visited José' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=110}}
}}

When the [[causative]] {{lang|xwa|-dy}} is attached to [[intransitive verb]]s, they are transitivised. In these cases only animate objects are marked:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|luzeu-''''wã''' xarere-'dy-da-ki
|Luzeu-AO crazy-CAU-1S-DEC
|'I'm making Luzeu mad' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=110}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|kudεrε-''''wã''' mãmãñẽ-'dy-da-ki
|Canderé-AO sing-CAU-1S-DEC
|'I made Canderé sing' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=110}}
}}

==== Ditransitive Verbs ====
The indirect object is usually marked in common [[ditransitive verb]]s while the animate object is unmarked:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|zjwãu-''''wã''' ãwã'txi-da-ki
|João-AO show-1S-DEC
|'I'm showing it to João' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=112}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|zjwãu ãwã'txi-da-ki
|João show-1S-DEC 
|'I'm showing João to him' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=112}}
}}

==== Verbs Which Contain Classifiers ====
If transitive verbs with animate objects have classifying morphemes, {{lang|xwa|-wã}} is also attached. This occurs if the classifier added to the verb stem and when it is not:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|luzeu-''''wã''' hãrũ'ro-da-ki
|Luzeu-AO strangle-1S-DEC
|'I strangled Luzeu' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=114}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|zjwãu-''''wã''' hado-'ri-da-ki
|João-AO pierce-CL:flat-1S-DEC
|'I pierced João through the chest' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=114}}
}}

In Kwaza, objects of transitive verbs are usually case marked because they are of the animate category. Case marking becomes ungrammatical when they are inanimate. Case marking is not required to differentiate the object from the subject. The subject can be identified through cross-reference marking on the verb. This changes if all arguments are in third person, when arguments are in third person there can be ambiguity. Without case marking, on the basis of syntax alone, there is no way to distinguish third person animate subjects and objects. Case marking is obligatory with transitive verbs have arguments that are the same in person and animacy. {{lang|xwa|-wã-}} has two functions: it marks objecthood and animacy.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

==== Locative {{lang|xwa|-na}} ====
In Kwaza, the case ending {{lang|xwa|-na}} expresses the sense of "in". {{lang|xwa|-na}} can be used as a general marked to express several locational senses such as: "under, from, into", etc. {{lang|xwa|-na}} is often seen with verbs that have a directional suffix:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|a'xy-'''na'''
|house-LOC
|'in the house' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=121}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|ʃupi'ngwaja-'''na''' ojabu'ru-da-ki ilato
|Chupinguaia-LOC arrive.there-1S-DEC yesterday
|'I arrived there in Chupinguaia yesterday' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=121}}
}}

==== Instrumental {{lang|xwa|-ko}} ====
{{lang|xwa|-ko}} is used to mark nouns that function as an instrumental argument verbs:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|prego-'''ko''' 'twe-ki lo'te
|spike-INS pierce-DEC door
|'the spike went through the door' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=122}}
}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|co'ha-'''ko''' 'dai?oce-'ra
|foot-INS clear-IMP
|'kick it aside with your foot!' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=122}}
}}

==== Beneficiary {{lang|xwa|-du}} ====
{{lang|xwa|-du}} marks beneficiary arguments:{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|maga'riDa-'''du''' 'wε-da-mỹ
|Margarida-BER bring-1S-VOL
|'I'm going to take (it) for Margarida' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=125}}
}}

==== Comitative {{lang|xwa|-dynỹ}} ====
{{lang|xwa|-dynỹ}} marks comitative arguments. The matrix verb may be intransitive or transitive.{{sfn|van der Voort|2004}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|jere'xwa-'''dynỹ''' hyhy'rwa-da-ki
|jaguar-COMIT move-1S-DEC
|'I'm walking with the dog (on my side)' {{sfn|van der Voort|2004|p=126}}
}}

