View source for Nun

{{Short description|Member of a religious community of women}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Sœur|other uses|soeur (disambiguation)}}
{{Globalize|date=August 2021}}
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A '''nun''' is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service and contemplation,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=What is a Nun? (with pictures)|url=http://www.wise-geek.com/what-is-a-nun.htm|access-date=2021-09-10|website=www.wise-geek.com|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926081623/https://www.wise-geek.com/what-is-a-nun.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> typically living under vows of [[Evangelical counsels|poverty, chastity, and obedience]] in the [[Enclosed religious orders|enclosure]] of a [[monastery]] or [[convent]].<ref name="def">''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 599.</ref> The term is often used interchangeably with [[Religious sister (Catholic)|religious sisters]] who do take simple [[Vow|vows]]<ref name="mw_sister">{{cite dictionary|title=Sister|date=26 May 2024 |dictionary=Merriam-Webster|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sister|quote=[A] member of a women's religious order (as of nuns or deaconesses); especially : one of a Roman Catholic congregation under simple vows}}</ref> but live an active vocation of prayer and charitable work.

In [[Christianity]], nuns are found in the [[Catholic]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], and [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] and some [[Presbyterian]] traditions,  as well as other Christian denominations.<ref name=":4" /> In the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] tradition, female [[Monasticism|monastic]]s are known as [[Bhikkhunī|Bhikkhuni]], and take several [[Eight Garudhammas|additional vows]] compared to male monastics ([[bhikkhu]]s). Nuns are most common in [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]], but have more recently become more prevalent in other traditions.

== Christianity ==
=== Catholicism ===
[[File:Andrea Mantegna 019.jpg|left|thumb|upright|St. [[Scholastica]], sister of [[St. Benedict]] and founder of the [[Order of St. Benedict|Benedictine]] nuns]]
[[File:Hildegard of bingen and nuns.jpg|thumb|[[Hildegard of Bingen]] and her nuns]]
[[File:Maria Johanna von Zweyer c1800.jpg|thumb|Maria Johanna Baptista von Zweyer, Abbess of the Cistercian abbey of Wald]]
[[File:Armand Gautier - Three Nuns in the Portal of a Church - Walters 371383.jpg|thumb|''Three [[Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul]] in the Portal of a Church'', by [[Armand Gautier]]]]

In the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] tradition, there are many [[religious institute]]s of nuns and sisters (the female equivalent of male [[monk]]s or [[friar]]s), each with its own [[charism]] or special character. Traditionally, nuns are members of [[enclosed religious orders]] and take solemn [[religious vows]], while sisters do not live in the papal enclosure and formerly took vows called "simple vows".<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is the difference between a sister and a nun?|url=https://anunslife.org/how-to-become-a-nun/sister-or-nun|access-date=2019-03-04|website=anunslife.org|archive-date=2019-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531194958/https://anunslife.org/how-to-become-a-nun/sister-or-nun|url-status=live}}</ref>

As [[monastic]]s, nuns living within an enclosure historically commit to recitation of the full [[Liturgy of the Hours|Divine Office]] throughout the day in church, usually in a solemn manner. They were formerly distinguished within the monastic community as "choir nuns", as opposed to [[lay brothers#Lay sisters|lay sisters]] who performed upkeep of the monastery or errands outside the cloister. This last task is still often entrusted to women, called "externs", who live in the monastery, but outside the enclosure. They were usually either [[oblate]]s or members of the associated [[Third Order]], often wearing a different habit or the standard woman's attire of the period.

