View source for Neanderthal behavior

{{Short description|Behavior of Neanderthal people}}
[[File:OS_La_Quina_MHNT_PRE.2006.0.35.jpg|A [[Mousterian]] tool retoucher on a bone-shaft from the French site of La Quina, used to modify stone tools.|300px|thumb|right]]
The details about '''Neanderthal behaviour''' remain highly controversial. From their physiology, [[Neanderthal]]s are presumed to have been [[omnivores]], but animal protein formed the majority of their dietary protein, showing them to have been carnivorous [[apex predator]]s and not scavengers.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1= Richards M.P. |author2= Pettitt P.B. |author3= Trinkaus E. |author4= Smith F.H. |author5= Paunović M. |author6= Karavanić I. |title= Neanderthal diet at Vindija and Neanderthal predation: The evidence from stable isotopes |journal= [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume= 97 |issue= 13 |pages= 7663–36 |date= June 2000 |pmid= 10852955 |pmc= 16602 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.120178997 | bibcode = 2000PNAS...97.7663R |doi-access= free }}</ref> Although very little is known of their social organization, it appears patrilines would make up the nucleus of the tribe, and women would seek out partners in neighbouring tribes once reaching adolescence, presumably to avoid inbreeding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skov |first1=Laurits |last2=Peyrégne |first2=Stéphane |last3=Popli |first3=Divyaratan |last4=Iasi |first4=Leonardo N. M. |last5=Devièse |first5=Thibaut |last6=Slon |first6=Viviane |last7=Zavala |first7=Elena I. |last8=Hajdinjak |first8=Mateja |last9=Sümer |first9=Arev P. |last10=Grote |first10=Steffi |last11=Bossoms Mesa |first11=Alba |last12=López Herráez |first12=David |last13=Nickel |first13=Birgit |last14=Nagel |first14=Sarah |last15=Richter |first15=Julia |date=2022-10-19 |title=Genetic insights into the social organization of Neanderthals |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=610 |issue=7932 |pages=519–525 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05283-y |pmid=36261548 |pmc=9581778 |bibcode=2022Natur.610..519S |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> An analysis based on finger-length ratios suggests that Neanderthals were more sexually competitive and promiscuous than modern-day humans.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101103081915.htm | title=Neanderthals were more promiscuous than modern humans, fossil finger bones suggest }}</ref>

The quality of stone tools at archaeological sites suggests Neanderthals were good at "expert" cognition, a form of observational learning and practice – acquired through apprenticeship – that relies heavily on long-term [[procedural memory]].<ref name="Wynn T, Coolidge F 2012 26–27">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Wynn T, Coolidge F |title=The inner Neanderthal |journal=New Scientist |volume=213 |issue=2847 |pages=26–27 |date=14 January 2012 |doi= 10.1016/S0262-4079(12)60110-9}}</ref> Neanderthal toolmaking changed little over hundreds of thousands of years. The lack of innovation may imply a reduced capacity for thinking by analogy and less [[working memory]]. Researchers have speculated that Neanderthal behaviour would probably seem [[neophobic]], [[dogmatic]] and [[xenophobic]] to modern humans,<ref name="Wynn T, Coolidge F 2012 26–27"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1= Ko|first1= Kwang Hyun|title= Hominin interbreeding and the evolution of human variation|journal= Journal of Biological Research-Thessaloniki|date= 2016|volume= 23|pages= 17|doi= 10.1186/s40709-016-0054-7|pmid= 27429943|pmc= 4947341|doi-access= free}}</ref> but nevertheless having a considerable degree of rationality.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.3390/h7020039 | volume=7 | title=Were Neanderthals Rational? A Stoic Approach | year=2018 | journal=Humanities | page=39 | last1 = Whiting | first1 = Kai | last2 = Konstantakos | first2 = Leonidas | last3 = Sadler | first3 = Greg | last4 = Gill | first4 = Christopher| issue=2 | doi-access = free }}.</ref> There is genetic evidence that supports interbreeding with ''Homo sapiens,'' language capability (including the [[FOXP2|FOXP2 gene]]), archaeological signs of cultural development and potential for cumulative cultural evolution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Whiting|first1= Kai|last2= Konstantakos|first2= Leonidas|last3= Sadler|first3= Greg|last4= Gill|first4= Christopher|date= 2018-04-21|title= Were Neanderthals Rational? A Stoic Approach|journal= Humanities|language= en|volume= 7|issue= 2|page= 39|doi= 10.3390/h7020039|doi-access= free}}</ref> Few Neanderthals lived past the age of 35.<ref name = Stringer1993>
{{cite book |last1= Stringer |first1= C. |last2= Gamble |first2= C. |date= 1993 |title= In Search of the Neanderthals |url= https://archive.org/details/insearchofneande00stri |location= London |publisher= Thames and Hudson |isbn= 978-0-500-05070-5 |url-access= registration }}</ref>

==Language==
{{See also|Origin of language}}
[[File:Hyoid in throat.jpg|thumb|The hyoid bone and larynx in a modern human.]]
It is not known whether Neanderthals were anatomically capable of speech and whether they spoke.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=P. Lieberman|title=The evolution of human speech|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=48|issue=1|pages=39–66|year=2007|doi=10.1086/509092|s2cid=28651524}}</ref> The only bone in the vocal tract is the [[hyoid bone|hyoid]], but it is so fragile that no Neanderthal hyoid was found until 1983, when excavators discovered a well-preserved one on Neanderthal [[Kebara 2]], [[Israel]]. It was largely similar to that of living humans. Although the original excavators claimed that the similarity of this bone with that of living humans implied Neanderthals were anatomically capable of speech,<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Arensburg B, Tillier AM, Vandermeersch B, Duday H, Schepartz LA, Rak Y |title=A Middle Palaeolithic human hyoid bone |journal=Nature |volume=338 |issue=6218 |pages=758–60 |date=April 1989 |pmid=2716823 |doi=10.1038/338758a0 |bibcode = 1989Natur.338..758A |s2cid=4309147 }}</ref> it is not possible to reconstruct the vocal tract with information supplied by the hyoid.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=J.T. Laitman|author2=B. Johansson|year=1990|title=The Kebara hyoid: What can it tell us about the evolution of the hominid vocal tract|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=81|number=2|page=254|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330810204}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=J.T. Laitman|author2=.S. Reidenberg|author3=D.R. Friedland|author4=P.J. Gannon|year=1991| title=What sayeth thou Neanderthal? A look at the evolution of their vocal tract and speech| journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology| volume=34|issue=S12|page=109|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330340505|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=W.T. Fitch|year=2002|title=Comparative vocal production and the evolution of speech: reinterpreting the descent of the larynx|encyclopedia=The Transition to Language|editor1=A. Wray|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author1=W.T. Fitch|year=2009|title=Fossil cues to the evolution of speech|encyclopedia=The Cradle of Language|editor1=R. Botha|editor2=C. Knight|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=112–134|location=Oxford}}</ref> In particular, it does not allow to determine if the larynx of its owner was in a low-lying position, a feature considered important in producing speech.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lieberman|first=P.|date=1989 |title=Folk physiology and talking hyoids |journal= Nature|volume=342|issue=6249|pages=486–7|doi= 10.1038/342486b0|pmid=2685609|bibcode=1989Natur.342..486M|s2cid=31049444}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=P. Lieberman|title=Hyoid bone position and speech: reply to Dr. Arensburg et al. (1990)|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=94|issue=2|pages=275–78|year=1994|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330940211|pmid=8085618}}</ref>