==Vocabulary==
===Loukotka (1968)===
[[Čestmír Loukotka|Loukotka]] (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for Koaiá.<ref name="Loukotka">{{cite book |last=Loukotka |first=Čestmír |author-link=Čestmír Loukotka |title=Classification of South American Indian languages |url=https://archive.org/details/classificationof0007louk |url-access=registration |publisher=UCLA Latin American Center |year=1968 |location=Los Angeles}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! gloss !! Koaiá
|-
| head || i-soteː
|-
| ear || gasí
|-
| tooth || miki
|-
| hand || enurí
|-
| woman || etál
|-
| water || há
|-
| fire || í
|-
| stone || akí
|-
| maize || achechí
|-
| tapir || aruín
|}

For a more extensive vocabulary list of Kwazá by Manso (2013),{{sfn|Manso|2013}} see the corresponding [[:pt:Língua kwazá|Portuguese article]].

===Plant and animal names===
Selected Kwazá plant and animal names from Manso (2013):{{sfn|Manso|2013}}

<!-- Check Manso (2013) for the original transcriptions. Some ɨ characters may have been mistranscribed as i. There are also irregular discrepancies among the forms given in the Kwazá-Portuguese and Portuguese-Kwazá sections of the dictionary. Nasal vowels are also not marked consistently in Manso (2013). -->
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Kwazá !! Scientific name !! Portuguese common name
|-
| dɨisa || ''[[Acrocinus]]'' sp. || besouro-arlequim
|-
| pororai || ''[[Ageratum conyzoides]]'' || erva-de-São-João
|-
| huri || ''[[Agouti paca]]'' || paca
|-
| tamũkɨ || ''[[Alouatta seniculus]]'' || guariba
|-
| wero || ''[[Amazona ochrocephala]]'' || papagaio-estrela
|-
| wãtsĩ || ''[[Amazona farinosa]]'' || papagaio-caboclo
|-
| hɛ || ''[[Amburana cearensis]]'' || cerejeira
|-
| urumãinwa || ''[[Anacardium occidentale]]'' || cajueiro
|-
| açɨhi || ''[[Anadenanthera peregrina]]'' || paricá
|-
| husisi || ''[[Andropogon]]'' sp. || sapé
|-
| temũ || ''[[Anostomus]]'' sp., ''[[Leporinus]]'' sp., ''[[Schizodon]]'' sp. || piau
|-
| ausisiti || ''[[Aotus nigriceps]]'' || macaco-da-noite
|-
| mama || ''[[Apeiba]]'' sp. || pau-mole
|-
| jẽjẽkɨdɨ || ''[[Apis mellifera]]'' || abelha
|-
| owɨtikje || ''[[Apuleia]]'' sp. || garapa
|-
| kumada sikilo || ''[[Apteronotus albifrons]]'' || ituí-cavalo
|-
| tjẽrĩ || ''[[Arachis hypogaea]]'' || amendoim
|-
| nãrãku || ''[[Aramides cajanea]]'' || saracura
|-
| hoi uruhu || ''[[Artibeus]]'' sp. || morcego-grande
|-
| dudukerũ || ''[[Astrocaryum gynacanthum]]'' || mumbaca
|-
| wadɛ || ''[[Astrocaryum tucuma]]'' || tucumã
|-
| hadutu || ''[[Astrocaryum murumuru]]'' || murumuru
|-
| erihi || ''[[Astyanax]]'' sp. || piabão
|-
| hɨrikoro || ''[[Ateles belzebuth]]'' || coata, macaco-preto
|-
| darija || ''[[Atelocynus microtis]]'' || cachorro-do-mato
|-
| tsilɛmãi || ''[[Atta (genus)|Atta]]'' spp. || saúva
|-
| mẽsĩ || ''[[Attalea maripa]]'' || inajá
