View source for Norwegian language

{{Short description|North Germanic language spoken in Norway}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name          = Norwegian
| nativename    = {{lang|no|norsk}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA-no|ˈnɔʂːk|}} (East, Central and North)<br /> {{IPA-all|ˈnɔʁsk|}} (West and South)
| states        = [[Norway]]
| region        = 
| speakers      = 4.32 million
| ethnicity     = [[Norwegians]]
| date          = 2012
| ref           = <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Norwegian Language in the Digital Age|last1=De Smedt|first1=Koenraad|last2=Lyse|first2=Gunn Inger|last3=Gjesdal|first3=Anje Müller|last4=Losnegaard|first4=Gyri S.|date=2012|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=9783642313882|series=White Paper Series|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=45|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31389-9|quote=Norwegian is the common spoken and written language in Norway and is the native language of the vast majority of the Norwegian population (more than 90%) and has about 4,320,000 speakers at present.}}</ref>
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| fam2          = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3          = [[Northwest Germanic]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/olde1239 |title=Older Runic |date=24 May 2022 |access-date=13 November 2022 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last=Hammarström |first=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113105941/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/olde1239 |archive-date=13 November 2022 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian}}</ref>
| fam4          = [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]]
| fam5          = [[Old West Norse|West Scandinavian]] (''[[Norwegian language conflict|disputed]]'')
| ancestor      = [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]
| ancestor2     = [[Old West Norse]]
| ancestor3     = [[Old Norwegian]]
| ancestor4     = [[Middle Norwegian]]
| stand1        = {{nowrap|written {{Lang|no|[[Bokmål]]|italic=no}} (official)}}
| stand2        = {{*}} written {{Lang|no|[[Riksmål]]|italic=no}} (unofficial)
| stand3        = {{nowrap|written {{Lang|no|[[Nynorsk]]|italic=no}} (official)}}
| stand4        = {{nowrap|{{*}} written {{Lang|no|[[Høgnorsk]]|italic=no}} (unofficial)}}
| script        = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Norwegian alphabet]])<br>[[Norwegian Braille]]
| nation        = [[Norway]]
| agency        = [[Language Council of Norway]] ([[Bokmål]] and [[Nynorsk]])<br>[[Norwegian Academy]] (Riksmål)<br>[[Ivar Aasen-sambandet]] (Høgnorsk)
| iso1          = no
| iso2          = nor
| iso3          = nor
| lc1           = nob
| ld1           = Bokmål
| lc2           = nno
| ld2           = Nynorsk
| glotto        = norw1258
| glottorefname = Norwegian
| lingua        = <code>52-AAA-ba</code> to <code>-be</code>;<br /><code>52-AAA-cf</code> to <code>-cg</code>
| notice        = IPA
| map           = Norwegian language map.svg
| mapcaption    = Areas where Norwegian is spoken, including [[North Dakota]] (where 0.4% of the population speaks Norwegian), western [[Wisconsin]] (<0.1% of the population), and [[Minnesota]] (0.1% of the population) (Data: U.S. Census 2000).
}}
'''Norwegian''' ({{langx|no|norsk|links=no|label=[[endonym]]}} {{IPA-no|ˈnɔʂːk||Norsk (Language).ogg}}) is a [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] language from the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]] spoken mainly in [[Norway]], where it is an official language. Along with [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Danish language|Danish]], Norwegian forms a [[dialect continuum]] of more or less [[mutually intelligible]] local and regional varieties; some [[Norwegian dialects|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish dialects]], in particular, are very close. These [[Scandinavia]]n languages, together with [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] as well as some [[extinct language]]s, constitute the North Germanic languages. Faroese and Icelandic are not mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them. While the two [[Germanic languages]] with the greatest numbers of speakers, English and German, have close similarities with Norwegian, neither is mutually intelligible with it. Norwegian is a descendant of [[Old Norse]], the common language of the [[Germanic peoples]] living in Scandinavia during the [[Viking Age]].

Today there are two official forms of ''written'' Norwegian, {{Lang|no|[[Bokmål]]}} (Riksmål) and {{Lang|no|[[Nynorsk]]}} (Landsmål), each with its own variants. {{Lang|no|Bokmål}} developed from the [[Dano-Norwegian]] language that replaced [[Middle Norwegian]] as the elite language after the union of [[Denmark–Norway]] in the 16th and 17th centuries and then evolved in Norway, while {{Lang|no|Nynorsk}} was developed based upon a collective of spoken Norwegian dialects. Norwegian is one of the two official languages in Norway, along with [[Sámi languages|Sámi]], a [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric language]] spoken by less than one percent of the population. Norwegian is one of the working languages of the [[Nordic Council]]. Under the [[Nordic Language Convention]], citizens of the [[Nordic countries]] who speak Norwegian have the opportunity to use it when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for any [[interpreting|interpretation]] or [[translation]] costs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.norden.org/avtal/utbildning/sk/sprak.asp |title=Konvention mellan Sverige, Danmark, Finland, Island och Norge om nordiska medborgares rätt att använda sitt eget språk i annat nordiskt land |trans-title=Convention between Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland and Norway on the right of Nordic citizens to use their own language in another Nordic country |date=2 May 2007 |website=[[Nordic Council]] |language=no |access-date=4 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220234459/http://www.norden.org/avtal/utbildning/sk/sprak.asp |archive-date=20 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.norden.org/webb/news/news.asp?id=6777&lang=6 |title=20th anniversary of the Nordic Language Convention |date=22 February 2007 |website=Nordic Council |access-date=25 April 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070227013320/http://www.norden.org/webb/news/news.asp?id=6777&lang=6 |archive-date=27 February 2007}}</ref>

==History==
===Origins===
{{Old Norse language map}}

Like most of the languages in Europe, Norwegian derives from [[Proto-Indo-European]]<!-- PIE homeland and dating are subject to debates. It's not good to peremptorily insist on one of the hypotheses. -->. As early Indo-Europeans spread across Europe, they became isolated from each other and new languages developed. In northwest Europe, the [[Germanic languages]] evolved, further branching off into the [[North Germanic languages]], of which Norwegian is one.

[[Proto-Norse]] is thought to have evolved as a northern dialect of [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] during the first centuries AD in what is today Southern Sweden. It is the earliest stage of a characteristically North Germanic language, and the language [[Attested language|attested]] in the [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions, the oldest form of the [[runic alphabets]]. A number of inscriptions are memorials to the dead, while others are magical in content. The oldest are carved on loose objects, while later ones are chiseled in [[runestone]]s.<ref name="scan-langs">{{cite journal |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scandinavian-languages |title=Scandinavian languages |first1=Jan Terje |last1=Faarlund |first2=Einar |last2=Haugen |journal=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |volume=99 |issue=2495 |pages=505 |access-date=11 September 2016 |bibcode=1917Natur..99..505T |year=1917 |doi=10.1038/099505a0 |s2cid=3988911 |doi-access=free |archive-date=23 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623124221/http://www.britannica.com/topic/Scandinavian-languages |url-status=live }}</ref> They are the oldest written record of any Germanic language.

{{North Germanic clade}}

Around 800 AD, the script was simplified to the [[Younger Futhark]], and inscriptions became more abundant. At the same time, the beginning of the [[Viking Age]] led to the spread of [[Old Norse]] to [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]], and the [[Faroe Islands]]. Viking colonies also existed in parts of the [[British Isles]], France ([[Normandy]]), North America, and [[Kievan Rus]]. In all of these places except Iceland and the Faroes, Old Norse speakers went extinct or were absorbed into the local population.<ref name="scan-langs"/>

===The Roman alphabet===
Around 1030, Christianity came to [[Scandinavia]], bringing with it an influx of [[Latin]] borrowings and the [[Roman alphabet]]. These new words were related to [[Catholic church|church]] practices and ceremonies, although many other loanwords related to general culture also entered the language.

The Scandinavian languages at this time are not considered to be separate languages, although there were minor differences among what are customarily called Old Icelandic, [[Old Norwegian]], [[Old Gutnish]], Old Danish, and [[Old Swedish]].

===Low German influence===
The economic and political dominance of the [[Hanseatic League]] between 1250 and 1450 in the main Scandinavian cities brought large [[Middle Low German]]–speaking populations to Norway. The influence of their language on Scandinavian is comparable with that of French on English after the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman conquest]].<ref name="scan-langs"/>

===Dano-Norwegian===
In the late Middle Ages, dialects began to develop in Scandinavia because the population was rural and little travel occurred. When the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] came from Germany, [[Martin Luther]]'s [[Upper German|High German]] translation of the Bible was quickly translated into Swedish, Danish, and Icelandic. Norway entered a union with Denmark in 1397 and Danish, over time, replaced [[Middle Norwegian]] as the language of the elite, the church, literature, and the law. When the union with Denmark ended in 1814, the [[Dano-Norwegian]] [[koiné language|''koiné'']] had become the mother tongue of around 1% of the population.<ref name="now">{{cite web |url=https://www.ntnu.edu/now/intro/background-norwegian |title=The Norwegian language |first=Olaf |last=Husby |date=October 2010 |website=Norwegian on the Web |access-date=11 September 2016 |archive-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322153110/https://www.ntnu.edu/now/intro/background-norwegian |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Danish to Norwegian===
{{Main|Norwegian language conflict}}
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2016}}
From the 1840s, some writers experimented with a Norwegianised Danish by incorporating words that were descriptive of Norwegian scenery and folk life, and adopting a more Norwegian syntax. [[Knud Knudsen (linguist)|Knud Knudsen]] proposed to change spelling and inflection in accordance with the Dano-Norwegian ''koiné'', known as "cultivated everyday speech." A small adjustment in this direction was implemented in the first official reform of the Danish language in Norway in 1862 and more extensively after his death in two official reforms in 1907 and 1917.

Meanwhile, a nationalistic movement strove for the development of a new written Norwegian. [[Ivar Aasen]], a botanist and self-taught linguist, began his work to create a new Norwegian language at the age of 22. He traveled around the country collecting words and examples of grammar from the dialects and comparing the dialects among the different regions. He examined the development of [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], which had largely escaped the influences under which Norwegian had come. He called his work, which was published in several books from 1848 to 1873, [[Landsmål]], meaning 'national language'. The name ''Landsmål'' is sometimes interpreted as 'rural language' or 'country language', but this was clearly not Aasen's intended meaning.

The name of the Danish language in Norway was a topic of hot dispute throughout the 19th century. Its proponents claimed that it was a language common to Norway and Denmark, and no more Danish than Norwegian. The proponents of Landsmål thought that the Danish character of the language should not be concealed. In 1899, [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]] proposed the neutral name ''[[Riksmål]]'', meaning 'national language' like ''Landsmål'', and this was officially adopted along with the 1907 spelling reform. The name ''Riksmål'' is sometimes interpreted as 'state language', but this meaning is secondary at best. (Compare to [[Danish language|Danish ''rigsmål'']] from where the name was borrowed.)