A 2013 study on the Kebara hyoid used [[X-ray microtomography]] and [[finite element analysis]] to conclude that the Neanderthal hyoid showed microscopic features more similar to a modern human's hyoid than to a chimpanzee hyoid. To the authors, that suggested the Neanderthal hyoid was used similarly to that in living humans, that is, to produce speech.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=D’Anastasio|first1=Ruggero|last2=Wroe|first2=Stephen|last3=Tuniz|first3=Claudio|last4=Mancini|first4=Lucia|last5=Cesana|first5=Deneb T.|last6=Dreossi|first6=Diego|last7=Ravichandiran|first7=Mayoorendra|last8=Attard|first8=Marie|last9=Parr|first9=William C.H.|last10=Agur|first10=Anne|last11=Capasso|first11=Luigi|last12=Frayer|first12=David|title=Micro-Biomechanics of the Kebara 2 Hyoid and Its Implications for Speech in Neanderthals|journal=PLOS ONE|date=18 December 2013|volume=8|issue=12|pages=e82261|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0082261|pmid=24367509|pmc=3867335|bibcode=2013PLoSO...882261D|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Although some researchers think Neanderthal tool-making is too complex for them not to have had language,<ref>Wynn & Coolidge, p. 27</ref> tool-making experiments of [[Levallois technique|Levallois]] technology, the most common Neanderthal toolmaking technique, have found that living humans can learn it in silence.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=K. Ohnuma|author2=K. Aoki|author3=T. Akazawa|title=Transmission of tool-making through verbal and non-verbal communication: Preliminary experiments in Levallois flake production|journal=[[Journal of Anthropological Sciences]]|volume=105|issue=3|pages=159–68|year=1997|doi=10.1537/ase.105.159|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Neanderthals had the same DNA-coding region of the [[FOXP2]] gene as living humans, but are different in one position of the gene's [[Gene regulatory network|regulatory regions]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=T. Maricic |author2=V. Günther |author3=O. Georgiev |author4=S. Gehre |display-authors=etal|date= 2013|title=A recent evolutionary change affects a regulatory element in the human FOXP2 gene|journal= Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=30 |issue= 4|pages= 844–52|doi= 10.1093/molbev/mss271|pmid=23197593 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and the extent of FOXP2 [[gene expression|expression]] might hence have been different in Neanderthals.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pääbo |first= Svante|date=2014 |title=The human condition. A molecular approach |journal= Cell |volume=157 |issue= 1|pages=216–26 |doi= 10.1016/j.cell.2013.12.036|pmid= 24679537|doi-access=free }}</ref> Although the gene appears necessary for language, it is not sufficient.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Nicholas |last=Wade |author-link=Nicholas Wade |date=19 October 2007 |title=Neanderthals Had Important Speech Gene, DNA Evidence Shows |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/19/science/19speech-web.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=18 May 2009}}</ref> It is not known whether FOXP2 evolved for or in conjunction with language, nor whether there are other language-related genes that Neanderthals may or may not have had. Similarly, the size and functionality of the Neanderthal [[Broca's area|Broca's]] and [[Wernicke's area]]s, used for speech generation in modern humans, is debated.

In 1998, researchers suggested Neanderthals had a [[hypoglossal canal]] at least as large as humans, suggesting they had part of the neurological requirements for language. The canal carries the hypoglossal nerve, which controls the muscles of the tongue, necessary to produce language.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kay RF, Cartmill M, Balow M |title=The hypoglossal canal and the origin of human vocal behaviour |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=95 |issue=9 |pages=5417–19 |date=April 1998 |pmid=9560291 |pmc=20276 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.9.5417 |bibcode = 1998PNAS...95.5417K |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, a [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] research team showed no correlation between canal size and speech, as several extant non-human primates and fossilized [[australopithecines]] have larger hypoglossal canals.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=DeGusta D, Gilbert WH, Turner SP |title=Hypoglossal canal size and hominid speech |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=96 |issue=4 |pages=1800–04 |date=February 1999 |pmid=9990105 |pmc=15600 |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.4.1800 |bibcode = 1999PNAS...96.1800D |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The morphology of the outer and middle ear of ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'', the Neanderthal's ancestor, suggests they had an auditory sensitivity similar to modern humans and different from chimpanzees.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Martínez I, Rosa M, Arsuaga JL, Jarabo P, Quam R, Lorenzo C, Gracia A, Carretero JM, Bermúdez de Castro JM, Carbonell E |title=Auditory capacities in Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=101 |issue=27 |pages=9976–81 |date=July 2004 |pmid=15213327 |pmc=454200 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0403595101 |bibcode = 2004PNAS..101.9976M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Tools==
Neanderthal and early [[anatomically modern human]] archaeological sites show a simpler toolkit than those found in [[Upper Paleolithic]] sites, produced by modern humans after about 50,000 BP. In both early anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals, there is little innovation in the technology. In 2020 a 50,000-year-old three-ply cord fragment made from bark was found at the Abri du Maras, France site. Bruce Hardy of [[Kenyon College]], [[Ohio]], concluded that the creation of the cord suggested a cognitive understanding of numeracy and context-sensitive operational memory.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-52267383|title=50,000-year-old string found at France Neanderthal site|date=13 April 2020|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=15 April 2020}}</ref>

Tools produced by Middle Palaeolithic humans in Eurasia (both Neanderthals and early modern humans) are known as [[Mousterian]]. These were often produced using soft hammer percussion, with hammers made of materials like bones, antlers, and wood, rather than hard hammer percussion, using stone hammers. A result of this is that their [[bone industry]] was relatively simple. They routinely made stone implements. Neanderthal tools consisted of [[lithic flake|stone flakes]] and task-specific [[hand axe]]s, many of which were sharp.