|-
| tjokoru || ''[[Attalea phalerata]]'' || bacuri
|-
| kuricɨi || ''[[Attalea speciosa]]'' || babaçu
|-
| daritjoha || ''[[Avicularia]]'' spp. || caranguejeira
|-
| hakuku || ''[[Bactris gasipaes]]'' || pupunha
|-
| dudu || ''[[Bactris]]'' spp. || marajá
|-
| hãçɨi, mãbi; nũrũrũ, wesi || ''[[Bambusa]]'' spp. || taquara
|-
| kũtjẽ || ''[[Bertholletia excelsa]]'' || castanha-do-Pará
|-
| toro || ''[[Bixa orellana]]'' || urucu
|-
| takwanarẽtʃa || ''[[Boa constrictor]]'', ''[[Epicrates cenchria]]'' || jiboia
|-
| merumeru || ''[[Bombus]]'' spp. || abelha
|-
| tsutu || ''[[Bothrops]]'' spp. || jararaca
|-
| tauta || ''[[Bradypus variegatus]]'' || preguiça-de-bentinho
|-
| humu || ''[[Brosimum acutifolium]]'' || mururé
|-
| hĩtsã || ''[[Brosimum]]'' sp. || amapá
|-
| araka || ''[[Bryconops]]'' sp. || piabão
|-
| ãkãki || ''[[Bufo marinus]]'' || sapo-cururus
|-
| kurukuru || ''[[Bufo marinus]]'' || sapo de cor preta
|-
| (wɨ̃wɨ̃kurjo) || ''[[Buteogallus urubitinga]]'' || gavião
|-
| kɨrɨmujã || ''[[Byrsonima crassifolia]]'' || murici
|-
| dakainwã || ''[[Caesalpinia]]'' spp. || pau-brasil
|-
| hatsi; manariçu || ''[[Calathea]]'' spp. || arumã
|-
| wãrũwãrũ || ''[[Callicebus moloch]]'' || zogue-zogue
|-
| mĩtjẽ || ''[[Callithrix argentata]]'' || sauim-branco
|-
| wakaro || ''[[Caluromys philander]]'' || mucura-xixica
|-
| kaka || ''[[Camponotus femoratus]]'' || formiga
|-
| hade || ''[[Capsicum]]'' spp. || pimenta
|-
| ukesĩ || ''[[Caryocar glabrum]]'' || pequiarana
|-
| ukenũ || ''[[Caryocar villosum]]'' || pequiá
|-
| hɨri || ''[[Cebus apella]]'' || macaco-prego
|-
| watsirai || ''[[Cecropia]]'' spp., ''[[Pourouma]]'' spp. || imbaúba
|-
| tukutɛ; tʃaja || ''[[Cedrela fissilis]]'' || cedro
|-
| kaka-sikikoko || ''[[Cephalotes atratus]]'' || formiga
|-
| darija-tʃũhũi || ''[[Cerdocyon thous]]'' || raposa
|-
| husi-hãnãɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Chironectes minimus]]'' || cuíca, mucura-d'água
|-
| hiribɛɁɨ̃hɨ̃; hɨrikoro-bɛʔĩhɨ̃ || ''[[Chiropotes albinasus]]'' || macaco-cuxiú
|-
| baɨtsɨtõi; çɨinitõi || ''[[Citrus aurantifolia]]'' || limão
|-
| doi; duma || ''[[Clelia clelia]]'' || muçurana
|-
| hudai || ''[[Clusia]]'' spp. || apuí
|-
| açu || ''[[Coendou prehensilis]]'' || cuandu
|-
| terai || ''[[Columba cayennensis]]'' || pomba-galela
|-
| makuitʃato || ''[[Columba speciosa]]'' || pomba-pedrês
|-
| huhu || ''[[Columbina]]'' spp. || rolinha
|-
| deda-wãsĩ || ''[[Corallus]]'' spp. || cobra
|-
| mũli || ''[[Crotophaga]]'' sp. || anu
|-
| jũtsĩ || ''[[Crypturellus soui]]'' || inambu
|-
| tsĩ || ''[[Crypturellus strigulosus]]'' || inambu
|-
| utetaɨ || ''[[Crypturellus strigulosus]]'' || inambu
|-
| darɨro || ''[[Cucurbita]]'' sp. || abóbora-do-mato
|-
| kurukuru || ''[[Dactylomys dactylinus]]'' || rato-toró
|-
| kataɨ || ''[[Dasyprocta]]'' spp. || cutia
|-
| harurai || ''[[Dasypus kappleri]]'' || tatu-quinze