After the personal union with Sweden was dissolved in 1905, both languages were developed further and reached what is now considered their classic forms after a reform in 1917. Riksmål was, in 1929, officially renamed ''Bokmål'' (literally 'book language'), and Landsmål to ''Nynorsk'' (literally 'new Norwegian'). A proposition to substitute Danish-Norwegian ({{Lang|no|dansk-norsk}}) for ''Bokmål'' lost in parliament by a single vote.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Norwegian Translation. Danish to Norwegian |url=https://www.translation-services-usa.com/norwegian_danish.php |access-date=28 July 2024 |website=www.translation-services-usa.com}}</ref> The name ''Nynorsk'', the linguistic term for [[modern Norwegian]], was chosen to contrast with Danish and emphasise the historical connection to Old Norwegian. Today, this meaning is often lost, and it is commonly mistaken as a "new" Norwegian in contrast to the "real" Norwegian Bokmål.

Bokmål and Nynorsk were made closer by a reform in 1938. This was a result of a state policy to merge Nynorsk and Bokmål into a single language, to be called ''Samnorsk''. A 1946 poll showed that this policy was supported by 79% of Norwegians at the time. However, opponents of the official policy still managed to create a massive protest movement against ''Samnorsk'' in the 1950s, fighting in particular the use of "radical" forms in Bokmål text books in schools. In the reform in 1959, the 1938 reform was partially reversed in Bokmål, but Nynorsk was changed further towards Bokmål. Since then Bokmål has reverted even further toward traditional Riksmål, while Nynorsk still adheres to the 1959 standard. Therefore, a small minority of Nynorsk enthusiasts use a more conservative standard called [[Høgnorsk]]. The Samnorsk policy had little influence after 1960, and was officially abandoned in 2002.

==Phonology==
{{Main|Norwegian phonology}}

{{unreferenced section|date=July 2016}}
While the sound systems of Norwegian and Swedish are similar, considerable variation exists among the dialects.

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant phonemes of Urban East Norwegian
!
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palato-alveolar consonant|Palato-<br />alveolar]]
! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align="center"
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
| ({{IPA link|ɳ}})
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|- align="center"
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|t}} {{IPA link|d}}
|
| ({{IPA link|ʈ}} {{IPA link|ɖ}})
| {{IPA link|k}} {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|- align="center"
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| ({{IPA link|ʂ}})
| {{IPA link|ç}}
| {{IPA link|h}}
|- align="center"
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|ʋ}}
| {{IPA link|l}}
|
| ({{IPA link|ɭ}})
| {{IPA link|j}}
|
|- align="center"
! [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɽ}}
|
|
|}

The retroflex consonants only appear in East Norwegian dialects as a result of [[sandhi]], combining {{IPAslink|ɾ}} with {{IPAslink|d}}, {{IPAslink|l}}, {{IPAslink|n}}, {{IPAslink|s}}, and {{IPAslink|t}}.

The realization of the rhotic {{IPAslink|ɾ}} depends on the dialect. In Eastern, Central, and Northern Norwegian dialects, it is a flap {{IPAblink|ɾ}}, whereas in Western and Southern Norway, and for some speakers also in Eastern Norway, it is uvular {{IPAblink|ʁ}} or {{IPAblink|χ}}. And in the dialects of North-Western Norway, it is realized as {{IPAblink|r}}, much like the trilled {{Grapheme|rr}} of Spanish.

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vowel phonemes of Urban East Norwegian
|-
! [[Orthography]]
! [[help:IPA|IPA]]
! Description
|- align=center
| a
| {{IPA|/{{IPAplink|ɑ}}(ː)/}}
| Open back unrounded
|- align=center
| ai
| {{IPA|/ɑɪ̯/}}
|
|- align=center
| au
| {{IPA|/æʉ̯/}}
|
|- align=center
| e (short)
| {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, {{IPAslink|æ}}
| open mid front unrounded
|- align=center
| e (long)
| {{IPAslink|eː}}, {{IPA|/æː/}}
| close mid front unrounded
|- align=center
| e (weak)
| {{IPAslink|ə}}
| schwa (mid central unrounded)
|- align=center
| ei
| {{IPA|/æɪ̯/}}, {{IPA|/ɛɪ̯/}}
|
|- align=center
| i (short)
| {{IPAslink|ɪ}}
| close front unrounded
|- align=center
| i (long)
| {{IPAslink|iː}}
| close front unrounded
|- align=center
| o (short)
| {{IPAslink|ɔ}}, {{IPAslink|ʊ}}
| close back rounded
|- align=center
| o (long)
| {{IPAslink|uː}}, {{IPAslink|oː}}
| close back rounded
|- align=center
| oi
| {{IPA|/ɔʏ̯/}}
|- align=center
| u
| {{IPA|/{{IPAplink|ʉ}}(ː)/}}
| close central rounded (close front [[endolabial]])
|- align=center
| y (short)
| {{IPAslink|ʏ}}
| close front rounded (close front [[exolabial]])
|- align=center
| y (long)
| {{IPAslink|yː}}
| close front rounded (close front exolabial)
|- align=center
| [[æ]] (short)
| {{IPAslink|æ}}, {{IPAslink|ɛ}}
| near open front unrounded, open mid front unrounded 
|- align=center
| æ (long)
| {{IPA|/æː/}}, {{IPAslink|eː}}
| near open front unrounded, close mid front unrounded
|- align=center
| [[ø]] (short)
| {{IPAslink|œ}}
| open mid front rounded
|- align=center
| ø (long)
| {{IPAslink|øː}}
| close mid front rounded
|- align=center
| øy
| {{IPA|/œʏ̯/}}
|
|- align=center
| [[å]] (short)
| {{IPAslink|ɔ}}
| open-mid back rounded
|- align=center
| å (long)
| {{IPAslink|oː}}
| close-mid back rounded
|}

===Accent===<!-- This section is linked from [[Tone (linguistics)]] -->
Norwegian is a [[pitch-accent language]] with two distinct pitch patterns, like Swedish. They are used to differentiate two-syllable words with otherwise identical pronunciation. For example, in many East Norwegian dialects, the word {{lang|no|bønder}} ('farmers') is pronounced using the simpler tone 1, while {{lang|no|bønner}} ('beans' or 'prayers') uses the more complex tone 2. Though spelling differences occasionally differentiate written words, in most cases the minimal pairs are written alike, since written Norwegian has no explicit accent marks. In most eastern low-tone dialects, accent 1 uses a low flat pitch in the first syllable, while accent 2 uses a high, sharply falling pitch in the first syllable and a low pitch in the beginning of the second syllable. In both accents, these pitch movements are followed by a rise of [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]al nature (phrase accent)—the size (and presence) of which signals emphasis or focus, and corresponds in function to the normal accent in languages that lack [[tone (linguistics)|lexical tone]], such as English. That rise culminates in the final syllable of an accentual phrase, while the utterance-final fall common in most languages is either very small or absent.

There are significant variations in pitch accent between dialects. Thus, in most of western and northern Norway (the so-called high-pitch dialects) accent 1 is falling, while accent 2 is rising in the first syllable and falling in the second syllable or somewhere around the syllable boundary. The pitch accents (as well as the peculiar phrase accent in the low-tone dialects) give the Norwegian language a "singing" quality that makes it easy to distinguish from other languages. Accent 1 generally occurs in words that were monosyllabic in [[Old Norse]], and accent 2 in words that were polysyllabic.

==Written language==
[[File:Norwegian keyboard by Dell.jpg|thumb|right|Norwegian keyboard with keys for Æ, Ø, and Å.]]
{{Main|Norwegian orthography}}

===Alphabet===
{{Main|Dano-Norwegian alphabet}}
The Norwegian alphabet has 29 letters.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Publikasjoner/Spraaknytt/Arkivet/Spraaknytt_2001/Spraaknytt_2001_4/Bokstaver_og_alfabet/ |title=Bokstaver og alfabet |trans-title=Letters and alphabet |last=Torp |first=Arne |number=4 |date=2001 |journal=Språknytt |language=no |pages=1–4 |access-date=23 June 2018 |archive-date=30 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630210752/http://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Publikasjoner/Spraaknytt/Arkivet/Spraaknytt_2001/Spraaknytt_2001_4/Bokstaver_og_alfabet/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| border=0 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=1 style="padding:0 .5em .2em; border:1px solid #999; margin:1em 0;"
|- style="font-size:large; text-align:center; "
| [[A]] || [[B]] || [[C]] || [[D]] || [[E]] || [[F]] || [[G]] || [[H]] || [[I]] || [[J]] || [[K]] || [[L]] || [[M]] || [[N]] || [[O]] || [[P]] || [[Q]] || [[R]] || [[S]] || [[T]] || [[U]] || [[V]] || [[W]] || [[X]] || [[Y]] || [[Z]] || [[Æ]] || [[Ø]] || [[Å]]
|- style="font-size:large; text-align:center; "
| a || b || c || d || e || f || g || h || i || j || k || l || m || n || o || p || q || r || s || t || u || v || w || x || y || z || æ || ø || å
|}

The letters ''c'', ''q'', ''w'', ''x'' and ''z'' are only used in [[loanword]]s. As loanwords are assimilated into Norwegian, their spelling might change to reflect Norwegian pronunciation and the principles of Norwegian orthography, e.g. ''[[zebra]]'' in Norwegian is written {{Lang|no|sebra}}. Due to historical reasons, some otherwise Norwegian family names are also written using these letters.

Some letters may be modified by [[diacritic]]s: ''é'', ''è'', ''ê'', ''ó'', ''ò'', and ''ô''.<ref>{{Citation |last=Johansen |first=Pål |title=cirkumfleks |date=22 August 2023 |url=https://snl.no/cirkumfleks |work=Store norske leksikon |access-date=1 December 2023 |language=no |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922114946/https://snl.no/cirkumfleks |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Citation |last=Simonsen |first=Hanne Gram |title=aksenttegn og andre diakritiske tegn |date=22 August 2023 |url=https://snl.no/aksenttegn_og_andre_diakritiske_tegn |work=Store norske leksikon |access-date=1 December 2023 |language=no |archive-date=2 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202192221/https://snl.no/aksenttegn_og_andre_diakritiske_tegn |url-status=live }}</ref> In Nynorsk, ''ì'' and ''ù'' and ''ỳ'' are occasionally seen as well.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}} The diacritics are not compulsory, but may in a few cases distinguish between different meanings of the word, e.g.: {{Lang|no|for}} ('for/to'), {{Lang|no|fór}} ('went'), {{Lang|no|fòr}} ('furrow') and {{Lang|no|fôr}} ('fodder').<ref name=":2" /> Loanwords may be spelled with other diacritics, most notably ''ï, ü<ref name=":2" />'', ''á'' and ''à''.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}

===Bokmål and Nynorsk===
{{Main|Bokmål|Nynorsk|Norwegian language conflict}}
[[File:Målformer i Norge.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Map of the official language forms of Norwegian municipalities: red is [[Bokmål]], blue is [[Nynorsk]], and gray depicts neutral areas.]]
The two legally recognized forms of ''written'' Norwegian are ''[[Bokmål]]'' (literally 'book tongue') and ''[[Nynorsk]]'' ('new Norwegian'), which are regulated by the [[Language Council of Norway]] ({{Lang|no|Språkrådet}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lov om språk (språklova) - Lovdata |url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2021-05-21-42 |url-status=live |access-date=29 February 2024 |website=lovdata.no |archive-date=30 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830043808/https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2021-05-21-42 }}</ref> Two other written forms without official status also exist. One, called ''[[Riksmål]]'' ('national language'), is today to a large extent the same language as Bokmål though somewhat closer to the Danish language. It is regulated by the unofficial [[Norwegian Academy]], which translates the name as 'Standard Norwegian'. The other is ''[[Høgnorsk]]'' ('High Norwegian'), a more [[Linguistic purism|purist]] form of Nynorsk, which maintains the language in an original form as given by [[Ivar Aasen]] and rejects most of the reforms from the 20th century; this form has limited use.

Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, but not for how to speak the language. No standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most [[Norwegian dialects|Norwegians speak their own dialects]] in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in many other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect, whether it coincides with the written norms or not, is accepted as correct ''spoken'' Norwegian. However, in areas where [[Norwegian dialects|East Norwegian dialects]] are used, a tendency exists to accept a de facto spoken standard for this particular regional dialect, [[Urban East Norwegian]] or Standard East Norwegian ({{langx|no|Standard østnorsk| links=no}}), in which the vocabulary coincides with Bokmål.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://ojs.statsbiblioteket.dk/index.php/sin/article/viewFile/17027/14789 |title=Om begrepene språklig standard og språklig standardisering |trans-title=About the terms linguistic standard and linguistic standardization |last=Vannebo |first=Kjell Ivar |journal=Sprog I Norden |language=no |date=2001 |pages=119–128 |access-date=23 June 2018 |archive-date=15 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015180751/http://ojs.statsbiblioteket.dk/index.php/sin/article/viewFile/17027/14789 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kristoffersen">{{cite book |last=Kristoffersen |first=Gjert |author-link=Gjert Kristoffersen |title=The Phonology of Norwegian |url=https://archive.org/details/phonologynorwegi00kris_297 |url-access=limited |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/phonologynorwegi00kris_297/page/n22 6]–11 |isbn=978-0-19-823765-5}}</ref> Outside [[Eastern Norway]], this spoken variation is not used.

From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the standard written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to [[nationalism]], rural versus urban discourse, and Norway's literary history. Historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The now-abandoned official policy to merge Bokmål and Nynorsk into one common language called ''Samnorsk'' through a series of spelling reforms has created a wide spectrum of varieties of both Bokmål and Nynorsk. The unofficial form known as ''Riksmål'' is considered more [[conservative (language)|conservative]] than Bokmål and is far closer to Danish while the unofficial ''Høgnorsk'' is more conservative than Nynorsk and is far closer to [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Old Norse]].

Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. Each student gets assigned a native form based on which school they go to, whence the other form (known as {{Lang|no|Sidemål}}) will be a mandatory school subject from elementary school through high school.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.udir.no/kl06/NOR1-05|title=Læreplan i norsk (NOR1-05)|website=www.udir.no|language=nb|access-date=19 July 2018|archive-date=14 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714221827/https://www.udir.no/kl06/NOR1-05|url-status=live}}</ref> For instance, a Norwegian whose main language form is Bokmål will study Nynorsk as a mandatory subject throughout both elementary and high school. A 2005 poll indicates that 86.3% use primarily Bokmål as their daily written language, 5.5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7.5% use primarily Nynorsk.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} Thus, 13% are frequently ''writing'' Nynorsk, though the majority ''speak'' dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.apollon.uio.no/vis/art/1998/1/dialekt |last=Venås |first=Kjell |year=1994 |title=Dialekt og normaltalemålet |trans-title=Dialect and normal speech |journal=Apollon |language=no |volume=1 |issn=0803-6926 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724185459/http://www.apollon.uio.no/vis/art/1998/1/dialekt |archive-date=24 July 2011 |accessdate=12 January 2009 }}</ref> Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, and also in the upper parts of mountain valleys in the southern and eastern parts of Norway. Examples are [[Setesdal]], the western part of [[Telemark]] county ({{Lang|no|fylke}}) and several municipalities in [[Hallingdal]], [[Valdres]], and [[Gudbrandsdalen]]. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago,{{As of?|date=December 2022}} it also had strongholds in many rural parts of [[Trøndelag]] (mid-Norway) and the southern part of northern Norway ([[Nordland]] county). Today, Nynorsk is the official language of not only four of the nineteen Norwegian counties but also various municipalities in five other counties. [[NRK]], the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all written publications, and Nynorsk in 8% (2000).{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}

Like some other European countries, Norway has an official "advisory board"{{mdash}} [[Norwegian Language Council|Språkrådet]] (Norwegian Language Council){{mdash}} that determines, after approval from the Ministry of Culture, official spelling, grammar, and vocabulary for the Norwegian language. The board's work has been subject to considerable controversy throughout the years.

Both Nynorsk and Bokmål have a great variety of optional forms. The Bokmål that uses the forms that are close to Riksmål is called ''moderate'' or ''conservative'', depending on one's viewpoint, while the Bokmål that uses the forms that are close to Nynorsk is called ''radical''. Nynorsk has forms that are close to the original Landsmål and forms that are close to Bokmål.

===Riksmål===
{{Main|Riksmål}}
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2016}}
Opponents of the spelling reforms aimed at bringing Bokmål closer to Nynorsk have retained the name Riksmål and employ spelling and grammar that predate the Samnorsk movement. Riksmål and conservative versions of Bokmål have been the ''de facto'' standard written language of Norway for most of the 20th century, being used by large newspapers, encyclopedias, and a significant proportion of the population of the capital Oslo, surrounding areas, and other urban areas, as well as much of the literary tradition. Since the reforms of 1981 and 2003 (effective in 2005), the official Bokmål can be adapted to be almost identical with modern Riksmål. The differences between written Riksmål and Bokmål are comparable to [[American and British English differences]].

Riksmål is regulated by the [[Norwegian Academy]], which determines acceptable spelling, grammar, and vocabulary.

===Høgnorsk===
{{Main|Høgnorsk}}
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2016}}
There is also an unofficial form of Nynorsk, called ''Høgnorsk'', discarding the post-1917 reforms, and thus close to Ivar Aasen's original Landsmål. It is supported by [[Ivar Aasen-sambandet]], but has found no widespread use.

===Current usage===
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2021}}
In 2010, 86.5% of the pupils in the primary and lower secondary schools in Norway receive education in Bokmål, while 13.0% receive education in Nynorsk. From the eighth grade onwards, pupils are required to learn both. Out of the 431 municipalities in Norway, 161 have declared that they wish to communicate with the central authorities in Bokmål, 116 (representing 12% of the population) in Nynorsk, while 156 are neutral. Of 4,549 state publications in 2000, 8% were in Nynorsk, and 92% in Bokmål. The large national newspapers ({{Lang|no|[[Aftenposten]], [[Dagbladet]]}}, and [[Verdens Gang|''VG'']]) are published in Bokmål or Riksmål. Some major regional newspapers (including {{Lang|no|[[Bergens Tidende]]}} and ''[[Stavanger Aftenblad]]''), many political journals, and many local newspapers use both Bokmål and Nynorsk.

A newer trend is to write in dialect for informal use. When writing an SMS, Facebook update, or fridge note, many people, especially young ones, write approximations of the way they talk rather than using Bokmål or Nynorsk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kornai |first1=András |title=Digital Language Death |journal=PLOS ONE |date=2013 |volume=8 |issue=10 |page=e77056 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0077056|pmid=24167559 |pmc=3805564 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...877056K |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Dewey |first1=Caitlin |title=How the Internet is killing the world's languages |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/12/04/how-the-internet-is-killing-the-worlds-languages/ |access-date=30 April 2020 |agency=The Washington Post |date=2013 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131235733/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/12/04/how-the-internet-is-killing-the-worlds-languages/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Dialects==
{{Main|Norwegian dialects}}
[[File:Norske Målgreiner.png|thumb|upright=0.8|The map shows the division of the Norwegian dialects within the main groups.]]
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2021}}
There is general agreement that a wide range of differences makes it difficult to estimate the number of different Norwegian dialects. Variations in grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and pronunciation cut across geographical boundaries and can create a distinct dialect at the level of farm clusters. Dialects are in some cases so dissimilar as to be unintelligible to unfamiliar listeners. Many linguists note a trend toward regionalization of dialects that diminishes the differences at such local levels;<ref>Martin Skjekkeland. "dialekter i Norge". Store norske leksikon. Retrieved 1 February 2017.</ref> there is, however, a renewed interest in preserving dialects.

==Grammar==
===Nouns===
{{See also|Nynorsk#Nouns}}
Norwegian [[noun]]s are [[inflection|inflected]] for [[grammatical number|number]] (singular/plural) and for [[definiteness]] (indefinite/definite). In a few dialects, definite nouns are also inflected for the [[dative case]].