There is evidence of violence among Neanderthals. The 40,000-year-old Neanderthal skull of [[Saint-Césaire|St. Césaire]] has a healed fracture in its cranial vault likely caused by something sharp, suggesting interpersonal violence. The wound healed and the Neanderthal survived.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal = PNAS|year = 2002|volume = 99|pages = 6444–48|title = Evidence for interpersonal violence in the St. Césaire Neanderthal|author1=C.P.E. Zollikofer |author2=M.S. Ponce de León |author3=B. Vandermeersch |author4=F. Lévêque  |name-list-style=amp |doi = 10.1073/pnas.082111899|pmid = 11972028|issue = 9|pmc = 122968|bibcode = 2002PNAS...99.6444Z |doi-access = free}}</ref>

Whether they had [[projectile]] weapons is controversial. They seem to have had wooden spears, but it is unclear whether they were used as projectiles or as thrusting spears.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Steven E. |last=Churchill |year=2002 |title=Of assegais and bayonets: Reconstructing prehistoric spear use |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=185–86 |doi=10.1002/evan.10027|doi-access=free }}</ref> Wood implements rarely survive,<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Paul |last=Pettitt |date=February 2000 |title=Odd man out: Neanderthals and modern humans |url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba51/ba51feat.html |journal=British Archaeology |volume=51 |issn=1357-4442 |access-date=18 May 2009}}</ref> but several 320,000-year-old wooden spears about 2 metres in length were found near [[Schöningen]], northern Germany, and are thought to be the product of the older ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' species.

Neanderthals used fire on occasion, but it is not certain whether they were able to produce it. They may have used [[pyrolusite]] (manganese dioxide) to accelerate the combustion of wood. "With archaeological evidence for fireplaces and the conversion of the manganese dioxide to powder, [it has been argued] that Neanderthals at Pech-de-l’Azé I used manganese dioxide in fire-making and produced fire on demand." MnO<sub>2</sub> lowers the combustion temperature of wood from 350 degrees Celsius to 250 degrees Celsius and is common in [[Neanderthal]] archaeological sites.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/srep22159| pmid=26922901| pmc=4770591| title=Selection and Use of Manganese Dioxide by Neanderthals| journal=Scientific Reports| volume=6| pages=22159| year=2016| last1=Heyes| first1=Peter J.| last2=Anastasakis| first2=Konstantinos| last3=De Jong| first3=Wiebren| last4=Van Hoesel| first4=Annelies| last5=Roebroeks| first5=Wil| last6=Soressi| first6=Marie| bibcode=2016NatSR...622159H}}</ref>

Neanderthals produced [[birch tar]] through the dry distillation of birch bark.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kozowyk|first1=P.R.B.|last2=Soressi|first2=M.|last3=Pomstra|first3=D.|last4=Langejans|first4=G.H.J.|date=2017-08-31|title=Experimental methods for the Palaeolithic dry distillation of birch bark: implications for the origin and development of Neandertal adhesive technology|journal=Scientific Reports|language=En|volume=7|issue=1|pages=8033|doi=10.1038/s41598-017-08106-7|pmid=28860591|pmc=5579016|issn=2045-2322|bibcode=2017NatSR...7.8033K}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tozzi|first1=Carlo|last2=Vitagliano|first2=Silvana|last3=Douka|first3=Katerina|last4=Jacobs|first4=Zenobia|last5=Lucejko|first5=Jeannette J.|last6=Pollarolo|first6=Luca|last7=Villa|first7=Paola|last8=Soriano|first8=Sylvain|last9=Degano|first9=Ilaria|date=2019-06-20|title=Hafting of Middle Paleolithic tools in Latium (central Italy): New data from Fossellone and Sant'Agostino caves|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=14|issue=6|pages=e0213473|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0213473|pmid=31220106|pmc=6586293|issn=1932-6203|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1413473D|doi-access=free}}</ref> It was long thought that birch tar made by Neanderthals required them to follow a complex recipe and that it thus showed complex cognitive skills (to arrive at this recipe) and cultural transmission (of this recipe). A study from 2019 showed that birch tar production can instead be a very simple process - merely involving the burning of birch bark near smooth vertical surfaces in open-air conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Schmidt P, Blessing M, Rageot M, Iovita R, Pfleging J, Nickel KG, Righetti L, Tennie, C|title=Birch tar extraction does not prove Neanderthal behavioral complexity|journal=PNAS|volume=116|issue=36|pages=17707–17711|doi=10.1073/pnas.1911137116|pmid=31427508|pmc=6731756|year=2019|bibcode=2019PNAS..11617707S |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Pendants and other jewellery showing traces of [[ochre]] dye and deliberate grooving have also been found in one single stratigraphically disturbed Neanderthal archaeological layer,<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kuhn SL, Stiner MC, Reese DS, Güleç E |title=Ornaments of the earliest Upper Paleolithic: New insights from the Levant |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=98 |issue=13 |pages=7641–46 |date=June 2001 |pmid=11390976 |pmc=34721 |doi=10.1073/pnas.121590798 |bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.7641K |doi-access=free }}</ref> but whether these items were ever in the hands of Neanderthals or were mixed into their archaeological layers from overlying modern human ones is debated.