|-
| haru || ''[[Dasypus novemcinctus]]'' || tatu-galinha
|-
| kaçanuje || ''[[Davilla rugosa]]'' || cipó-de-fogo
|-
| nãĩ || ''[[Dermatobia hominis]]'' || larva de mosca
|-
| husi || ''[[Didelphis marsupialis]]'' || mucura
|-
| taramãçu, uitsi || ''[[Dinoponera gigantea]]'' || tocandira
|-
| mouru || ''[[Dryocopus lineatus]]'', ''[[Campephilus]]'' spp. || pica-pau-grande
|-
| çuruatũi || ''[[Duranta erecta]]'' || creolim
|-
| itjorɨ; karuto || ''[[Eciton]]'' sp. || formiga
|-
| hure || ''[[Eira barbara]]'' || irara
|-
| kɨrɨjaje || ''[[Electrophorus electricus]]'' || poraquê
|-
| tekoretɛ || ''[[Erythrinus erythrinus]]'' || acarapuru
|-
| deda-hãnãɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Eunectes murinus]]'' || sucuri, sucuriju
|-
| kaikuri || ''[[Euphractus sexcinctus]]'' || tatu-peba
|-
| wiriɁu || ''[[Euterpe oleracea]]'' || açaí
|-
| owɨ || ''[[Genipa americana]]'' || jenipapo
|-
| kẽwẽ-kiʔɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Geochelone carbonaria]]'' || jabuti-piranga
|-
| kẽwẽ || ''[[Geochelone denticulata]]'' || jabuti-amarelo
|-
| tsotsinijẽ; tsotsinĩnjẽ || ''[[Gossypium]]'' spp. || algodão
|-
| apara çukurje || ''[[Heliconia hirsuta]]'' || bico-de-guará
|-
| kitsoroi || ''[[Hemidactylus mabouia]]'' || osga-de-casa
|-
| tai-açɨnaɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Hemidactylus mabouia]]'' || osga-de-casa
|-
| tsiloto || ''[[Hevea]]'' spp. || seringueira
|-
| haçɛ || ''[[Heteropsis jenmanii]]'' || cipó-titica
|-
| tekore || ''[[Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus]]'' || jeju
|-
| çunũtε || ''[[Hoplias]]'' sp. || traíra
|-
| sikitje || ''[[Hoplosternum]]'' spp. || tamboatá
|-
| jara || ''[[Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris]]'' || capivara
|-
| manini-jereçwa || ''[[Hydrolycus]]'' sp. || peixe-cachorro
|-
| ukato || ''[[Hyla boans]]'' || perereca
|-
| kẽinjũ || ''[[Hymenaea courbaril]]'' || jatobá
|-
| kẽitjakwe || ''[[Hymenaea]]'' sp. || jatobá-mirim
|-
| tai ekũkũtɛ || ''[[Iguana iguana]]'' || camaleão
|-
| tjukwe || ''[[Inga]]'' spp. || ingá
|-
| tjaɨ || ''[[Jacaratia]]'' sp., ''[[Carica papaya]]'' || jaracatiá
|-
| ĩtsãi || ''[[Lachesis mutus]]'' || surucucu
|-
| kudɨ; kudɨkãi || ''[[Lagenaria siceraria]]'' || cabaça
|-
| hɨrikoro-haɁɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Lagothrix lagotricha]]'' || macaco-barrigudo
|-
| ururitsunwã; ururitsunwɨ̃ || ''[[Lantana]]'' sp. || cambará-rosa
|-
| jereçwa-erereɁɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Leopardus pardalis]]'' || maracajá-açu
|-
| wɨitsitsu || ''[[Leopardus wiedii]]'' || maracajá-peludo
|-
| huwa || ''[[Leptodactylus pentadactylus]]'' || mãe-da-chuva
|-
| huhukɨ || ''[[Leptodactylus stenodema]]'' || mãe-de-chuva
|-
| kuikuijo || ''[[Lipaugus vociferans]]'' || cricrió-seringueiro
|-
| beçɨi || ''[[Lonchocarpus nicou]]'' || timbó