====Membership and vows====
In general, when a woman enters a [[religious order]] or [[monastery]] she first undergoes a period of testing life for six months to two years called a postulancy. If she, and the order, determine that she may have a [[vocation]] to the life, she receives the [[Religious habit|habit]] of the order (usually with some modification, normally a white veil instead of black, to distinguish her from [[Profession (religious)|professed]] members) and undertakes the [[novitiate]], a period (that lasts one to two years) of living the life of the religious institute without yet taking [[vows]].<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P25.HTM Canon 648] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312111506/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P25.HTM |date=2020-03-12 }}, CIC 1983</ref> Upon completion of this period she may take her initial, temporary vows.<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P26.HTM Canon 656] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706161824/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P26.HTM |date=2017-07-06 }}, CIC 1983</ref> [[Temporary vows]] last one to three years, typically, and will be professed for not less than three years and not more than six.<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P26.HTM Canon 655] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706161824/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P26.HTM |date=2017-07-06 }}, CIC 1983</ref> Finally, she will petition to make her "perpetual profession", taking permanent, [[solemn vow]]s.<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P26.HTM Canon 657] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706161824/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P26.HTM |date=2017-07-06 }}, CIC 1983</ref>

In the branches of the [[Benedictine]] tradition, (Benedictines, [[Cistercian]]s, [[Camaldolese]], and [[Trappist]]s, among others) nuns take vows of stability (that is, to remain a member of a single monastic community), obedience (to an [[abbess]] or [[prioress]]), and conversion of life (which includes poverty and celibacy). In other traditions, such as the [[Poor Clares]] (the [[Franciscan]] Order) and the [[Dominican Order|Dominican nuns]], they take the threefold vows of [[poverty]], [[chastity]] and [[vow of obedience|obedience]]. These are known as the 'evangelical counsels' as opposed to 'monastic vows' proper. Most orders of nuns not listed here follow one of these two patterns, with some Orders taking an additional vow related to the specific work or character of their Order (for example, to undertake a certain style of devotion, praying for a specific intention or purpose).<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|title=Mother Teresa, who becomes a saint on Sunday, began her life as a nun in Dublin|language=en-US|newspaper=The Irish Times|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/mother-teresa-who-becomes-a-saint-on-sunday-began-her-life-as-a-nun-in-dublin-1.2777022|access-date=2018-02-14|archive-date=2017-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206200349/https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/mother-teresa-who-becomes-a-saint-on-sunday-began-her-life-as-a-nun-in-dublin-1.2777022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|title=Nun in iconic Italy quake photo shares her story of survival|language=en|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/nun-in-iconic-italy-earthquake-photo-shares-her-story-of-survival/|access-date=2018-02-14|archive-date=2017-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201133025/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/nun-in-iconic-italy-earthquake-photo-shares-her-story-of-survival/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Bridgettine sisters.jpg|right|thumb|[[Bridgettines|Bridgettine Sisters]] at the [[March For Life in Washington, D.C.]], January 2009]]
[[File:MotherTeresa 094.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mother Teresa]], founder of the [[Missionaries of Charity]]<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />]]

Cloistered nuns ([[Carmelites]], for example) observe "papal enclosure"<ref name=":5">[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P28.HTM Canon 667] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312111521/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P28.HTM |date=2020-03-12 }} §3, CIC 1983, SCRIS instruction, "Venite seorsum" August 15, 1969, in AAS 61 (1969) 674–690</ref> rules, and their nunneries typically have walls separating the nuns from the outside world. The nuns rarely leave (except for medical necessity or occasionally for purposes related to their contemplative life) though they may receive visitors in specially built parlors, often with either a grille or half-wall separating the nuns from visitors. They are usually self-sufficient, earning money by selling jams, candies or baked goods by mail order, or by making liturgical items (such as vestments, candles, or hosts to be consecrated at Mass for Holy Communion).

They often undertake contemplative ministries – that is, a community of nuns is often associated with prayer for some particular good or supporting the missions of another order by prayer (for instance, the Dominican nuns of [[Corpus Christi Monastery]] in [[the Bronx]], New York, pray in support of the priests of the [[Archdiocese of New York]]). Yet religious sisters can also perform this form of ministry, e.g., the [[Maryknoll]] Missionary Sisters have small houses of [[contemplative]] sisters, some in mission locations, who pray for the work of the priests, brothers, and other sisters of their congregation, and since Vatican II have added retreat work and spiritual guidance to their apostolate;<ref>{{Cite news|title=Sister Grace Corde Myerjack – Maryknoll Sisters|language=en-US|work=Maryknoll Sisters|url=https://www.maryknollsisters.org/sisters/sister-grace-corde-myerjack/|access-date=2018-05-24|archive-date=2018-05-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524222158/https://www.maryknollsisters.org/sisters/sister-grace-corde-myerjack/|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Sister Disciples of the Divine Master]] are also cloistered sisters who receive visitors and pray in support of their sister congregation,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vocation: Sister Disciples Of The Divine Master|url=http://www.pddm.us/p.promise94.php|access-date=2018-05-24|website=www.pddm.us|archive-date=2018-05-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524222526/http://www.pddm.us/p.promise94.php|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Daughters of St. Paul]] in their media ministry.