==Burial claims==
[[File:Neanderthal-burial.gif|thumb|A claimed Neanderthal burial at Kebara Cave (Carmel Range, Israel). Thermoluminescence dates place Neanderthal levels at Kebara at ca. 60,000 BP. Skeleton of an adult man nicknamed Moshe (25–35 years old, height 1.70&nbsp;m) found in 1983]]
{{see|Paleolithic burial}}
No claim of a deliberate Neanderthal [[Paleolithic burial|burial]] is universally accepted.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Gargett |first= R.H.|date= 1999|title= Middle Palaeolithic burial is not a dead issue: the view from Qafzeh, Saint-Césaire, Kebara, Amud, and Dederiyeh|journal= Journal of Human Evolution|volume= 37 |issue= 1|pages=27–90 |doi=10.1006/jhev.1999.0301|pmid= 10375476}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Gargett |first= R.H.|date= 1989|title= Grave Shortcomings: The Evidence for Neandertal Burial |journal= Current Anthropology|volume=30 |issue=2 |pages= 157–90 |doi=10.1086/203725|s2cid= 146781901}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=H. Dibble  |author2=V. Aldeias |author3=P. Goldberg |author4=D. Sandgathe |author5=T.E. Steele |date=2015 |title= A critical look at evidence from La Chapelle-aux-Saints supporting an intentional burial |journal= Journal of Archaeological Science|volume= 53|pages= 649–57|doi= 10.1016/j.jas.2014.04.019}}</ref> An interpretation of pre-Neanderthal [[Shanidar]] IV as having been ritually buried with flowers<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Ralph S. |last=Solecki |date=November 1975 |title=Shanidar&nbsp;IV, a Neanderthal Flower Burial in Northern Iraq |journal =[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=190 |issue=4217 |pages=880–81 |bibcode=1975Sci...190..880S| doi = 10.1126/science.190.4217.880|s2cid=71625677 }}</ref> was seriously questioned in the past,<ref>{{Cite journal|first=J. D. |last=Sommer |year=1999 |title=The Shanidar&nbsp;IV 'Flower Burial': a Re-evaluation of Neanderthal Burial Ritual |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=127–29 |issn=0959-7743 |doi=10.1017/S0959774300015249|s2cid=162496872 }}</ref> and to [[Paul B. Pettitt]], convincingly eliminated: "A recent examination of the microfauna from the strata into which the grave was cut suggests that the pollen was deposited by the burrowing rodent ''[[Persian jird|Meriones tersicus]]'' (Persian jird), which is common in the Shanidar microfauna and whose burrowing activity can be observed today".<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Neanderthal dead|journal = Before Farming|date = 2002|pages = 1–26|volume = 2002|issue = 1|doi = 10.3828/bfarm.2002.1.4|language = en|first = Paul|last = Pettitt}}</ref>

However, further excavations of the site which began in 2014 led to new discoveries and multiple lines of evidence that the Neanderthal was deliberately buried, including the fact that the sediment layer around the body is visibly different to the layer below. Additionally, the sediment below the body shows signs of having been disturbed by digging. According to Emma Pomeroy of the [[University of Cambridge]], "That’s quite good evidence that something was dug out and that’s what the body’s been put in."<ref>{{cite web
 | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/2233918-70000-year-old-remains-suggest-neanderthals-buried-their-dead/amp/
 | title = 70,000-year-old remains suggest Neanderthals buried their dead
 | last = Marshall
 | first = Michael
 | date = 18 February 2020
 | website = newscientist.com
 | publisher = New Scientist
 | access-date = 25 December 2021 }}</ref>

==Diet==
{{See also|Pleistocene human diet}}
Neanderthals obtained [[protein]] in their diet from animal sources.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Evolution of the human diet: the known, the unknown, and the unknowable |first=Peter |last=Ungar |year=2007  |isbn=978-0-19-518346-7 |publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc. |location=New York}}</ref> Evidence-based [[isotope]] studies show that Neanderthals ate primarily [[meat]].<ref name="PNAS-20190210">{{cite journal |last=Jaouen |first=Klervia |display-authors=etal |title=Exceptionally high δ15N values in collagen single amino acids confirm Neandertals as high-trophic level carnivores |date=19 February 2019 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=116 |issue=11 |pages=4928–4933 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1814087116 |pmid=30782806 |pmc=6421459 |bibcode=2019PNAS..116.4928J |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="PHY-20190219">{{cite news |last=Yika |first=Bob |title=Isotopes found in bones suggest Neanderthals were fresh meat eaters |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-02-isotopes-bones-neanderthals-fresh-meat.html |date=19 February 2019 |work=[[Phys.org]] |access-date=19 February 2019 }}</ref><ref name="SD-20190219">{{cite news |author=Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology |title=Neanderthals' main food source was definitely meat - Isotope analyses performed on single amino acids in Neanderthals' collagen samples shed new light on their debated diet |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/02/190219111704.htm |date=19 February 2019 |work=[[Science Daily]] |access-date=21 February 2019 |author-link=Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology }}</ref> Neanderthals were probably [[apex predator]]s,<ref name="neanderapex">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.03.003 |title=Isotopic evidence for diet and subsistence pattern of the Saint-Césaire I Neanderthal: Review and use of a multi-source mixing model |year=2005 |last1=Bocherens |first1=H. |last2=Drucker |first2=D. G. |last3=Billiou |first3=D. |author4-link=Marylène Patou-Mathis |last4=Patou-Mathis |first4=M. |last5=Vandermeersch |first5=B. |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=49 |pages=71–87 |pmid=15869783 |issue=1}}</ref> and fed predominantly on deer, namely [[red deer]] and [[reindeer]], as they were the most abundant game,<ref name=dusseldorp2013>{{cite book|first=G. L.|last=Dusseldorp|year=2013|chapter=Neanderthals and Cave Hyenas: Co-existence, Competition or Conflict?|title=Zooarchaeology and Modern Human Origins|pages=191–208|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6766-9_12.pdf|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6766-9_12|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht|editor1-first=J. L.|editor1-last=Clark|editor2-first=J. D.|editor2-last=Speth|isbn=978-94-007-6765-2}}</ref> but also on [[Capra (genus)|ibex]], [[wild boar]], [[aurochs]], and less frequently [[mammoth]], [[straight-tusked elephant]] and [[woolly rhinoceros]].<ref name=neanderrediscovered>{{cite book|first1= D.|last1= Papagianni|first2=M.|last2=Morse|title=The Neanderthals Rediscovered|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2013|isbn=978-0-500-05177-1}}</ref><ref name="neandercarnivore">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.120178997 |title=Neanderthal diet at Vindija and Neanderthal predation: The evidence from stable isotopes |year=2000 |last1=Richards |first1=M. P. |last2=Pettitt |first2=P. B. |last3=Trinkaus |first3=E.|author-link3=Erik Trinkaus |last4=Smith |first4=F. H. |last5=Paunović |first5=M. |last6=Karavanić |first6=I. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=97 |issue=13 |pages=7663–66 |pmid=10852955 |jstor=122870 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.7663R |pmc=16602|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0014769 |title=Molar Macrowear Reveals Neanderthal Eco-Geographic Dietary Variation |year=2011 |editor1-last=Rosenberg |editor1-first=Karen |last1=Fiorenza |first1=Luca |last2=Benazzi |first2=Stefano |last3=Tausch |first3=Jeremy |last4=Kullmer |first4=Ottmar |last5=Bromage |first5=Timothy G. |last6=Schrenk |first6=Friedemann |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=e14769 |pmid=21445243 |pmc=3060801|bibcode=2011PLoSO...614769F |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Traces of fossilized plants have been extracted from Neanderthal teeth tartar found in Belgium and Iraq, suggesting they also consumed plants.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Katherine |last=Harmon |date=27 December 2010 |title=Fossilized food stuck in Neandertal teeth indicates plant-rich diet |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2010/12/27/fossilized-food-stuck-in-neandertal-teeth-indicates-plant-rich-diet/ |work=[[Scientific American]] |access-date=5 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="vegetable">Ghosh, Pallab. "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12071424 Neanderthals cooked and ate vegetables]." BBC News. 27 December 2010.</ref><ref name=Example2006>{{Cite journal | issue = 2 | volume = 108 | pages = 486–91 | year = 2010| pmc = 3021051| pmid =   21187393| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1016868108 | last2 = Brooks | first1 = A.G. | first2 = A. "S. | last3 = Piperno | title = Microfossils in calculus demonstrate consumption of plants and cooked foods in Neanderthal diets (Shanidar III, Iraq; Spy I and II, Belgium) | first3 = D.R. | last1 = Henry |bibcode = 2011PNAS..108..486H | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Burned food remnants, thought to be about 70,000 years old, were found in the Shanidar Caves, 500 miles north of Baghdad. Dr Ceren Kabukcu, an archaeobotanist at the University of Liverpool said, "We present evidence for the first time of soaking and pounding pulse seeds by both Neanderthals and early modern humans."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Geddes |first=Linda |date=23 November 2022 |title=Oldest cooked leftovers ever found suggest Neanderthals were foodies |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/nov/23/oldest-cooked-leftovers-ever-found-suggest-neanderthals-were-foodies |access-date=23 November 2022 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