|-
| mãtete || ''[[Lontra longicaudis]]'' || lontrinha
|-
| jo || ''[[Manihot utilissima]]'' || mandioca
|-
| manakuʔɨi || ''[[Manilkara huberi]]'' || massaranduba
|-
| hakare || ''[[Mauritia flexuosa]]'' || buriti
|-
| aɁũ-kiɁĩhi || ''[[Mazama americana]]'' || veado-mateiro
|-
| aɁũ-tʃuhũi || ''[[Mazama gouazoupira]]'' || veado-catingueiro
|-
| tʃikere || ''[[Melanerpes cruentatus]]'' || pica-pau-negro
|-
| terei || ''[[Mitannis]]'' sp. || pacu-prata
|-
| heçunwã || ''[[Mezilaurus itauba]]'' || itaúba
|-
| tsjatoro || ''[[Micrurus]]'' spp. || cobra
|-
| perjutsjenju || ''[[Muscivora tyrannus]]'' || tesourinha
|-
| asitsu || ''[[Myrmecophaga tridactyla]]'' || tamanduá, tamanduá-bandeira
|-
| kihãrẽ || ''[[Myroxylon balsamum]]'' || cabreúva
|-
| haduru || ''[[Nasua nasua]]'' || quati
|-
| tu || ''[[Nectarina lecheguana]]'' || enxu
|-
| bɨbɨtsu || ''[[Odontomachus chelifer]]'', ''[[Paraponera clavata]]'' || tocandira
|-
| uruçeçu || ''[[Oenocarpus bacaba]]'' || bacaba
|-
| uru || ''[[Oenocarpus bataua]]'' || patauá
|-
| kãrãwɨto || ''[[Ormosia arborea]]'' || mulungu
|-
| kotorε || ''[[Osteocephalus taurinus]]'' || perereca
|-
| hudi; tjutjutjudɨtsahã || ''[[Otus (bird)|Otus]]'' spp., ''[[Ciccaba]]'' spp. || corujinha
|-
| ĩtsẽ; jereçwa || ''[[Panthera onca]]'' || onça-pintada
|-
| hoitswatũ; jukare || ''[[Passiflora]]'' spp. || maracujá
|-
| çitɨi || ''[[Pediculus]]'' spp. || piolho
|-
| wã-tʃihɨ̃tɛ || ''[[Pepsis]]'' sp. || marimbondo-caçador
|-
| hariɁiçu || ''[[Phaseolus]]'' spp. || feijão
|-
| hedaka || ''[[Phenakospermum guyannense]]'' || sororoca
|-
| baɨkaloɨi || ''[[Philodendron goeldii]]'' || cipó-ambé
|-
| hakoro || ''[[Phlebotomus]]'' spp. || tatuquira
|-
| wãwã || ''[[Phrynohyas resinifictrix]]'' || cunauaru
|-
| koko || ''[[Phyllomedusa]]'' spp. || perereca
|-
| purutʃa || ''[[Physalis]]'' spp. || camapu
|-
| uhu tʃihĩtɛ; uhu-tʃũhũi || ''[[Pilherodius pileatus]]'' || garça-real
|-
| tanã || ''[[Pilocarpus]]'' sp. || jaborandi
|-
| tsɨitsu || ''[[Pimelodus]]'' spp., ''[[Pimelodella]]'' sp. || mandi
|-
| dururu || ''[[Pithecia monachus]]'' || parauacu, macaco-cabeludo
|-
| çoçoto || ''[[Platonia]]'' sp., ''[[Rheedia]]'' spp. || bacuri
|-
| tai tsjõ || ''[[Plica umbra]]'', ''[[Anolis fuscoauratus]]'' || papa-vento
|-
| kẽwẽdori || ''[[Podocnemis unifilis]]'' || tracajá
|-
| sakarũ || ''[[Potamotrygon]]'' spp. || arraia
|-
| kutʃikutʃi || ''[[Potos flavus]]'' || jupará
|-
| hakuçu || ''[[Pourouma cecropiaefolia]]'' || cucura
|-
| hakuçu || ''[[Pourouma cecropiaefolia]]'' || uva-do-mato
|-
| mĩdo || ''[[Pouteria pariry]]'' || pariri
|-
| mãtja || ''[[Pouteria]]'' spp. || abiurana
|-
| çoronã || ''[[Priodontes giganteus]]'' || tatu-canastra
|-
| owɨto || ''[[Pseudolmedia laevigata]]'' || pama
|-
| çoro || ''[[Pseudomyrmex]]'' spp. || taxi
|-
| maninitɛ || ''[[Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum]]'' || surubim