====Leadership====
A [[canoness]] is a nun who corresponds to the male equivalent of [[Canon (priest)|canon]], usually following the Rule of St. Augustine. The origin and rules of monastic life are common to both. As with the canons, differences in the observance of rule gave rise to two types: the [[canoness regular]], taking the traditional religious vows, and the secular canoness, who did not take vows and thus remained free to own property and leave to marry, should they choose. This was primarily a way of leading a pious life for the women of aristocratic families and generally disappeared in the modern age, except for the modern [[Stift#Stift as endowment for unmarried Protestant women|Lutheran convents]] of Germany.

A nun who is elected to head her religious house is termed an [[abbess]] if the house is an abbey, a prioress if it is a monastery, or more generically may be referred to as "Mother Superior" and styled "Reverend Mother". The distinction between abbey and monastery has to do with the terms used by a particular order or by the level of independence of the religious house. Technically, a [[convent]] is any home of a community of sisters – or, indeed, of priests and brothers, though this term is rarely used in the United States. The term "[[monastery]]" is often used by The Benedictine family to speak of the buildings and "convent" when referring to the community. Neither is gender specific. 'Convent' is often used of the houses of certain other institutes.

The traditional dress for women in religious communities consists of a [[tunic]], which is tied around the waist with a cloth or leather belt. Over the tunic some nuns wear a [[scapular]] which is a garment of long wide piece of woolen cloth worn over the shoulders with an opening for the head. Some wear a white [[wimple]] and a veil, the most significant and ancient aspect of the habit. Some orders – such as the Dominicans – wear a large rosary on their belt. Benedictine abbesses wear a cross or crucifix on a chain around their neck.

After the [[Second Vatican Council]], many religious institutes chose in their own regulations to no longer wear the traditional habit and did away with choosing a [[religious name]]. [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Catholic Church canon law]] states: "Religious are to wear the habit of the institute, made according to the norm of proper law, as a sign of their consecration and as a witness of poverty."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Code of Canon Law – IntraText|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P28.HTM|access-date=2018-02-14|website=www.vatican.va|archive-date=2018-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220201602/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P28.HTM|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Distinction between a nun and a religious sister ====
{{See also|Religious sister (Catholic)}}

Although usage has varied throughout church history, typically "nun" (Latin: ''monialis'') is used for women who have taken [[solemn vow|"solemn" vow]]s, and "sister" (Latin: ''soror'') is used for women who have taken "simple" vows (that is, vows other than solemn vows).