Norwegian nouns belong to three [[Grammatical gender|noun classes]] (genders): masculine, feminine and neuter. All feminine nouns can optionally be inflected using masculine noun class morphology in Bokmål due to its Danish heritage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Publikasjoner/Spraaknytt/spraknytt-22017/grammatisk-kjonn-og-variasjon-i-norsk/|title=Grammatisk kjønn og variasjon i norsk|website=Språkrådet|language=no|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617223757/https://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Publikasjoner/Spraaknytt/spraknytt-22017/grammatisk-kjonn-og-variasjon-i-norsk/|url-status=live}}</ref> In comparison, the use of all three genders (including the feminine) is mandatory in Nynorsk.<ref name="Språkrådet2">{{Cite web|url=http://elevrom.sprakradet.no/skolen/minigrammatikk/tema/hovudreglane_for_substantivboying|title=Språkrådet|website=elevrom.sprakradet.no|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=14 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714193145/http://elevrom.sprakradet.no/skolen/minigrammatikk/tema/hovudreglane_for_substantivboying|url-status=live}}</ref>

All Norwegian dialects have traditionally retained all the three grammatical genders from [[Old Norse]] to some extent.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Skjekkeland|first=Martin|title=dialekter i Bergen|date=10 September 2018|url=http://snl.no/dialekter_i_Bergen|work=Store norske leksikon|language=no|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-date=15 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515020059/https://snl.no/dialekter_i_Bergen|url-status=live}}</ref> The only exceptions are the [[Bergen dialect|dialect of Bergen]] and a few upper class sociolects at [[East End and West End of Oslo|the west end of Oslo]] that have completely lost the feminine gender.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Citation|last1=Hanssen|first1=Eskil|title=dialekter og språk i Oslo|date=13 September 2016|url=http://snl.no/dialekter_og_spr%C3%A5k_i_Oslo|work=Store norske leksikon|language=no|access-date=14 July 2018|last2=Kjærheim|first2=Harald|last3=Skjekkeland|first3=Martin|archive-date=15 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035836/https://snl.no/dialekter_og_spr%C3%A5k_i_Oslo|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to [[Marit Westergaard]], approximately 80% of nouns in Norwegian are masculine.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Isaksen |first1=Karoline Kvellestad |title=Do we really need grammatical gender? |url=https://partner.sciencenorway.no/cas-centre-for-advanced-study-gender-language/do-we-really-need-grammatical-gender/1576053 |access-date=25 September 2022 |work=[[Forskning.no]] |agency=The Centre for Advanced Study |date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=25 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925145858/https://partner.sciencenorway.no/cas-centre-for-advanced-study-gender-language/do-we-really-need-grammatical-gender/1576053 |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples, nouns in Bokmål
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Singular
! colspan="2" |Plural
|-
!Indefinite
!Definite
!Indefinite
!Definite
|-
! rowspan="2" |Masculine
|{{lang|nb|en båt}}
|{{lang|nb|båten}}
|{{lang|nb|båter}}
|{{lang|nb|båtene}}
|-
|a boat
|the boat
|boats
|the boats
|-
! rowspan="2" |Feminine
|{{lang|nb|ei/en vogn}}
|{{lang|nb|vogna/vognen}}
|{{lang|nb|vogner}}
|{{lang|nb|vognene}}
|-
|a wagon
|the wagon
|wagons
|the wagons
|-
! rowspan="2" |Neuter
|{{lang|nb|et hus}}
|{{lang|nb|huset}}
|{{lang|nb|hus}}
|{{lang|nb|husa/husene}}
|-
|a house
|the house
|houses
|the houses
|}
Norwegian and other Scandinavian languages use a [[suffix]] to indicate [[definiteness]] of a noun, unlike English which has a separate article, ''the'', to indicate the same.

In general, almost all nouns in Bokmål follow these patterns<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ressurssidene.no/web/PageND.aspx?id=99149|title=Bøying|website=www.ressurssidene.no|language=nb-NO|access-date=14 July 2018}}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> (like the words in the examples above):

{| class="wikitable"
|+Nouns in Bokmål
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Singular
! colspan="2" |Plural
|-
!Indefinite
!Definite
!Indefinite
!Definite
|-
!Masculine
|{{lang|nb|en}}
|  {{lang|nb|-en}}
| rowspan="2" |  {{lang|nb|-er}}
| rowspan="2" |  {{lang|nb|-ene}}
|-
!Feminine
|{{lang|nb|ei/en}}
|  {{lang|nb|-a/-en}}
|-
!Neuter
|{{lang|nb|et}}
|  {{lang|nb|-et}}
|  {{lang|nb|-/-er}}
|  {{lang|nb|-a/-ene}}
|}
In contrast, almost all nouns in Nynorsk follow these patterns<ref name="Språkrådet2"/> (the noun gender system is more pronounced than in Bokmål):
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nouns in Nynorsk
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Singular
! colspan="2" |Plural
|-
!Indefinite
!Definite
!Indefinite
!Definite
|-
!Masculine
|{{lang|nn|ein}}
|  {{lang|nn|-en}}
|  {{lang|nn|-ar}}
|  {{lang|nn|-ane}}
|-
!Feminine
|{{lang|nn|ei}}
|  {{lang|nn|-a}}
|  {{lang|nn|-er}}
|  {{lang|nn|-ene}}
|-
!Neuter
|{{lang|nn|eit}}
|  {{lang|nn|-et}}
|  –
|  {{lang|nn|-a}}
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples, nouns in Nynorsk
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Singular
! colspan="2" |Plural
|-
!Indefinite
!Definite
!Indefinite
!Definite
|-
! rowspan="2" |Masculine
|{{lang|nn|ein båt}}
|{{lang|nn|båten}}
|{{lang|nn|båtar}}
|{{lang|nn|båtane}}
|-
|a boat
|the boat
|boats
|the boats
|-
! rowspan="2" |Feminine
|{{lang|nn|ei vogn}}
|{{lang|nn|vogna}}
|{{lang|nn|vogner}}
|{{lang|nn|vognene}}
|-
|a wagon
|the wagon
|wagons
|the wagons
|-
! rowspan="2" |Neuter
|{{lang|nn|eit hus}}
|{{lang|nn|huset}}
|{{lang|nn|hus}}
|{{lang|nn|husa}}
|-
|a house
|the house
|houses
|the houses
|}

There is in general no way to infer what grammatical gender a specific noun has, but there are some patterns of nouns where the gender can be inferred. For instance, all nouns ending in -''nad'' will be masculine in both Bokmål and Nynorsk (for instance the noun {{lang|no|jobbsøknad}}, which means 'job application'). Most nouns ending in -''ing'' will be feminine, like the noun {{lang|no|forventning}} ('expectation').

There are some common irregular nouns, many of which are irregular in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, like the following:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Irregular noun, fot (foot)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ordbok.uib.no/perl/ordbok.cgi?OPP=fot&ant_bokmaal=5&ant_nynorsk=5&begge=+&ordbok=begge|title=Bokmålsordboka {{!}} Nynorskordboka|website=ordbok.uib.no|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=14 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714193521/https://ordbok.uib.no/perl/ordbok.cgi?OPP=fot&ant_bokmaal=5&ant_nynorsk=5&begge=+&ordbok=begge|url-status=live}}</ref>
!
! colspan="2" |Singular
! colspan="2" |Plural
|-
!
!Indefinite
!Definite
!Indefinite
!Definite
|-
!Bokmål
|{{lang|nb|en fot}}
|{{lang|nb|foten}}
|{{lang|nb|føtter}}
|{{lang|nb|føttene}}
|-
!Nynorsk
|{{lang|nn|ein fot}}
|{{lang|nn|foten}}
|{{lang|nn|føter}}
|{{lang|nn|føtene}}
|-
!English
|a foot
|the foot
|feet
|the feet
|}
In Nynorsk, even though the irregular word {{lang|nn|fot}} is masculine, it is inflected like a feminine word in the plural. Another word with the same irregular inflection is {{lang|nn|son – søner}} ('son – sons').

In Nynorsk, nouns ending in -''ing'' typically have masculine plural inflections, like the word {{lang|nn|dronning}} in the following table. But they are treated as feminine nouns in every other way.<ref name="Språkrådet2"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nynorsk, some irregular nouns
|-
! Gender
! colspan="4" |Nouns ending with -ing
! English
|-
! Feminine
|{{lang|nn|ei dronning}}
|{{lang|nn|dronninga}}
|{{lang|nn|dronningar}}
|{{lang|nn|dronningane}}
| queen
|-
! colspan="6" | Plurals with [[Umlaut (linguistics)|umlaut]] (these irregularities also exist in Bokmål)
|-
! rowspan="4" | Feminine
|{{lang|nn|ei bok}}
|{{lang|nn|boka}}
|{{lang|nn|b'''ø'''ker}}
|{{lang|nn|b'''ø'''kene}}
| book
|-
|{{lang|nn|ei hand}}
|{{lang|nn|handa}}
|{{lang|nn|h'''e'''nder}}
|{{lang|nn|h'''e'''ndene}}
| hand
|-
|{{lang|nn|ei stong}}
|{{lang|nn|stonga}}
|{{lang|nn|st'''e'''nger}}
|{{lang|nn|st'''e'''ngene}}
| rod
|-
|{{lang|nn|ei tå}}
|{{lang|nn|tåa}}
|{{lang|nn|t'''æ'''r}}
|{{lang|nn|t'''æ'''rne}}
| toe
|-
! colspan="6" | Plurals with no ending (these irregularities also exist in Bokmål)
|-
! Masculine
|{{lang|nn|ein ting}}
|{{lang|nn|tingen}}
|{{lang|nn|ting}}
|{{lang|nn|tinga}}
| thing
|-
|}

==== Genitive of nouns ====
In general, the [[genitive case]] has died out in modern Norwegian and there are only some remnants of it in certain expressions: {{lang|no|til fjells}} ('to the mountains'), {{lang|no|til sjøs}} ('to the sea'). To show ownership, there is an [[enclitic]] -''s'' similar to English -{{'}}''s''; {{lang|no|Sondres flotte bil}} ('Sondre's nice car', ''Sondre'' being a personal name). There are also reflexive possessive pronouns, {{lang|no|sin}}, {{lang|no|si}}, {{lang|no|sitt}}, {{lang|no|sine}}; {{lang|no|Det er Sondre sitt}} ('It is Sondre's'). In both Bokmål and modern Nynorsk, there is often a mix of both of these to mark possession, though it is more common in Nynorsk to use the reflexive pronouns; in Nynorsk use of the reflexive possessive pronouns is generally encouraged to avoid mixing the enclitic -''s'' with the historical grammatical case remnants of the language. The reflexive pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun.

The enclitic -''s'' in Norwegian evolved as a shorthand expression for the possessive pronouns {{lang|no|sin}}, {{lang|no|si}}, {{lang|no|sitt}} and {{lang|no|sine}}.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples
|-
!Norwegian (with pronoun)
!Norwegian (with enclitic 's)
!English
|-
|{{lang|no|Jenta sin bil}}
|{{lang|no|Jentas bil}}
|The girl's car
|-
|{{lang|no|Mannen si kone}}
|{{lang|no|Mannens kone}}
|The man's wife
|-
|{{lang|no|Gutten sitt leketøy}}
|{{lang|no|Guttens leketøy}}
|The boy's toy
|-
|{{lang|no|Kona sine barn}}
|{{lang|no|Konas barn}}
|The wife's children
|-
|{{lang|no|Det er statsministeren sitt}}
|{{lang|no|Det er statsministerens}}
|It is the prime minister's
|}

===Adjectives===
{{See also|Nynorsk#Adjectives}}
Norwegian [[adjective]]s, like those of Swedish and Danish, inflect for [[definiteness]], [[Grammatical gender|gender]], [[Grammatical number|number]] and for [[Comparison (grammar)|comparison]] (affirmative/comparative/superlative). Inflection for definiteness follows two paradigms, called "weak" and "strong", a feature shared among the [[Germanic languages]].