|-
| aratsabi || ''[[Psophia crepitans]]'' || jacamim
|-
| jereçwa-kiɁɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Puma concolor]]'' || onça-vermelha
|-
| bibitjenju || ''[[Ramphocelus carbo]]'' || pipira
|-
| jakukurɛ || ''[[Ricinus communis]]'' || mamona
|-
| bɨrɨrɨtũi || ''[[Rollinia mucosa]]'' || biribá
|-
| baha || ''[[Saimiri sciureus]]'' || macaco-de-cheiro
|-
| tʃãrãiçu || ''[[Sinan]]'' spp. || perereca
|-
| hatemã; hotemã || ''[[Sciurus spadiceus]]'', ''[[Sciurus aestuans]]'' || esquilo
|-
| winɨkalo || ''[[Scleria]]'' spp. || tiririca
|-
| eri || ''[[Serrasalmus hollandi]]'' || piranha-pintada
|-
| eri hohoɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Serrasalmus rhombeus]]'' || piranha-preta
|-
| dore; katsutsu || ''[[Sylvilagus brasiliensis]]'' || coelho
|-
| takanasi; takanãsinwɨ̃ || ''[[Simaba cedron]]'' || quina
|-
| kamũkamũ || ''[[Simarouba amara]]'' || cacheta
|-
| çu || ''[[Synbranchus marmoratus]]'' || muçum
|-
| tɛte || ''[[Simulium]]'' spp. || pium
|-
| wɨçɨi || ''[[Socratea exorrhiza]]'' || paxiúba
|-
| paira || ''[[Solanum]]'' spp. || jurubeba
|-
| ehe || ''[[Solenopsis (ant)|Solenopsis]]'' sp. || formiga
|-
| hudi-tsãrãnãhĩ || ''[[Speotyto cunicularia]]'' sp. || coruja-do-campo
|-
| kaihũhẽ || ''[[Spilotes pullatus]]'' || caninana
|-
| haku || ''[[Spondias mombin]]'' || taperebá
|-
| hurerai || ''[[Swietenia macrophylla]]'' || mogno
|-
| murɨtjɨ; tʃeja || ''[[Swietenia]]'' sp. || cedro-lagoano
|-
| nanaɁũ || ''[[Tabebuia]]'' sp. || pau-d'arco
|-
| çoronwã || ''[[Tachigali]]'' sp. || taxi
|-
| sirisiri || ''[[Tamandua tetradactyla]]'' || mambira
|-
| ãrũi || ''[[Tapirus terrestris]]'' || anta
|-
| duture || ''[[Tayassu pecari]]'' || queixada
|-
| hajere || ''[[Tayassu tajacu]]'' || caititu
|-
| purukui || ''[[Terminalia brasiliensis]]'' || mirindiba
|-
| tai-marɛɁa || ''[[Thecadactylus rapicaudus]]'' || osga
|-
| ereto || ''[[Theobroma cacao]]'' || cacau
|-
| atʃitʃiɁũɨi || ''[[Tineola uterella]]'' || traça
|-
| terei hohoɨ̃hɨ̃ || ''[[Tometes]]'' sp. || pacu
|-
| çediçu || ''[[Tetragonisca angustula]]'' || abelha
|-
| haço || ''[[Trigona spinipes]]'' || abelha
|-
| çatɨ || ''[[Oxytrigona tataira]]'' || abelha
|-
| hakai || ''[[Trigona trinidadensis]]'' || avô
|-
| çɨitjo || ''[[Tunga penetrans]]'' || bicho-de-pé
|-
| hãkoɁɛ || ''[[Tupinambis merianae]]'' || teju, jacuraru
|-
| marɛʔa-ekasiɛ || ''[[Tyto alba]]'' || rasga-mortalha
|-
| çudẽrẽ || ''[[Urera]]'' sp. || urtiga
|-
| nuhai || ''[[Vanellus chilensis]]'' || quero-quero
|-
| hakũĩtsĩ || ''[[Vernonia ferruginea]]'' || assa-peixe
|-
| kumada || ''[[Vicia faba]]'' || fava
|-
| huhuri || ''[[Xanthosoma sagittifolium]]'' || taioba
|-
| mĩkarẽ || ''[[Xanthosoma sagittifolium]]'' || taioba
|-
| dihu || ''[[Xylopia nitida]]'' || embira-amerela
|}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