During the first millennium, nearly all religious communities of men and women were dedicated to prayer and [[contemplative prayer|contemplation]]. These [[monasteries]] were built in remote locations or were separated from the world by means of a [[precinct wall]]. The [[mendicant orders]], founded in the 13th century, combined a life of prayer and dedication to God with active works of preaching, hearing confessions, and service to the poor, and members of these orders are known as [[friars]] rather than [[monks]]. At that time, and into the 17th century, Church custom did not allow women to leave the [[cloister]] if they had taken religious vows. Female members of the mendicant orders ([[Dominican Order|Dominican]], [[Order of Saint Augustine|Augustinian]] and [[Carmelite]] nuns and [[Poor Clares]]) continued to observe the same enclosed life as members of the [[Monasticism|monastic orders]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Mary Ward|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15551c.htm|access-date=2018-02-14|website=www.newadvent.org|archive-date=2021-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904122241/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15551c.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Originally, the vows taken by profession in any religious institute approved by the Holy See were classified as solemn.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="Vermeersch">[http://oce.catholic.com/index.php?title=Religious_Life Arthur Vermeersch,  "Religious Life"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115054809/http://oce.catholic.com/index.php?title=Religious_Life|date=2012-01-15}} in ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Accessed 18 July 2011.</ref> This was declared by [[Pope Boniface VIII]] (1235–1303).<ref>"Illud solum votum debere dici solemne ... quod solemnizatum fuerit per suceptionem S. Ordinis aut per professionem expressam vel tacitam factam alicui de religionibus per Sedem Apostolicam approbatis" (C. unic. de voto, tit. 15, lib. III in 6, quoted in [https://archive.org/stream/religiouscongreg00frer#page/16/mode/2up/search/%22Illud+solum+votum+debere+dici+solemne%22 Celestine Anthony Freriks, ''Religious Congregations in Their External Relations''], p. 17).</ref> The situation changed in the 16th century. In 1521, two years after the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] had forbidden the establishment of new religious institutes, [[Pope Leo X]] established a religious [[monasticism|Rule]] with simple vows for those [[third order|tertiaries]] attached to existing communities who undertook to live a formal religious life. In 1566 and 1568, [[Pope Pius V]] rejected this class of congregation, but they continued to exist and even increased in number. After at first being merely tolerated, they afterwards obtained approval.<ref name="Vermeersch" /> Finally in the 20th century, [[Pope Leo XIII]] recognized as religious all men and women who took simple vows.<ref>Constitution "Conditae a Christo" of 8 December 1900, cited in [http://www.dom.edu/export/sites/dominican/mcgreal/volumeone/DaHCHAP11.pdf Mary Nona McGreal, ''Dominicans at Home in a New Nation'', chapter 11] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927150743/http://www.dom.edu/export/sites/dominican/mcgreal/volumeone/DaHCHAP11.pdf|date=2011-09-27}}</ref> Their lives were oriented not to the ancient monastic way of life, but more to [[social service]] and to [[evangelization]], both in [[Europe]] and in mission areas. Their number had increased dramatically in the upheavals brought by the [[French Revolution]] and subsequent [[Napoleonic]] invasions of other Catholic countries, depriving thousands of religious of the income that their communities held because of inheritances and forcing them to find a new way of living the religious life. But members of these new associations were not recognized as "religious" until [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s Constitution "Conditae a Christo" of 8 December 1900.<ref>Cited in [http://www.dom.edu/export/sites/dominican/mcgreal/volumeone/DaHCHAP11.pdf Mary Nona McGreal, ''Dominicans at Home in a New Nation'', chapter 11] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927150743/http://www.dom.edu/export/sites/dominican/mcgreal/volumeone/DaHCHAP11.pdf|date=2011-09-27}}</ref>

The [[1917 Code of Canon Law]] reserved the term "nun" (Latin: ''monialis'') for religious women who took solemn vows or who, while being allowed in some places to take simple vows, belonged to institutes whose vows were normally solemn.<ref>{{Cite web|title=CIC 1917: text – IntraText CT|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0813/_P1D.HTM#6T|access-date=2018-02-14|website=www.intratext.com|archive-date=2019-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515010057/http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0813/_P1D.HTM#6T|url-status=live}}</ref> It used the word "sister" (Latin: ''soror'') exclusively for members of institutes for women that it classified as "[[Congregation of Papal Right|congregations]]"; and for "nuns" and "sisters" jointly it used the Latin word ''religiosae'' (women religious). The same religious order could include both "nuns" and "sisters", if some members took solemn vows and others simple vows.

The new legal code of the Catholic Church which was adopted in 1983, however, remained silent on this matter. Whereas previously the code distinguished between orders and congregations, the code now refers simply to religious institutes.