The following table summarizes the inflection of adjectives in Norwegian. The indefinite affirmative inflection can vary between adjectives, but in general the paradigm illustrated below is the most common.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://elevrom.sprakradet.no/skolen/minigrammatikk/tema/samsvarsboying_adjektiv|title=Språkrådet|website=elevrom.sprakradet.no|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=16 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716004536/http://elevrom.sprakradet.no/skolen/minigrammatikk/tema/samsvarsboying_adjektiv|url-status=live}}</ref> 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Inflection patterns for adjectives in Norwegian
|-
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="5" |[[Positive (linguistics)|Affirmative]]
! rowspan="3" |[[Comparative]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Superlative]]
|-
! colspan="4" |[[Definiteness|Indefinite]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Definiteness|Definite]]
|-
! colspan="2" |Common
![[Grammatical gender|Neuter]]
![[Plural]]
![[Definiteness|Indefinite]]
![[Definiteness|Definite]]
|-
!Bokmål
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''-''
| rowspan="2" |''-t''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''-e''
|''-ere''
|''-est''
|''-este''
|-
!Nynorsk
|''-are''
|''-ast''
|''-aste''
|}
[[Predicate adjective]]s follow only the indefinite inflection table. Unlike [[attributive adjective]]s, they are not inflected for definiteness. 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Adjective forms, examples: {{lang|nb|grønn}}/{{lang|nn|grøn}} ('green'), {{lang|no|pen}} ('pretty'), {{lang|nb|stjålet}}''/''{{lang|nn|stolen}} ('stolen')
|-
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" |[[Positive (linguistics)|Affirmative]]
! rowspan="3" |[[Comparative]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Superlative]]
|-
! colspan="3" |[[Definiteness|Indefinite]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Definiteness|Definite]]
|-
!Common
![[Grammatical gender|Neuter]]
![[Plural]]
![[Definiteness|Indefinite]]
![[Definiteness|Definite]]
|-
!Bokmål
|{{lang|nb|grønn}}
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|nb|grønt}}
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nb|grønne}}
|{{lang|nb|grønnere}}
|{{lang|nb|grønnest}}
|{{lang|nb|grønneste}}
|-
!Nynorsk
|{{lang|nn|grøn}}
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nn|grøne}}
|{{lang|nn|grønare}}
|{{lang|nn|grønast}}
|{{lang|nn|grønaste}}
|-
!English
| colspan="4" |green
|greener
| colspan="2" |greenest
|-
|-
!Bokmål
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|nb|pen}}
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|nb|pent}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |{{lang|nb|pene}}
|{{lang|nb|penere}}
|{{lang|nb|penest}}
|{{lang|nb|peneste}}
|-
!Nynorsk
|{{lang|nn|penare}}
|{{lang|nn|penast}}
|{{lang|nn|penaste}}
|-
!English
| colspan="4" |pretty
|prettier
| colspan="2" |prettiest
|-
!Bokmål
|{{lang|nb|stjålet/stjålen}}
|{{lang|nb|stjålet}}
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nb|stjålne}}
|
|
|
|-
!Nynorsk
|{{lang|nn|stolen}}
|{{lang|nn|stole}}
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nn|stolne}}
|  –
|  –
|
|-
!English
| colspan="4" |stolen
| –
| –
|
|}
In most dialects, some verb participles used as adjectives have a separate form in both definite and plural uses,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Norwegian grammar|last=Berulfsen|first=Bjarne|date=1977|publisher=Aschehoug|isbn=978-8203043123|edition=4th|location=Oslo|oclc=4033534}}</ref> and sometimes also in the masculine-feminine singular. In some Southwestern dialects, the definite adjective is also declined in gender and number with one form for feminine and plural, and one form for masculine and neuter.

==== [[Attributive adjective]]s ====

===== Definite inflection =====
In Norwegian, a definite noun has a suffixed definite article (cf. above) compared to English which in general uses the separate word ''the'' to indicate the same. However, when a definite noun is preceded by an adjective, the adjective also gets a definite inflection, shown in the inflection table above. There is also another definite marker, {{lang|no|den}}, that has to agree in gender with the noun when the definite noun is accompanied by an adjective.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ntnu.edu/now2/4/grammatikk/1|title=1 Repetisjon|last=Fossen|first=Christian|website=www.ntnu.edu|language=en|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=14 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714222053/https://www.ntnu.edu/now2/4/grammatikk/1|url-status=live}}</ref> It comes before the adjective and has the following forms
{| class="wikitable"
|+Determinative {{lang|nb|den}} (Bokmål)
|-
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural
|-
|{{lang|nb|Den}}
|{{lang|nb|Den}}
|{{lang|nb|Det}}
|{{lang|nb|De}}
|}

Examples of definite affirmative inflection of adjectives (Bokmål):

* {{lang|nb|Den '''stjålne''' bilen}} ('The '''''stolen''''' car')
* {{lang|nb|Den '''pene''' jenta}} ('The '''''pretty''''' girl')
* {{lang|nb|Det '''grønne''' eplet}} ('The '''''green''''' apple')
* {{lang|nb|De '''stjålne''' bilene}} ('The '''''stolen''''' cars')

If the adjective is dropped completely, the meaning of the preceding article before the noun changes, as shown in this example.

Examples (Bokmål):

* {{lang|nb|Den bilen}} ('That car')
* {{lang|nb|Den jenta}} ('That girl')
* {{lang|nb|Det eplet}} ('That apple')
* {{lang|nb|De bilene}} ('Those cars')

Examples of definite comparative and superlative inflection of adjectives (Bokmål):

* {{lang|nb|Det '''grønnere''' eplet}} ('The '''''greener''''' apple')
* {{lang|nb|Det '''grønneste''' eplet}} ('The '''''greenest''''' apple')

Definiteness is also signaled by using possessive pronouns or any uses of a noun in its genitive form in either Nynorsk or Bokmål: {{lang|no|mitt grønne hus}} ('my green house'), {{lang|no|min grønne bil}} ('my green car'), {{lang|no|mitt tilbaketrukne tannkjøtt}} ('my receding gums'), {{lang|no|presidentens gamle hus}} ('the president's old house').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://elevrom.sprakradet.no/skolen/minigrammatikk/tema/samsvarsboying_adjektiv|title=Språkrådet|website=elevrom.sprakradet.no|access-date=12 July 2018|archive-date=16 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716004536/http://elevrom.sprakradet.no/skolen/minigrammatikk/tema/samsvarsboying_adjektiv|url-status=live}}</ref>

===== Indefinite inflection =====
Examples (Bokmål):

* {{lang|nb|En '''grønn''' bil}} ('A '''''green''''' car')
* {{lang|nb|Ei '''pen''' jente}} ('A '''''pretty''''' girl')
* {{lang|nb|Et '''grønt''' eple}} ('A '''''green''''' apple')
* {{lang|nb|Flere '''grønne''' biler}} ('Many '''''green''''' cars')

Examples of comparative and superlative inflections in Bokmål: {{lang|nb|en grønnere bil}} ('a greener car'), {{lang|nb|grønnest bil}} ('greenest car').

====[[Adjective#Predicative adjective|Predicative adjectives]]====
There is also predicative agreement of adjectives in all dialects of Norwegian and in the written languages, unlike related languages like German and Dutch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ressurssidene.pedit.no/web/PageND.aspx?id=99235|title=Predikativ|website=ressurssidene.pedit.no|language=nb-NO|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=1 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301002221/https://ressurssidene.pedit.no/web/PageND.aspx?id=99235|url-status=live}}</ref> This feature of predicative agreement is shared among the Scandinavian languages. Predicative adjectives do not inflect for definiteness unlike the attributive adjectives.

This means that nouns will have to agree with the adjective when there is a [[Copula (linguistics)|copula verb]] involved, like in Bokmål: {{lang|nb|være}} ('to be'), {{lang|nb|bli}} ('become'), {{lang|nb|ser ut}} ('looks like'), {{lang|nb|kjennes}} ('feels like') etc. 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Adjective agreement, examples
|-
!
!Norwegian (bokmål)
!English
|-
|'''Masculine'''
|{{lang|nb|Bilen var grønn}}
|The car was green
|-
|'''Feminine'''
|{{lang|nb|Døra er grønn}}
|The door is green
|-
|'''Neuter'''
|{{lang|nb|Flagget er grønt}}
| The flag is green
|-
|'''Plural'''
|{{lang|nb|Blåbærene blir store}}
|The blueberries will be big
|}

===Verbs===
{{See also|Nynorsk#Verb conjugation}}
{{Expand section|date=June 2019}}

Norwegian [[verb]]s are not [[Conjugation (grammar)|conjugated]] for [[Grammatical person|person]] or [[Grammatical number|number]], unlike [[English language|English]] and most [[European Languages|European languages]], though a few [[Norwegian dialects]] do conjugate for number. Norwegian verbs are conjugated according to mainly three [[grammatical mood]]s: [[Indicative mood|indicative]], [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]], though the subjunctive mood has largely fallen out of use and is mainly found in a few common frozen expressions.<ref>{{Citation|title=modus – grammatikk|date=20 February 2018|url=http://snl.no/modus_-_grammatikk|work=Store norske leksikon|language=no|access-date=18 June 2019|archive-date=26 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526082650/https://snl.no/modus_-_grammatikk|url-status=live}}</ref> The imperative is formed by removing the last vowel of the infinitive verb form, just like in the other Scandinavian languages.

Indicative verbs are conjugated for [[grammatical tense|tense]]: [[present tense|present]], [[past tense|past]], and [[Future tense|future]]. The present and past tense also have a [[passive voice|passive]] form for the infinitive.

There are four [[non-finite verb]] forms: [[infinitive]], [[passive voice|passive]] infinitive, and the two [[participle]]s: [[perfective]]/past participle and [[imperfective]]/present participle.

The participles are [[verbal adjective]]s. The imperfective participle is not declined, whereas the perfect participle is declined for [[grammatical gender|gender]] (though not in Bokmål) and [[grammatical number|number]] like strong, affirmative adjectives. The [[definiteness|definite]] form of the participle is identical to the plural form.