===Cannibalism===
Neanderthals are thought to have practised [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]] or [[Excarnation|ritual defleshing]]. This hypothesis was formulated after researchers found marks on Neanderthal bones similar to the bones of a dead deer butchered by Neanderthals.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://phys.org/news/2016-12-caves-neanderthals-cannibals.html | title=The caves that prove Neanderthals were cannibals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://phys.org/news/2016-07-evidence-neanderthal-cannibalism-northern-europe.html | title=Researchers discover the first evidence of Neanderthal cannibalism in northern Europe}}</ref>

Neanderthal bones from various sites ([[Combe-Grenal]] and Abri Moula in France, [[Krapina]] in Croatia and Grotta Guattari in Italy) have all been cited as bearing cut marks made by stone tools.<ref name="livescience">{{Cite web|title=Neanderthals Were Cannibals, Study Confirms |url=http://www.livescience.com/humanbiology/061204_neanderthal_lifestyle.html |author=Andrea Thompson |date=4 December 2006 |work=Health SciTech |publisher=LiveScience}}</ref> However, the results of technological tests have revealed varied causes.

Re-evaluation of these marks using high-powered microscopes, comparisons to contemporary butchered animal remains, and recent ethnographic cases of [[excarnation]] mortuary practises have shown that perhaps this was a case of ritual defleshing.
* At Grotta Guattari, the purposefully widened base of the skull (for access to the brain) is caused by carnivore action, with [[hyena]] tooth marks found on the skull and mandible.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* According to some studies,{{which|date=October 2021}} fragments of bones from Krapina show marks similar to those on bones from secondary burials at a Michigan ossuary (14th century AD), and are indicative of removing the flesh of a partially decomposed body.
* According to others, the marks on the bones found at Krapina are indicative of defleshing, although whether this was for nutritional or ritual purposes cannot be determined with certainty.<ref>{{Cite journal| author = Pathou-Mathis M | year = 2000 | title = Neanderthal subsistence behaviours in Europe | journal = International Journal of Osteoarchaeology | volume = 10 | pages = 379–95 | doi = 10.1002/1099-1212(200009/10)10:5<379::AID-OA558>3.0.CO;2-4| issue = 5| doi-access = free }}</ref>

Evidence of cannibalism includes:
* Analysis of bones from Abri Moula in France does seem to suggest cannibalism was practised here. Cut-marks are concentrated in places expected in the case of butchery, instead of defleshing. Additionally, the treatment of the bones was similar to that of roe deer bones, assumed to be food remains, found in the same shelter.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Defleur A, White T, Valensi P, Slimak L, Cregut-Bonnoure E | year = 1999 | title = Neanderthal cannibalism at Moula-Guercy, Ardèche, France | journal = Science | volume = 286 | pages = 128–31 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5437.128 | pmid = 10506562 | issue = 5437}}</ref>
* At El Sidron in Northern Spain, scientists have found evidence pointing to the cannibalism of 12 individuals by what is hypothesized to have been a neighbouring group of Neanderthals. According to [[Carles Lalueza-Fox]] of the Institute of Evolutionary Biology in Barcelona, the individuals (three children aged from two to nine, three teenagers, and six adults) appear to have been "killed and eaten, with their bones and skulls split open to extract the marrow, tongue and brains." Scientists speculate that the lack of any evidence of fire makes it likely that the event happened in winter, during times when food was scarce.<ref>Leake, Jonathan [https://web.archive.org/web/20131215134302/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/Science/article1344526.ece "We’ll have our neighbours for dinner –  raw"], ''[[The Sunday Times]]'', London, 24 November 2013. Retrieved on 19 April 2015.</ref>

Evidence indicating cannibalism would not distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans, which are known to have practised both cannibalism and mortuary defleshing (e.g., the [[sky burial]] of [[Tibet]]).

==Claims of art and adornment==
{{see|Art of the Middle Paleolithic|Cave of Maltravieso}}
[[File:Possible Neandertal Jewelry White-Tailed Eagle Claws with striations at the Neanderthal site of Krapina, Croatia, 130,000 BP.jpg|thumb|Proposed Neanderthal jewelry: white-tailed eagle claw with striations at the Neanderthal site of [[Krapina]], [[Croatia]], circa 130,000 BP.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Radovčić |first1=D. |last2=Sršen |first2=A. O. |last3=Radovčić |first3=J. |last4=Frayer |first4=D. W. |last5=Petraglia |first5=M. D. |title=Evidence for Neandertal Jewelry: Modified White-Tailed Eagle Claws at Krapina |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2015 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=e0119802 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119802 |pmid=25760648 |pmc=4356571 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1019802R |doi-access=free }}</ref>]]
A large number of claims of Neanderthal art, adornment, and structures have been made, which would show Neanderthals were capable of symbolic thought and a degree of human rationality.<ref name='Paleogenetics_2018'>{{Cite web | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140430133054.htm | title=Neanderthals were not inferior to modern humans, study finds}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sci.news/archaeology/neanderthals-symbolic-objects-04545.html|title=Neanderthals Capable of Incorporating Symbolic Objects into Their Culture, Discovery Suggests &#124; Archaeology &#124; Sci-News.com|first=Enrico de|last=Lazaro|date=January 18, 2017|website=Sci.News: Breaking Science News}}</ref><ref>Heavy Brows, High Art?: Newly Unearthed Painted Shells Show Neandertals Were ''Homo sapiens''{{'}} Mental Equals</ref><ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Guardian|title=Neanderthals were not less intelligent than modern humans, scientists find|author=I. Sample| url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/apr/30/neanderthals-not-less-intelligent-humans-scientists|year=2014}}</ref> However, none of them are widely accepted as evidence of symbolism,<ref>{{cite magazine| author=N. Branan| year=2010| url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/neandertal-symbolism/|title=Neandertal Symbolism: Evidence Suggests a Biological Basis for Symbolic Thought|magazine=Scientific American}}</ref> as the dating often interlaps with anatomically modern human presence in Europe.<ref name=pike2017/><ref name=hoffmann2018/> Some notable findings are listed below.