Since the [[1983 Code of Canon Law|code of 1983]], the Vatican has addressed the renewal of the contemplative life of nuns. It produced the letter ''Verbi Sponsa'' in 1999,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Verbi Sponsa (13 May 1999)|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccscrlife/documents/rc_con_ccscrlife_doc_13051999_verbi-sponsa_en.html|access-date=2018-11-22|website=www.vatican.va|archive-date=2018-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181213201128/http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccscrlife/documents/rc_con_ccscrlife_doc_13051999_verbi-sponsa_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> the apostolic constitution {{Lang|la|[[Vultum Dei quaerere]]}} in 2016, and the instruction ''Cor Orans'' in 2018<ref>{{Cite web|title="Cor Orans" – Implementing Instruction of the Apostolic Constitution "Vultum Dei quaerere" on women's contemplative life, of the Congregation for the Institutes of Consecrated Life and the Societies of Apostolic Life (1 April 2018)|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccscrlife/documents/rc_con_ccscrlife_doc_20180401_cor-orans_en.html|access-date=2018-11-22|website=www.vatican.va|archive-date=2018-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102203408/http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccscrlife/documents/rc_con_ccscrlife_doc_20180401_cor-orans_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> "which replaced the 1999 document ''Verbi Sponsa'' and attempted to bring forward the ideas regarding contemplative life born during the Second Vatican Council".<ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-11-22|title=Contemplative nuns roll with the changes under Pope Francis|language=en-US|work=Crux|url=https://cruxnow.com/vatican/2018/11/22/contemplative-nuns-roll-with-the-changes-under-pope-francis/|url-status=dead|access-date=2018-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122120445/https://cruxnow.com/vatican/2018/11/22/contemplative-nuns-roll-with-the-changes-under-pope-francis/|archive-date=2018-11-22}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Irmã Rosália Sehnem IFPCC7.JPG|Sister Rosália Sehnem of the [[Sisters of St. Francis of Penance and Christian Charity]]
File:Nun on a motor-bike 2 - by Francis Hannaway.jpg|A sister of the Theresienne Sisters of [[Basankusu]] wearing a brightly coloured habit, riding a motor-bike, [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], 2013<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://stbasankusu.blogspot.co.uk/ |title=The Theresienne Sisters of Basankusu (La congrégation des soeurs thérésiennes de Basankusu) |access-date=2014-05-09 |archive-date=2014-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512232302/http://stbasankusu.blogspot.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
File:An Ugandan nun teaching during a community service day.jpg|A Ugandan nun teaching during a community service day
</gallery>

==== United States ====
{{main|Catholic sisters and nuns in the United States}}

Nuns and sisters played a major role in American religion, education, nursing and social work since the early 19th century.<ref>Margaret M. McGuinness, ''Called to Serve: A History of Nuns in America'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Called-Serve-History-Nuns-America/dp/0814795579/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204212832/https://www.amazon.com/Called-Serve-History-Nuns-America/dp/0814795579 |date=2017-02-04 }}</ref> In Catholic Europe, convents were heavily endowed over the centuries, and were sponsored by the aristocracy. There were very few rich [[American Catholics]], and no aristocrats. Religious orders were founded by entrepreneurial women who saw a need and an opportunity, and were staffed by devout women from poor families. The numbers grew rapidly, from 900 sisters in 15 communities in 1840, 50,000 in 170 orders in 1900, and 135,000 in 300 different orders by 1930. Starting in 1820, the sisters always outnumbered the priests and brothers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Toole|first1=James M.|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674034884|title=The Faithful: A History of Catholics in America|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=9780674034884|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674034884/page/104 104]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Their numbers peaked in 1965 at 180,000 then plunged to 56,000 in 2010. Many women left their orders, and few new members were added.<ref>Margaret M. McGuinness, ''Called to Serve'' (2013), ch 8</ref> Since the [[Second Vatican Council]] the sisters have directed their ministries more to the poor, working more directly among them and with them.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sisters of Mercy: Spirituality, Resources, Prayer and Action|url=https://www.sistersofmercy.org/spirituality/|access-date=2018-02-14|website=Sisters of Mercy|language=en|archive-date=2017-01-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131081851/http://www.sistersofmercy.org/spirituality/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Canada ====
{{main|Catholic sisters and nuns in Canada}}