As with other Germanic languages, Norwegian verbs can be divided into two conjugation classes; [[germanic weak verb|weak]] verbs and [[germanic strong verb|strong]] verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verb forms in Nynorsk<br>{{lang|nn|leva}} ('to live') and {{lang|nn|finna}} ('to find')
|-
! rowspan="4" |
! colspan="4" | [[Finite verb|Finite]]
! colspan="6" | [[Non-finite verb|Non-finite]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Indicative mood|Indicative]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Imperative mood|Imperative]]
!               [[Verbal noun]]s
! colspan="5" | [[Verbal adjective]]s ([[Participle]]s)
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Present tense|Present]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Past tense|Past]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Infinitive]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Imperfective]]
! colspan="4" | [[Perfective]]
|-
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural/Def
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Active voice|Active]]
| {{lang|nn|lever}}
| {{lang|nn|levde}}
| {{lang|nn|leve}}
| {{lang|nn|lev}}
| {{lang|nn|leva}}
| {{lang|nn|levande}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|nn|levd}}
| {{lang|nn|levt}}
| {{lang|nn|levde}}
|-
| {{lang|nn|finn}}
| {{lang|nn|fann}}
|
| {{lang|nn|finn}}
| {{lang|nn|finna}}
| (har) {{lang|nn|funne}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|nn|funnen}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|nn|funne}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Passive voice|Passive]]
| {{lang|nn|levest}}
| {{lang|nn|levdest}}
|
|
| {{lang|nn|levast}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| {{lang|nn|finst}}
| {{lang|nn|fanst}}
|
|
| {{lang|nn|finnast}}
| {{lang|nn|(har) funnest}}
|
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verb forms in Bokmål<br>{{lang|nb|å leve}} ('to live') and {{lang|nb|å finne}} ('to find')
|-
! rowspan="4" |
! colspan="4" | [[Finite verb|Finite]]
! colspan="4" | [[Non-finite verb|Non-finite]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Indicative mood|Indicative]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Imperative mood|Imperative]]
!               [[Verbal noun]]s
! colspan="3" | [[Verbal adjective]]s ([[Participle]]s)
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Present tense|Present]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Past tense|Past]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Infinitive]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Imperfective]]
! colspan="2" | [[Perfective]]
|-
! Singular
! Plural/Def
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Active voice|Active]]
| {{lang|nb|lever}}
| {{lang|nb|levde/levet}}
| {{lang|nb|leve}}
| {{lang|nb|lev}}
| {{lang|nb|leve}}
| {{lang|nb|levende}}
| {{lang|nb|levd}}
| {{lang|nb|levde/levet}}
|-
| {{lang|nb|finner}}
| {{lang|nb|fant}}
|
| {{lang|nb|finn}}
| {{lang|nb|finne}}
| {{lang|nb|(har) funnet}}
| {{lang|nb|funnet}}
| {{lang|nb|funne}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Passive voice|Passive]]
| {{lang|nb|leves}}
| {{lang|nb|levdes}}
|
|
| {{lang|nb|leves}}
|
|
|
|-
| {{lang|nb|fins/finnes}}
| {{lang|nb|fantes}}
|
|
| {{lang|nb|finnes}}
| {{lang|nb|(har funnes)}}
|
|
|}

==== Ergative verbs ====
{{See also|Nynorsk#Ergative verbs}}
There are [[ergative verb]]s in both Bokmål and Nynorsk,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://elevrom.sprakradet.no/skolen/minigrammatikk/tema/parverb|title=Språkrådet|website=elevrom.sprakradet.no|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=14 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714222108/http://elevrom.sprakradet.no/skolen/minigrammatikk/tema/parverb|url-status=live}}</ref> where there are two different conjugation patterns depending on if the verb takes an object or not. In Bokmål, there are only two different conjugations for the [[Preterite Tense|preterite tense]] for the strong verbs, while Nynorsk has different conjugations for all tenses, like Swedish and a majority of Norwegian dialects. Some weak verbs are also ergative and are differentiated for all tenses in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, like {{lang|nb|ligge/legge}}, both of which meaning 'to lie down', but {{lang|nb|ligge}} does not take an object while {{lang|nb|legge}} requires an object. {{lang|nb|Legge}} corresponds to the English verb 'lay', while {{lang|nb|ligge}} corresponds to the English verb 'lie'. There are, however, many verbs that do not have a direct translation to English verbs.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Ergative verb {{lang|nb|knekke}} ('crack')
!Norwegian Bokmål
!English
|-
|{{lang|nb|Nøtta '''knakk'''}}
|The nut cracked
|-
|{{lang|nb|Jeg '''knekte''' nøtta}}
|I cracked the nut
|-
|{{lang|nb|Jeg '''ligger'''}}
|I'm lying down
|-
|{{lang|nb|Jeg '''legger''' det ned}}
|I'll lay it down
|}

===Pronouns===
{{See also|Nynorsk#Pronouns}}
Norwegian personal [[pronoun]]s are declined according to [[grammatical case|case]]: [[nominative case|nominative]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]. Like English, pronouns in Bokmål and Nynorsk are the only class that has case declension. Some of the dialects that have preserved the [[dative case|dative]] in nouns, also have a dative case instead of the accusative case in personal pronouns, while others have accusative in pronouns and dative in nouns, effectively giving these dialects three distinct cases.

In the most comprehensive Norwegian grammar, [[Norsk referansegrammatikk]], the categorization of personal pronouns by [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], and [[grammatical number|number]] is not regarded as inflection. Pronouns are a [[closed class]] in Norwegian.

Since December 2017, the gender-neutral pronoun {{lang|no|hen}} is present in the Norwegian Academy's dictionary ([[NAOB]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Det Norske Akademis ordbok |url=https://naob.no/ordbok/hen_2 |access-date=14 September 2022 |website=naob.no |archive-date=16 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016111829/https://naob.no/ordbok/hen_2 |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2022, the Language Council of Norway ([[Language Council of Norway|Språkrådet]])<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Hen |url=http://www.sprakradet.no/svardatabase/sporsmal-og-svar/hen/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914194837/https://www.sprakradet.no/svardatabase/sporsmal-og-svar/hen/ |archive-date=14 September 2022 |access-date=14 September 2022 |website=Språkrådet |language=nb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ordbøkene.no – Bokmålsordboka og Nynorskordboka |url=https://ordbokene.no/bm,nn/ordbokene.no |access-date=14 September 2022 |website=ordbokene.no |language=no |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008165000/https://ordbokene.no/bm,nn/ordbokene.no |url-status=live }}</ref> started including {{lang|no|hen}} in both Bokmål and Nynorsk Norwegian standards.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Pronouns in Bokmål
! colspan="3" rowspan="3" |
! rowspan="3" |[[Subject (grammar)|Subject form]]
! rowspan="3" |[[Object (grammar)|Object form]]
! colspan="4" |Possessive
|-
! colspan="3" |Singular
! rowspan="2" |Plural
|-
!Male
!Female
!Neuter
|-
! rowspan="8" |Singular
! colspan="2" |1st person
|{{lang|nb|jeg}}
|{{lang|nb|meg}}
|{{lang|nb|min}}
|{{lang|nb|mi}}
|{{lang|nb|mitt}}
|{{lang|nb|mine}}
|-
! colspan="2" |2nd person
|{{lang|nb|du}}
|{{lang|nb|deg}}
|{{lang|nb|din}}
|{{lang|nb|di}}
|{{lang|nb|ditt}}
|{{lang|nb|dine}}
|-
! rowspan="6" |3rd person
!Male, [[Animacy|animate]]
|{{lang|nb|han}}
|{{lang|nb|ham/han}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nb|hans}}
|-
!Female, animate
|{{lang|nb|hun}}
|{{lang|nb|henne}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nb|hennes}}
|-
!Neuter, animate
|{{lang|nb|hen}}
|{{lang|nb|hen}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nb|hens}}
|-
!Male/female, inanimate
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nb|den}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nb|dens}}
|-
!Neuter, inanimate
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nb|det}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nb|dets}}
|-
!Reflexive
|–
|{{lang|nb|seg}}
|{{lang|nb|sin}}
|{{lang|nb|si}}
|{{lang|nb|sitt}}
|{{lang|nb|sine}}
|-
! rowspan="4" |Plural
! colspan="2" |1st person
|{{lang|nb|vi}}
|{{lang|nb|oss}}
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nb|vår}}
|{{lang|nb|vårt}}
|{{lang|nb|våre}}
|-
! colspan="2" |2nd person
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nb|dere}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nb|deres}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |3rd person
!Non-reflexive
|{{lang|nb|de}}
|{{lang|nb|dem}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nb|deres}}
|-
!Reflexive
|–
|{{lang|nb|seg}}
|{{lang|nb|sin}}
|{{lang|nb|si}}
|{{lang|nb|sitt}}
|{{lang|nb|sine}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Pronouns in Nynorsk
! colspan="3" rowspan="3" |
! rowspan="3" |[[Subject (grammar)|Subject form]]
! rowspan="3" |[[Object (grammar)|Object form]]
! colspan="4" |Possessive
|-
! colspan="3" |Singular
! rowspan="2" |Plural
|-
!Male
!Female
!Neuter
|-
! rowspan="7" |Singular
! colspan="2" |1st person
|{{lang|nn|eg}}
|{{lang|nn|meg}}
|{{lang|nn|min}}
|{{lang|nn|mi}}
|{{lang|nn|mitt}}
|{{lang|nn|mine}}
|-
! colspan="2" |2nd person
|{{lang|nn|du}}
|{{lang|nn|deg}}
|{{lang|nn|din}}
|{{lang|nn|di}}
|{{lang|nn|ditt}}
|{{lang|nn|dine}}
|-
! rowspan="5" |3rd person
!Male
|{{lang|nn|han}}
| {{lang|nn|han}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nn|hans}}
|-
!Female
|{{lang|nn|ho}}
|{{lang|nn|ho}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nn|hennar}}
|-
!Neuter, animate
|{{lang|nn|hen}}
|{{lang|nn|hen}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nn|hens}}
|-
!Neuter, inanimate
|{{lang|nn|det}}
|{{lang|nn|det}}
| colspan="4" |({{lang|nn|dess}})
|-
!Reflexive
|–
|{{lang|nn|seg}}
|{{lang|nn|sin}}
|{{lang|nn|si}}
|{{lang|nn|sitt}}
|{{lang|nn|sine}}
|-
! rowspan="4" |Plural
! colspan="2" |1st person
|{{lang|nn|vi/me}}
|{{lang|nn|oss}}
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nn|vår}}
|{{lang|nn|vårt}}
|{{lang|nn|våre}}
|-
! colspan="2" |2nd person
|{{lang|nn|de/dokker}}
|{{lang|nn|dykk/dokker}} 
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nn|dykkar/dokkar}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |3rd person
!Non-reflexive
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nn|dei}}
| colspan="4" |{{lang|nn|deira}}
|-
!Reflexive
|–
|{{lang|nn|seg}}
|{{lang|nn|sin}}
|{{lang|nn|si}}
|{{lang|nn|sitt}}
|{{lang|nn|sine}}
|}
The words for 'mine', 'yours' etc. are dependent on the gender of the noun described. Like adjectives, they have to agree in gender with the noun.