* Flower pollen on the body of pre-Neanderthal [[Shanidar Cave#Shanidar 4, the "flower burial"|Shanidar 4]], Iraq, had in 1975 been argued to be a flower burial,<ref>{{cite journal|author=R. S. Solecki|title= Shanidar IV, a Neanderthal Flower Burial in Northern Iraq|volume=190|issue= 4217|pages=880–81|year=1975|doi=10.1126/science.190.4217.880|journal=Science|bibcode=1975Sci...190..880S|s2cid= 71625677}}</ref> but the pollen could have also been deposited by natural events.<ref>{{cite journal|author=D.J. Sommer|title= The Shanidar IV 'Flower Burial': a Re-evaluation of Neanderthal Burial Ritual|journal= Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=9|issue=1|pages=127–29|year=1999|doi=10.1017/s0959774300015249|s2cid= 162496872}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Neanderthal Dead, exploring mortuary variability in Middle Paleolithic Eurasia|first= P. B.|last=Pettitt|year=2002|journal=Before Farming|volume=1|issue=4|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265379507}}</ref>
*In 1975, a piece of flat flint with a piece of bone pushed through a hole on the midsection–dating to 32, 40, or 75 kya<ref>{{cite journal|first1=J.|last1=Marquet|first2=M.|last2=Lorblanchet|first3=C.|last3=Oberlin|first4=E.|last4=Thamo-Bozso|first5=T.|last5=Aubry|year=2016|title=New dating of the "mask" of La Roche-Cotard (Langeais, Indre-et-Loire, France)|journal=Paleo Revue d'Archéologie Préhistorique|volume=27|pages=253–263|url=https://journals.openedition.org/paleo/3278}}</ref>–has been purported to resemble the upper half of a face, with the bone representing eyes–the [[Mask of la Roche-Cotard]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marquet|first1=J.-C.|last2=Lorblanchet|first2=M.|year= 2003|title=A Neanderthal face? The proto-figurine from La Roche-Cotard, Langeais (Indre-et-Loire, France)|journal=Antiquity|volume=77|issue=298|pages=661–670|issn=0003-598X|doi=10.1017/s0003598x00061627|s2cid=162609308}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pettitt|first=P. B.|year=2003|title=Is this the infancy of art? Or the art of an infant? A possible Neanderthal face from La Roche-Cotard, France|journal=Before Farming|volume=11|issue=3|url=http://www.waspress.co.uk/journals/beforefarming/journal_20034/news/BF3-4_11_NewsPettitt.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002180404/http://www.waspress.co.uk/journals/beforefarming/journal_20034/news/BF3-4_11_NewsPettitt.pdf|archive-date=2 October 2011}}</ref> It is contested whether it represents a face, or if it even constitutes art.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2003|title=But is it art?|journal=Science|volume=302|issue=5,652|pages=1890a–1890|doi=10.1126/science.302.5652.1890a|s2cid=149146480}}</ref>
*[[Châtelperronian]] beads have been attributed to Neanderthals, but the dating is uncertain and the beads may have been made by modern humans.<ref name="Higham">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1007963107 |pmid=20956292|pmc=2996711|title=Chronology of the Grotte du Renne (France) and implications for the context of ornaments and human remains within the Chatelperronian|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=47|pages=20234–20239|year=2010|last1=Higham|first1=T.|last2=Jacobi|first2=R.|last3=Julien|first3=M.|last4=David|first4=F.|last5=Basell|first5=L.|last6=Wood|first6=R.|last7=Davies|first7=W.|last8=Ramsey|first8=C. B.|bibcode=2010PNAS..10720234H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Mellars">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1014588107|pmid=21078972|pmc=2996706|title=Neanderthal symbolism and ornament manufacture: The bursting of a bubble?|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=47|pages=20147–20148|year=2010|last1=Mellars|first1=P.|bibcode=2010PNAS..10720147M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=J.-J. Hublin|author2=S. Talamo|author3=M. Julien|author4=F. David|author5=N. Connet|author6=P. Bodu|author7=B. Vandermeersch|author8=M.P. Richards|title=Radiocarbon dates from the Grotte du Renne and Saint-Césaire support a Neandertal origin for the Châtelperronian|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA|volume=109|issue=46|pages=18743–18748|doi=10.1073/pnas.1212924109|pmid=23112183|pmc=3503158|bibcode=2012PNAS..10918743H|year=2012|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=F. Welkera|author2=M. Hajdinjak|author3=S. Talamo|author4=K. Jaouen|author5=M. Dannemann|author6=F. David|author7=M. Julien|author8=M. Meyer|author9=J. Kelso|author10=I. Barnes|author11=S. Brace|author12=P. Kamminga|author13=R. Fischer|author14=B.M. Kessler|author15=J.R. Stewart|author16=S. Pääbo|author17=M.J. Collins|author18=J.-J. Hublin|title=Palaeoproteomic evidence identifies archaic hominins associated with the Châtelperronian at the Grotte du Renne|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA|volume=113|issue=40|pages=11162–67|doi=10.1073/pnas.1605834113|pmid=27638212|pmc=5056053|year=2016| bibcode=2016PNAS..11311162W |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* Bird bones were argued to show evidence for feather plucking in a 2012 study examining 1,699 ancient sites across Eurasia, which the authors controversially took to mean Neanderthals wore bird feathers as personal adornments.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Did Neanderthals use feathers for fashion?|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20155-did-neanderthals-use-feathers-for-fashion/ |magazine= New Scientist|access-date= 16 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Birds of a Feather: Neanderthal Exploitation of Raptors and Corvids|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0045927|pmid = 23029321|pmc=3444460|journal=PLOS ONE|year= 2012|volume=7|issue=9|page=e45927|last1=Finlayson|first1=C.|last2=Brown|first2=K.|last3=Blasco|first3=R.|last4=Rosell|first4=J.|last5=Negro|first5=J. José|last6=Bortolotti|first6=G. R.|last7=Finlayson|first7=G.|last8=Sánchez Marco|first8=A.|last9=Giles Pacheco|first9=F.|last10=Rodríguez Vidal|first10=J.|last11=Carrión|first11=J. S.|last12=Fa|first12=D. A.|last13=Rodríguez Llanes|first13=J. M.|bibcode=2012PLoSO...745927F|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[File:Neanderthal Engraving (Gorham's Cave Gibraltar).jpg|thumb|The scratched floor of [[Gorham's Cave#Scratched floor|Gorham's Cave]]]]