* {{cite journal
|first=Hein |last=van der Voort
|date=2000
|title=Kwaza or Koaiá, an unclassified language of Rondônia, Brazil
|journal=Indigenous Languages of Lowland South America
|volume=1
|pages=39–52
|url=https://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/illa:vol1n4/illa_vol1n4_voort.pdf
}}
* {{cite book
|first=Hein |last=van der Voort
|year=2004
|title=A Grammar of Kwaza
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|location=Berlin, New York
|doi=10.1515/9783110197280
}}
* {{cite journal
|first=Hein |last=van der Voort
|date=2005
|title=Kwaza in a Comparative Perspective
|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics
|volume=71 |issue=4
|pages=365–412
|doi=10.1086/501245
|jstor=10.1086/501245
}}
* {{cite thesis
|lang=pt
|first=Laura Vicuña Pereira |last=Manso
|date=2013
|title=Dicionário da língua Kwazá
|trans-title=Dictionary of the Kwazá language
|degree=M.A.
|publisher=[[Federal University of Rondônia]]
|location=[[Guajará-Mirim]]
|url=https://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Amanso-2013/Manso_2013_Dicionario_da_lingua_Kwaza.pdf
}}
* {{cite thesis
|lang=pt
|first=Marcelo Pinho de Valhery |last=Jolkesky
|date=2016
|title=Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas
|trans-title=An Archaeo-Ecolinguistic Study of the South American Tropics
|type=Ph.D. dissertation
|location=Brasília
|publisher=[[University of Brasília]]
|edition=2
|url=http://www.etnolinguistica.org/tese:jolkesky-2016-arqueoecolinguistica
}}

==Further reading==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a Swadesh list at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Kwaza Swadesh list|Appendix:Kwaza Swadesh list]]'''''}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=van der Voort |first=Hein |title=Kwazá |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Indigenous Peoples in Brazil]] |date=November 1998 |url=http://socioambiental.org/pib/epienglish/kwaza/kwaza.shtm |access-date=2007-02-08 |archive-date=2006-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229234525/http://www.socioambiental.org/pib/epienglish/kwaza/kwaza.shtm |url-status=dead }}

{{Languages of Brazil}}
{{South American languages}}

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
1O:first person object
1PO:any subject, first person plural object
2O:second person object
AO:animate object
AS:associated person
ATT:attributive
BER:beneficiary (nominal case marker)
CAUS:causational modality
COMIT:comitative
DR:directional
GER:gerundi(v)al
INS:instrumental case
INT:interrogative
NEG:negative
NOM:nominaliser
PO:plural object
RED:reduplication
TRA:transitiviser
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kwaza Language}}
[[Category:Indigenous languages of South America]]
[[Category:Languages of Brazil]]
[[Category:Endangered language isolates]]
[[Category:Language isolates of South America]]
[[Category:Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area]]