Bokmål has two sets of third-person pronouns. {{lang|nb|Han}} and {{lang|nb|hun}} refer to male and female individuals respectively; {{lang|nb|den}} and {{lang|nb|det}} refer to impersonal or inanimate nouns, of masculine/feminine or neutral gender respectively. In contrast, Nynorsk and most dialects use the same set of pronouns {{lang|nn|han}} ('he'), {{lang|nn|ho}} ('she') and {{lang|nn|det}} ('it') for both personal and impersonal references, like in [[German language|German]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Old Norse]]. {{lang|no|Det}} also has [[Expletive pronoun|expletive]] and [[cataphora|cataphoric]] uses like in the English examples '''''it''' rains'' and '''''it''' was known by everyone '''(that) he had travelled the world'''''.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples in Nynorsk and Bokmål of the use of the pronoun ''it''

!Nynorsk
!Bokmål
!English
|-
|{{lang|nn|Kor er boka mi? '''Ho''' er her}}
|{{lang|nb|Hvor er boka mi? '''Den''' er her}}
|Where is my book? '''It''' is here
|-
|{{lang|nn|Kor er bilen min? '''Han''' er her}}
|{{lang|nb|Hvor er bilen min? '''Den''' er her}}
|Where is my car? '''It''' is here

|-
|{{lang|nn|Kor er brevet mitt? '''Det''' er her}}
|{{lang|nb|Hvor er brevet mitt? '''Det''' er her}}
|Where is my letter? '''It''' is here
|}

==== Ordering of possessive pronouns ====
The ordering of possessive pronouns is somewhat freer than in Swedish or Danish. When there is no adjective, the most common word order is the one used in the examples in the table above, where the possessive comes after the noun, while the noun is in its definite form; {{lang|no|boka mi}} ('my book'). If one wishes to emphasize the owner of the noun, the possessive pronoun will usually be placed first. In Bokmål, however, due to its Danish origins, one could choose to always write the possessive first: {{lang|nb|min bil}} ('my car'), but this may sound very formal. Some dialects that have been very influenced by Danish also do this; some speakers in [[Bærum]] and the [[Oslo West|west of Oslo]] may always use this word order. When there is an adjective describing the noun, the possessive pronoun will always come first: {{lang|no|min egen bil}} ('my own car').

{| class="wikitable"
!Norwegian (Bokmål/Nynorsk)
!English
|-
|{{lang|no|Det er '''mi''' bok!}}
|It is ''my'' book! (owner emphasized)
|-
|{{lang|no|Kona mi er vakker}}
|My wife is beautiful
|- {{lang|no|din}}, {{lang|no|di}}, {{lang|no|ditt}} (yours)
|}

===Determiners===
{{See also|Nynorsk#Determiners}}
The [[closed class]] of Norwegian [[Determiner (class)|determiner]]s are declined in [[grammatical gender|gender]] and [[grammatical number|number]] in agreement with their argument. Not all determiners are inflected.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Determiner forms<br />{{lang|nb|egen}} (own) in Bokmål
|-
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural
|-
| {{lang|nb|egen/eigen}}
| {{lang|nb|egen/eiga}}
| {{lang|nb|eget/eige}}
| {{lang|nb|egne/eigne}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Determiner forms<br/>{{lang|nn|eigen}} (own) in Nynorsk
|-
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural
|-
| {{lang|nn|eigen}}
| {{lang|nn|eiga}}
| {{lang|nn|eige}}
| {{lang|nn|eigne}}
|}

=== Numerals ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Cardinal and ordinal number words in Bokmål and Nynorsk
! colspan="1" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Cardinal numeral
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Ordinal numeral
|-
!Bokmål
!Nynorsk
!Bokmål
!Nynorsk
|-
!0
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|null}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|nulte}}
|-
!1
|{{lang|nb|én}} <small>({{tooltip|m.|masculine}})</small>, {{lang|nb|éi}} <small>({{tooltip|f.|feminine}})</small>, {{lang|nb|ett}} <small>({{tooltip|n.|neuter}})</small>
|{{lang|nn|éin}} <small>({{tooltip|m.|masculine}})</small>, {{lang|nn|éi}} <small>({{tooltip|f.|feminine}})</small>, {{lang|nn|eitt}} <small>({{tooltip|n.|neuter}})</small>
|{{lang|nb|første}}
|{{lang|nn|første}}/<br />{{lang|nn|fyrste}}
|-
!2
| colspan="2" |{{lang|no|to}}
|{{lang|nb|annen}} <small>({{tooltip|m.|masculine}}/{{tooltip|def.|definite}})</small>, {{lang|nb|anna}} <small>({{tooltip|f.|feminine}})</small>,<br />{{lang|nb|annet}} <small>({{tooltip|n.|neuter}})</small>, {{lang|nb|andre}} <small>({{tooltip|pl.|plural}})</small>/<br />{{lang|nb|andre}} <small>(all genres/def./pl.)</small><ref>{{Cite web |title=andre |url=https://ordbokene.no/bm/107465 |access-date=9 July 2024 |website=ordbøkene.no |language=nn}}</ref>
|{{lang|nn|annan}} <small>({{tooltip|m.|masculine}})</small>, {{lang|nn|anna}} <small>({{tooltip|f.|feminine}}/{{tooltip|n.|neuter}})</small>,<br />{{lang|nn|andre}} <small>({{tooltip|def.|definite}}/{{tooltip|pl.|plural}})</small>
|-
!3
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|tre}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|tredje}}
|-
!4
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|fire}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|fjerde}}
|-
!5
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|fem}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|femte}}
|-
!6
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|seks}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|sjette}}
|-
!7
|{{lang|nb|sju}}/<br />{{lang|nb|syv}}
|{{lang|nn|sju}}
|{{lang|nb|sjuende}}/<br />{{lang|nb|syvende}}
|{{lang|nn|sjuande}}
|-
!8
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|åtte}}
|{{lang|nb|åttende}}
|{{lang|nn|åttande}}
|-
!9
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|ni}}
|{{lang|nb|niende}}
|{{lang|nn|niande}}
|-
!10
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|ti}}
|{{lang|nb|tiende}}
|{{lang|nn|tiande}}
|-
!11
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|elleve}}
|{{lang|nb|ellevte}}
|{{lang|nn|ellevte}}
|-
!12
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|tolv}}
|{{lang|nb|tolvte}}
|{{lang|nn|tolvte}}
|-
!13
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|tretten}}
|{{lang|nb|trettende}}
|{{lang|nn|trettande}}
|-
!14
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|fjorten}}
|{{lang|nb|fjortende}}
|{{lang|nn|fjortande}}
|-
!15
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|femten}}
|{{lang|nb|femtende}}
|{{lang|nn|femtande}}
|-
!16
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|seksten}}
|{{lang|nb|sekstende}}
|{{lang|nn|sekstande}}
|-
!17
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|sytten}}
|{{lang|nb|syttende}}
|{{lang|nn|syttande}}
|-
!18
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|atten}}
|{{lang|nb|attende}}
|{{lang|nn|attande}}
|-
!19
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|nitten}}
|{{lang|nb|nittende}}
|{{lang|nn|nittande}}
|-
!20
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|tjue}}
|{{lang|nb|tjuende}}
|{{lang|nn|tjuande}}
|-
!21
|{{lang|nb|tjueen}}
|{{lang|nn|tjueein}}
|{{lang|nb|tjueførste}}
|{{lang|nn|tjueførste}}/<br />{{lang|nn|tjuefyrste}}
|-
!30
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|tretti}}
|{{lang|nb|trettiende}}
|{{lang|nn|trettiande}}
|-
!40
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|førti}}
|{{lang|nb|førtiende}}
|{{lang|nn|førtiande}}
|-
!50
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|femti}}
|{{lang|nb|femtiende}}
|{{lang|nn|femtiande}}
|-
!60
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|seksti}}
|{{lang|nb|sekstiende}}
|{{lang|nn|sekstiande}}
|-
!70
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|sytti}}
|{{lang|nb|syttiende}}
|{{lang|nn|syttiande}}
|-
!80
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|åtti}}
|{{lang|nb|åttiende}}
|{{lang|nn|åttiande}}
|-
!90
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |{{lang|no|nitti}}
|{{lang|nb|nittiende}}
|{{lang|nn|nittiande}}
|-
!100
|{{lang|nb|(ett) hundre}}
|{{lang|nn|(eitt) hundre}}
|{{lang|nb|(ett) hundrede}}
|{{lang|nn|(eitt) hundrede}}
|-
!1000
|{{lang|nb|(ett) tusen}}
|{{lang|nn|(eitt) tusen}}
|{{lang|nb|(ett) tusende}}
|{{lang|nn|(eitt) tusende}}
|}

===Particle classes===
Norwegian has five [[closed class]]es without inflection, i.e. [[lexical category|lexical categories]] with grammatical function and a finite number of members that may not be distinguished by morphological criteria. These are [[interjection]]s, [[grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]], [[grammatical conjunction|subjunctions]], [[preposition]]s, and [[adverbs]]. The inclusion of adverbs here requires that traditional adverbs that are inflected in [[Comparison (grammar)|comparison]] be classified as adjectives, as is sometimes done.

==== Adverbs ====
[[Adverb]]s can be formed from [[adjective]]s in Norwegian. English usually creates adverbs from adjectives by the suffix ''-ly'', like the adverb ''beautifully'' from the adjective ''beautiful.'' By comparison, [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian languages]] usually form adverbs from adjectives by the [[Neuter (grammar)|grammatical neuter]] singular form of the adjective. This is in general true for both Bokmål and Nynorsk.

Example ([[Bokmål]]):

* {{Lang|nb|Han er '''grusom'''}} ('He is '''terrible'''<nowiki/>')
* {{lang|nb|Det er '''grusomt'''}} ('It is '''terrible'''<nowiki/>')
* {{lang|nb|Han er '''grusomt''' treig}} ('He is '''terribly''' slow')

In the third sentence, {{lang|nb|grusomt}} is an adverb. In the first and second sentence {{lang|nb|grusomt}} and {{lang|nb|grusom}} are adjectives and must agree in grammatical gender with the noun.

Another example is the adjective {{lang|no|vakker}} ('beautiful') which exists in both Nynorsk and Bokmål and has the neuter singular form {{lang|nb|vakkert}}.

Example ([[Nynorsk]]):

* {{Lang|nn|Ho er '''vakker'''}} ('She is '''beautiful'''<nowiki/>') 
* {{Lang|nn|Det er '''vakkert'''}} ('It is '''beautiful'''<nowiki/>')
* {{Lang|nn|Ho syng '''vakkert'''}} ('She sings '''beautifully'''<nowiki/>')

===Compound words===
In Norwegian [[compound (linguistics)|compound words]], the [[head (linguistics)|head]], i.e. the part determining the compound's class, is the last part. If the compound word is constructed from many different nouns, the last noun in the compound noun will determine the gender of the compound noun. Only the first part has primary stress. For instance, the compound {{lang|no|tenketank}} ('think tank') has primary stress on the first syllable and is a masculine noun since the noun {{lang|no|tank}} is masculine.

Compound words are written together in Norwegian, which can cause words to become very long, for example {{lang|no|sannsynlighetsmaksimeringsestimator}} ('[[maximum likelihood]] [[estimator]]') and {{lang|no|menneskerettighetsorganisasjoner}} ('human rights organizations'). Other examples are the title {{lang|no|høyesterettsjustitiarius}} ('Chief Justice of the Supreme Court', originally a combination of ''[[supreme court]]'' and the actual title, ''[[justiciar]]'') and the translation {{Lang|no|En midtsommernattsdrøm}} for ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''.