* [[Gorham's Cave#Scratched floor|Deep scratches]] on the floor of [[Gorham's Cave]], Gibraltar, were dated to older than 39 kya in 2012, which some have controversially interpreted as Neanderthal [[abstract art]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=E. Callaway|title=Neanderthals made some of Europe's oldest art|year=2014|journal=Nature News|doi=10.1038/nature.2014.15805|s2cid=163840392|url=http://www.nature.com/news/neanderthals-made-some-of-europe-s-oldest-art-1.15805}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=J.|last1=Rodríguez-Vidal|first2=F.|last2=d'Errico|first3=F. G.|last3=Pacheco|year=2014|title=A rock engraving made by Neanderthals in Gibraltar|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=111|issue=37|pages=13,301–13,306|doi=10.1073/pnas.1411529111|pmc=4169962|pmid=25197076|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113301R|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=E. Callaway|title=Neanderthals made some of Europe's oldest art|year=2014|journal=Nature News|doi=10.1038/nature.2014.15805|s2cid=163840392}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-28967746|title=Neanderthal 'artwork' found in Gibraltar cave|date=1 September 2014|publisher=BBC}}</ref>
* In 2015, a study argued that several 130,000-year-old eagle talons found in a cache near [[Krapina]], Croatia along with Neanderthal bones, had been modified to be used as jewellery.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Callaway |first1=E. |title=Neanderthals wore eagle talons as jewellery |journal=Nature |year= 2015 |doi=10.1038/nature.2015.17095 |s2cid=191368693 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A similar talon necklace was reported in 2019 at [[Cova Foradà]] in Spain.<ref>[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/eagle-talon-jewelry-suggests-neanderthals-were-capable-human-thought-180973451/ Eagle Talon Jewelry Suggests Neanderthals Were Capable of Human-Like Thought.] Megan Gannon, ''Smithsonian Magazine''. 1 November 2019.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.aax1984 | volume=5 | title=The Châtelperronian Neanderthals of Cova Foradada (Calafell, Spain) used imperial eagle phalanges for symbolic purposes | year=2019 | journal=Science Advances | page=eaax1984 | last1 = Rodríguez-Hidalgo | first1 = A. | last2 = Morales | first2 = J. I. | last3 = Cebrià | first3 = A. | last4 = Courtenay | first4 = L. A. | last5 = Fernández-Marchena | first5 = J. L. | last6 = García-Argudo | first6 = G. | last7 = Marín | first7 = J. | last8 = Saladié | first8 = P. | last9 = Soto | first9 = M. | last10 = Tejero | first10 = J.-M. | last11 = Fullola | first11 = J.-M. | issue=11 | pmid = 31701003 | pmc = 6824858 | bibcode = 2019SciA....5.1984R}}</ref>
* Two artificial 176,000-year-old [[stalagmite]] ring structures several metres wide, more than {{cvt|300|m}} from the entrance within [[Bruniquel Cave]], France, were reported in 2016. Being so far inside the cave also shows the use of artificial lighting in underground environments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jaubert |first1=J. |last2=Verheyden |first2=S. |last3=Genty |first3=D. |last4=Soulier |first4=M. |last5=Cheng |first5=H. |last6=Blamart |first6=D. |last7=Burlet |first7=C. |last8=Camus |first8=H. |last9=Delaby |first9=S. |last10=Deldicque |first10=D. |last11=Edwards |first11=R. L. |last12=Ferrier |first12=C. |last13=Lacrampe-Cuyaubère |first13=F. |last14=Lévêque |first14=F. |last15=Maksud |first15=F. |last16=Mora |first16=P. |last17=Muth |first17=X. |last18=Régnier |first18=É. |last19=Rouzaud |first19=J.-N. |last20=Santos |first20=F.|title=Early Neanderthal constructions deep in Bruniquel Cave in southwestern France |journal=Nature |year=2016 |volume=534 |issue=7605 |pages=111–114 |doi=10.1038/nature18291 |pmid=27251286 |bibcode=2016Natur.534..111J |s2cid=205249458 }}</ref> Other red-painted stalagmites in Spain were dated to 65,500 years ago.<ref name='Standish 2019'/>
*In 2017, incision-decorated [[raven]] bones from the Zaskalnaya VI (Kolosovskaya) Neanderthal site, [[Crimea]], [[Micoquian]] industry dated to 43–38 kya were reported. Given there are 17 of these objects at seven different sites in the area, and the notches on all of them are more or less equidistant to each other, they are very unlikely to have originated from simple butchering.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=d’Errico |first1=F. |last2=Tsvelykh |first2=A.  |title=A decorated raven bone from the Zaskalnaya VI (Kolosovskaya) Neanderthal site, Crimea |journal=PLOS ONE |year= 2017 |volume=12 |issue=3 |page=e0173435 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0173435 |pmid=28355292 |pmc=5371307 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1273435M |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*In 2018, red-painted symbols comprising hand stencils, a ladder-shaped figure,<ref name='Standish 2019'/> dots, discs, lines, and representations of animals on the cave walls of several caves across Spain {{convert|700|km|abbr=on}} apart, including [[La Pasiega]],<ref name='Standish 2019'/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mpg.de/11948095/neandertals-cave-art|title=Neanderthals thought like we do|website=www.mpg.de|language=en|access-date=2019-07-05}}</ref> [[Cave of Maltravieso]],<ref name='Standish 2019'>[https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/neanderthal-art-discovery/ It's Official: Neanderthals Created Art.] Chris Standish and Alistair Pike. ''Sapiens.org''. 22 May 2018.</ref> [[Cave of El Castillo]],<ref>[http://www.mrtredinnick.com/uploads/7/2/1/5/7215292/origins_of_art_-_neanderthal_art.pdf World's Oldest Cave Art Found—Made by Neanderthals?]. Ker Than. ''National Geographic News''. Published June 14, 2012.</ref> and Doña Trinidad–were dated to be older than 66,000 years ago.<ref name='Standish 2019'/> If the dating is correct, they were painted at least 20,000 years before the arrival of anatomically modern humans in western Europe, and demonstrate Neanderthals were capable of symbolic behaviour.