Nuns have played an important role in Canada, especially in heavily Catholic Quebec. Outside the home, Canadian women had few domains which they controlled. An important exception came with Catholic nuns, especially in Québec. Stimulated by the influence in France, the popular religiosity of the [[Counter Reformation]], new orders for women began appearing in the seventeenth century. In the next three centuries women opened dozens of independent religious orders, funded in part by [[Religious dower|dowries]] provided by the parents of young nuns. The orders specialized in charitable works, including hospitals, orphanages, [[maternity home|homes for unwed mothers]], and schools.<ref>Thomas Carr, Jr., "Writing the Convent in New France: The Colonialist Rhetoric of Canadian Nuns", ''Quebec Studies'' (2009), Issue 47, pp 3–23.</ref>

==== Early modern Spain ====

Prior to women becoming nuns during early modern Spain, aspired nuns underwent a process. The process was ensured by the [[Council of Trent]], which [[Philip II of Spain|King Philip II]] (1556–1598) adopted within Spain.<ref name="Schmitz 375–399">{{Cite journal|last=Schmitz|first=Timothy J.|date=2006-01-01|title=The Spanish Hieronymites and the Reformed Texts of the Council of Trent|journal=The Sixteenth Century Journal|volume=37|issue=2|pages=375–399|doi=10.2307/20477841|jstor=20477841}}</ref> King Phillip II acquired the aid of the [[Hieronymites|Hieronymite order]] to ensure that monasteries abided by the decrees of the Council of Trent.<ref name="Schmitz 375–399" /> This changed the way in which nuns would live.<ref name="Lehfeldt 1009–1030">{{Cite journal|last=Lehfeldt|first=Elizabeth A.|date=1999-01-01|title=Discipline, Vocation, and Patronage: Spanish Religious Women in a Tridentine Microclimate|journal=The Sixteenth Century Journal|volume=30|issue=4|pages=1009–1030|doi=10.2307/2544609|jstor=2544609}}</ref> One edict of the Council of Trent was that female monasteries be enclosed in order to limit nuns' relationship with the secular world.<ref name="Lehfeldt 1009–1030" /> Enclosure of monasteries during this time was associated with chastity.<ref name="Lehfeldt 1009–1030" /> Another decree issued by the Council of Trent was that religious devotion be "true and voluntary".<ref name="Lehfeldt 1009–1030" /> A male clergy member would ask the aspiring nuns if whether or not their vocation was "true and voluntary" in order to ensure no enforced conversion.<ref name="Lehfeldt 1009–1030" />

To be considered as a nun, one must have the economic means to afford the convent dowry.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lehfeldt|first=Elizabeth A.|date=2000-01-01|title=Convents as Litigants: Dowry and Inheritance Disputes in Early-Modern Spain|url=https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/clhist_facpub/3|journal=Journal of Social History|volume=33|issue=3|pages=645–664|doi=10.1353/jsh.2000.0027|jstor=3789215|s2cid=144464752|access-date=2019-12-14|archive-date=2020-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809071204/https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/clhist_facpub/3/|url-status=live}}</ref> During this time convent dowries were affordable, compared to secular marriages between a man and a woman.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Evangelisti|first=Silvia|title=Nuns: A history of convent life, 1450–1700|publisher=Oxford; New York : Oxford University Press|year=2007}}</ref> Typically during early modern Spain many nuns were from elite families who had the means to afford the convent dowry and "maintenance allowances", which were annual fees.<ref name=":0" /> Monasteries were economically supported through convent dowries.<ref name=":0" /> Convent dowries could be waived if the aspiring nun had an artistic ability benefiting the monastery.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taggard|first=Mindy Nancarrow|date=2000-01-01|title=Art and Alienation in Early Modern Spanish Convents|journal=South Atlantic Review|volume=65|issue=1|pages=24–40|doi=10.2307/3201923|jstor=3201923}}</ref>