If they are not written together, each part is naturally read with primary stress, and the meaning of the compound is lost. Examples of this in English are the difference between a green house and a greenhouse or a black board and a blackboard.

This is sometimes forgotten, occasionally with humorous results. Instead of writing, for example, ''{{lang|no|lammekoteletter}}'' ('lamb chops'), people make the mistake of writing {{lang|no|lamme koteletter}} ('lame', or 'paralyzed', 'chops'). The original message can even be reversed, as when {{lang|no|røykfritt}} (lit. 'smoke-free', meaning no smoking) becomes {{lang|no|røyk fritt}} ('smoke freely').

Other examples include:
* {{lang|no|Terrasse dør}} ('Terrace dies') instead of {{lang|no|Terrassedør}} ('Terrace door')
* {{lang|no|Tunfisk biter}} ('Tuna bites', verb) instead of {{lang|no|Tunfiskbiter}} ('Tuna bits', noun)
* {{lang|no|Smult ringer}} ('Lard calls', verb) instead of {{lang|no|Smultringer}} ('Doughnuts')
* {{lang|no|Tyveri sikret}} ('Theft guaranteed') instead of {{lang|no|Tyverisikret}} ('Theft-proof')
* {{lang|no|Stekt kylling lever}} ('Fried chicken lives', verb) instead of {{lang|no|Stekt kyllinglever}} ('Fried chicken liver', noun)
* {{lang|no|Smør brød}} ('Butter bread', verb) instead of {{lang|no|Smørbrød}} ('Sandwich')
* {{lang|no|Klipp fisk}} ('Cut fish', verb) instead of {{lang|no|Klippfisk}} ('Clipfish')
* {{lang|no|På hytte taket}} ('On cottage the roof') instead of {{lang|no|På hyttetaket}} ('On the cottage roof')
* {{lang|no|Altfor Norge}} ('Too Norway') instead of {{lang|no|Alt for Norge}} ('Everything for Norway', the [[Royal mottos of Norwegian monarchs|royal motto of Norway]])
These misunderstandings occur because most nouns can be interpreted as verbs or other types of words.
Similar misunderstandings can be achieved in English too. The following are examples of phrases that both in Norwegian and English mean one thing as a compound word, and something different when regarded as separate words:
* {{lang|no|stavekontroll}} ('spellchecker') or {{lang|no|stave kontroll}} ('spell checker')
* {{lang|no|kokebok}} ('cookbook') or {{lang|no|koke bok}} ('cook book')
* {{lang|no|ekte håndlagde vafler}} ('real handmade waffles') or {{lang|no|ekte hånd lagde vafler}} ('real hand made waffles')

=== Syntax ===
==== Word order ====
Norwegian syntax is predominantly [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]]. The subject occupies the sentence-initial position, followed by the verb and then the object. Like many other Germanic languages, it follows the [[V2 word order|V2 rule]], which means that the finite verb is invariably the second element in a sentence. For example:

* <u>{{lang|nb|Jeg|italics=no}}</u> {{Lang|nb|'''spiser'''|italic=no}} {{lang|nb|fisk|italics=no}} {{lang|nb|i dag}} ('<u>I</u> '''eat''' fish ''today''<nowiki/>')
* <u>{{lang|nb|Jeg|italics=no}}</u> {{Lang|nb|'''vil'''|italic=no}} {{lang|nb|drikke kaffe|italics=no}} {{lang|nb|i dag}} ('<u>I</u> '''want''' to drink coffee ''today''<nowiki/>')

Exceptions to the [[V2 word order|rule]] are embedded clauses and question phrases.

===== Negation =====
Negation in Norwegian is expressed by the word {{lang|no|ikke}}, which literally means 'not' and is placed after the finite verb. Exceptions are embedded clauses.

* {{lang|nb|Hunden kom '''ikke''' tilbake med ballen.}} ('The dog did '''not''' return with the ball.')
* {{lang|nb|Det var hunden som '''ikke''' kom tilbake.}} ('It was the dog that did '''not''' return.')

Contractions with the negation, as is accepted in for example English (''cannot'', ''hadn't'', ''didn't'') are limited to dialects and colloquial speech. In this case contractions apply to the negation and the verb. Otherwise {{lang|no|ikke}} is applied in similar ways as the English ''not'' and general [[Affirmation and negation|negation]].

===== Adverbs =====

Adverbs follow the verb they modify. Depending on the type of adverb, the order in which they appear in the phrase is pre-determined. Manner adverbs for example, precede temporal adverbs. Switching the order of these adverbs would not render the phrase ungrammatical, but would make it sound awkward. Compare this to the English phrase "John probably already ate dinner." Switching the adverbs' position (''already'' and ''probably'') to "John already probably ate dinner" is not incorrect, but sounds unnatural. For more information, see [[Cartographic syntax]].

* {{lang|nb|Hun sang '''rørende''' '''vakkert'''.}} ('She sang touchingly beautiful.')
* {{lang|nb|Hun sang '''utrolig''' '''høyt'''.}} ('She sang unbelievably loud.')

The adverb may precede the verb when the focus of the sentence is shifted. If special attention should be directed on the temporal aspect of the sentence, the adverb can be fronted. Since the V2 rule requires the finite verb to syntactically occupy the second position in the clause, the verb consequently also moves in front of the subject.

* {{lang|nb|I dag}} {{lang|nb|'''vil'''|italics=no}} <u>{{lang|nb|jeg|italics=no}}</u> {{lang|nb|drikke kaffe|italics=no}}. ('''Today'', <u>I</u> '''want''' to drink coffee.')
* {{lang|nb|I dag}} {{lang|nb|'''spiser'''|italics=no}} <u>{{lang|nb|jeg|italics=no}}</u> {{lang|nb|fisk|italics=no}}. ('''Today'', <u>I</u> '''eat''' fish.')

Only one adverb may precede the verb, unless it belongs to a bigger constituent, in which case it does not modify the main verb in the phrase, but is part of the constituent.

* {{lang|nb|Hun spiste suppen|italics=no}} {{lang|nb|'''raskt i går'''}}. ('She ate the soup quickly yesterday.')
* {{lang|nb|'''I går'''}} {{lang|nb|spiste|italics=no}} {{lang|nb|hun}} {{lang|nb|suppen raskt|italics=no}}. ('Yesterday she ate the soup quickly.')
* <u>{{lang|nb|Laget som spilte '''best'''|italics=no}}</u>, {{lang|nb|hadde forlatt plassen.|italics=no}} ('The team that played the best had left the pitch.')

===== Adjectives =====
Attributive adjectives always precede the noun that they modify.

* {{lang|nb|De '''tre store tjukke tunge røde''' bøkene stod i hylla.}} ('The '''three big fat heavy red''' books stood on the shelf.')
* {{lang|nb|Den '''andre heldigvis lange tynne''' nøkkelen passet.}} ('The '''other fortunately long thin''' key fit'.)

==See also==
{{Portal|Norway|Languages}}
* [[Det Norske Akademi for Sprog og Litteratur]]
* [[Comparison of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish]]
* [[Noregs Mållag]]
* [[Norsk Ordbok (Nynorsk)|Norsk Ordbok]]
* [[Riksmålsforbundet]]
* [[Russenorsk]]
* [[Tone (linguistics)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== General bibliography ==
* [[Olav Beito|Olav T. Beito]], ''Nynorsk grammatikk. Lyd- og ordlære'', Det Norske Samlaget, Oslo 1986, {{ISBN|82-521-2801-7}}
* Rolf Theil Endresen, Hanne Gram Simonsen, Andreas Sveen, ''Innføring i lingvistikk'' (2002), {{ISBN|82-00-45273-5}}
* [[Jan Terje Faarlund]], Svein Lie, Kjell Ivar Vannebo, ''Norsk referansegrammatikk'', Universitetsforlaget, Oslo 1997, 2002 (3rd edition), {{ISBN|82-00-22569-0}} (Bokmål and Nynorsk)
* Philip Holmes, Hans-Olav Enger, ''Norwegian: A Comprehensive Grammar'', Routledge, Abingdon, 2018, {{ISBN|978-0-415-83136-9}}
* The Norwegian Language Council (1994), ''Language usage in Norway's civil service'', [http://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Om-oss/English-and-other-languages/English/language-usage-in-norways-civil-service/ in English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020080754/http://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Om-oss/English-and-other-languages/English/language-usage-in-norways-civil-service/ |date=20 October 2017 }}
* [[Arne Torp]], [[Lars Vikør|Lars S. Vikør]] (1993), ''Hovuddrag i norsk språkhistorie (3.utgåve)'', Gyldendal Norsk Forlag AS 2003
* [[Lars Vikør|Lars S. Vikør]] (2015), ''Norwegian: Bokmål vs. Nynorsk'', [http://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Om-oss/English-and-other-languages/English/norwegian-bokmal-vs.-nynorsk/ on Språkrådet's website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213085435/https://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Om-oss/English-and-other-languages/English/norwegian-bokmal-vs.-nynorsk/ |date=13 December 2020 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|Main_Page=Hovedside|code=no|Bokmål}}
{{InterWiki|Main_Page=Hovudside|code=nn|Nynorsk}}
{{wiktionary category}}
{{Wikivoyage|Norwegian phrasebook|Norwegian|a phrasebook}}
{{NIE Poster|year=1905|Norwegian Language}}
{{Wikibooks|Norwegian}}
{{wikivoyage|Norwegian Phrasebook}}
* [http://ordbok.uib.no/ Ordboka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909193823/http://ordbok.uib.no/ |date=9 September 2016 }} – Online dictionary search, both Bokmål and Nynorsk.
* {{Cite AmCyc|last=Fiske |first=Willard |author-link=Willard Fiske|wstitle=Norway, Language and Literature of |short=x}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170123002525/http://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Om-oss/English-and-other-languages/English/Norwegian_as_a_Normal_Language Norwegian as a Normal Language], in English, at ''Språkrådet''
* [https://www.sprakradet.no/sprakhjelp/Skriverad/Ordlister/Ord-og-nett/ Ordbøker og nettressurser] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216210925/https://www.sprakradet.no/sprakhjelp/Skriverad/Ordlister/Ord-og-nett/ |date=16 December 2018 }} – a collection of dictionaries and online resources (in Norwegian) from ''Språkrådet''

{{Norwegian language|state=expanded}}
{{Languages of Norway}}
{{Germanic languages}}
{{Norwegian dictionaries}}
{{Norway topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Norwegian Language}}
[[Category:Norwegian language]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Norway]]
[[Category:North Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Scandinavian culture]]
[[Category:Stress-timed languages]]
[[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]]
[[Category:Tonal languages]]
[[Category:Verb-second languages]]
[[Category:West Scandinavian languages]]