<ref name='Standish 2019'/><ref name=pike2017>{{cite journal | last1 = Pike | first1 = A. W. | last2 = Hoffmann | first2 = D. L. | last3 = Pettitt | first3 = P. B. | last4 = García-Diez | first4 = M. | last5 = Zilhão | first5 = J. | year = 2017 | title = Dating Palaeolithic cave art: Why U–Th is the way to go | url = http://dro.dur.ac.uk/22566/1/22566.pdf| journal = Quaternary International | volume = 432 | pages = 41–49 | doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.013| bibcode = 2017QuInt.432...41P | s2cid = 130629624 }}</ref><ref name=hoffmann2018>{{cite journal |author1=D. L. Hoffmann |author2=C. D. Standish |author3=M. García-Diez |author4=P. B. Pettitt |author5=J. A. Milton |author6=J. Zilhão |author7=J. J. Alcolea-González |author8=P. Cantalejo-Duarte |author9=H. Collado |author10=R. de Balbín |author11=M. Lorblanchet |author12=J. Ramos-Muñoz |author13=G.-Ch. Weniger |author14=A. W. G. Pike |year=2018 |title=U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art |journal=Science |volume=359 |issue=6378 |pages=912–15 |doi=10.1126/science.aap7778|pmid=29472483 |bibcode=2018Sci...359..912H |doi-access=free |hdl=10498/21578 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/d41586-018-02357-8 | title=Neanderthal artists made oldest-known cave paintings | year=2018 | journal=Nature | last1 = Marris | first1 = Emma}}</ref>
*The [[Cave of Los Aviones]] in Spain has yielded [[ochre]]d and perforated marine shells, red and yellow colourants, and shell "makeup containers"<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8448660.stm | publisher=BBC News | title=Neanderthal 'make-up' discovered | date=9 January 2010 | access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref> that feature residues of complex [[pigment]] mixtures.<ref name='Hoffmann 2018'>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.aar5255 | volume=4 | title=Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Iberian Neandertals 115,000 years ago | year=2018 | journal=Science Advances | page=eaar5255 | last1 = Hoffmann | first1 = Dirk L. | last2 = Angelucci | first2 = Diego E. | last3 = Villaverde | first3 = Valentín | last4 = Zapata | first4 = Josefina | last5 = Zilhão | first5 = João | issue=2 | pmid = 29507889 | pmc = 5833998 | bibcode = 2018SciA....4.5255H}}</ref> The pigments on the seashells were dated to 115,000 years old, making these "the oldest personal ornamentation known anywhere in the world," predating the presence of ''[[Homo sapiens]]''.<ref name='Natl Geo 2018'>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190808210442/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/02/neanderthals-cave-art-humans-evolution-science/ World's Oldest Cave Art Found—And Neanderthals Made It.] Michael Greshko, ''National Geographic''. 22 February 2018.</ref><ref name='Hoffmann 2018'/><ref>[https://news.artnet.com/art-world/cave-paintings-neanderthals-1230620 Archaeologists Have Discovered the World's Oldest Cave Paintings—And They're by Neanderthals]. Sarah Cascone, ''Art Net''. February 23, 2018.</ref><ref>[https://news.artnet.com/art-world/cave-paintings-neanderthals-1230620 Archaeologists Have Discovered the World's Oldest Cave Paintings—And They’re by Neanderthals]. Sarah Cascone, ''Art Net''. February 23, 2018.</ref>
*In 2023 markings found in a cave in La Roche-Cotard were identified as the oldest known Neanderthal engravings and have been dated to more than 57,000 years ago, before modern humans arrived in the region. <ref>{{Cite news |last=Sample |first=Ian |last2= |first2= |date=21 June 2023 |title=French cave markings said to be oldest known engravings by Neanderthals |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/jun/21/engravings-french-cave-oldest-known-neanderthals-scientists |access-date=22 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621213128/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/jun/21/engravings-french-cave-oldest-known-neanderthals-scientists |archive-date=21 June 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marquet |first1=Jean-Claude |last2=Freiesleben |first2=Trine Holm |last3=Thomsen |first3=Kristina Jørkov |last4=Murray |first4=Andrew Sean |last5=Calligaro |first5=Morgane |last6=Macaire |first6=Jean-Jacques |last7=Robert |first7=Eric |last8=Lorblanchet |first8=Michel |last9=Aubry |first9=Thierry |last10=Bayle |first10=Grégory |last11=Bréhéret |first11=Jean-Gabriel |last12=Camus |first12=Hubert |last13=Chareille |first13=Pascal |last14=Egels |first14=Yves |last15=Guillaud |first15=Émilie |date=2023-06-21 |title=The earliest unambiguous Neanderthal engravings on cave walls: La Roche-Cotard, Loire Valley, France |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=e0286568 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0286568 |pmid=37343032 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=10284424 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1886568M }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

;Sources
* {{Cite journal|doi=10.1006/jpho.2002.0170 |url=http://www.icp.inpg.fr/OHLL/lesPubliRapports/JPhonetics.pdf |title=The potential Neandertal vowel space was as large as that of modern humans |date=July 2002 |first=Louis-Jean |last=Boë |author2=Jean-Louis Heim |author3=Kiyoshi Honda |author4=Shinji Maeda |journal=Journal of Phonetics |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=465–84 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061124102938/http://www.icp.inpg.fr/OHLL/lesPubliRapports/JPhonetics.pdf |archive-date=November 24, 2006 }} 
* {{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.wocn.2005.07.002 |title=Current views on Neanderthal speech capabilities: A reply to Boe et al. (2002) |date=October 2007 |first=Philip |last=Lieberman |journal=Journal of Phonetics |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=552–63}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Homo neanderthalensis}}
{{Wikibooks|Introduction to Paleoanthropology}}
{{wikispecies|Homo neanderthalensis}}

{{Human Evolution}}
{{Prehistoric technology}}
{{Homo neanderthalensis|state=expanded}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Neanderthal Behaviour}}
[[Category:Neanderthals|Behavior]]
[[Category:Human behavior]]