Once an aspiring nun has entered the convent and has the economic means to afford the dowry, she undergoes the process of apprenticeship known as the novitiate period.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lavrin|first=Asuncion|title=Brides of Christ: Conventual life in colonial Mexico|publisher=Stanford University Press, 2008.|year=2008|location=Stanford, Calif.|pages=49}}</ref> The novitiate period typically lasts 1–2 years, and during this time the aspiring nun lives the life of a nun without taking the official vows.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lavrin|first=Asuncion|title=Brides of Christ: Conventual life in colonial Mexico|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2008|location=Stanford, Calif|pages=48}}</ref> As she lives in the convent she is closely monitored by the other women in the community to determine if her vocation is genuine. This would be officially determined by a vote from the choir nuns.<ref name=":0" /> If the aspiring nun passes the scrutiny of the women of the religious community, she then can make her [[solemn vow]]s.<ref name=":0" /> Prior to making the vows, the family of the nun is expected to pay the convent dowry.<ref name=":0" /> Nuns were also expected to renounce their inheritance and property rights.<ref name=":0" />

Religious class distinctions:
 
* Choir nuns: Usually from elite families, they held office, could vote within the convent, and were given the opportunity to read and write.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Evangelisti|first=Silvia|title=Nuns: A history of convent life, 1450–1700|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|location=Oxford|pages=30}}</ref>
* Lay-sisters: Lower-class women, assigned tasks related to the labour of the convent, generally were not given the opportunities to read and write, and paid a lower dowry.<ref name=":1" />

=== Eastern Orthodox ===
{{Main|Eastern Christian Monasticism}}
[[File:Saint Sofia of Suzdal crop.jpg|thumb|right|[[Solomonia Saburova|Saint Sophia]] of [[Suzdal]], wearing the full monastic habit of a [[Schemanun]]]]
[[File:Монахиња у Градцу.jpg|thumb|right|Nun in [[Gradac Monastery|Gradac]], Serbian orthodox monastery]]

In the Eastern Orthodox Church there is no distinction between a monastery for women and one for men. In [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and other languages of primarily Christian Orthodox nations, both domiciles are called "monasteries" and the ascetics who live therein are "monastics". In English, however, it is acceptable to use the terms "nun" and "convent" for clarity and convenience. The term for an abbess is the feminine form of abbot (''[[hegumen]]'') – Greek: ἡγουμένη (''hegumeni''); {{langx|sr|игуманија }} (''igumanija''); Russian: игумения (''[[igumenia]]''). Orthodox monastics do not have distinct "orders" as in Western Christianity. Orthodox monks and nuns lead identical spiritual lives.<ref>Archpriest Seraphim Slobodskoy, ''The Law of God'' (Printshop of St. Job of Pochaev, Jordanville, NY, {{ISBN|0884650448}}), p. 618.</ref> There may be slight differences in the way a monastery functions internally but these are simply differences in style (Gr. ''[[typica]]'') dependent on the abbess or [[abbot]]. The abbess is the spiritual leader of the convent and her authority is absolute (no [[priest]], [[bishop]], or even [[patriarch]] can override an abbess within the walls of her monastery). Abbots and Abbesses rank in authority equal to bishops in many ways and were included in [[ecumenical council]]s. Orthodox monasteries are usually associated with a local synod of bishops by jurisdiction, but are otherwise self-governing. Abbesses hear [[Confession (religion)|confession]]s (but do not [[absolution|absolve]]) and dispense [[blessing]]s on their charges, though they still require the services of a [[presbyter]] (i.e., a priest) to celebrate the [[Divine Liturgy]] and perform other priestly functions, such as the absolution of a penitent.

In general, Orthodox monastics have little or no contact with the outside world, especially family. The pious family whose child decides to enter the monastic profession understands that their child will become "dead to the world" and therefore be unavailable for social visits.

There are a number of different levels that the nun passes through in her profession:

{{Main|Degrees of Eastern Orthodox monasticism}}

*'''Novice –''' When one enters a monastery the first three to five years are spent as a [[novitiate|novice]]. Novices may or may not (depending on the abbess's wishes) dress in the black inner robe ([[cassock|Isorassa]]); those who do will also usually wear the [[apostolnik]] or a black [[scarf]] tied over the head (see photo, above). The isorassa is the first part of the monastic "[[Religious habit|habit]]" of which there is only one style for Orthodox monastics (this is true in general, there have been a few slight regional variations over the centuries, but the style always seems to precipitate back to a style common in the 3rd or 4th century). If a novice chooses to leave during the novitiate period no penalty is incurred.
*'''Rassaphore –''' When the abbess deems the novice ready, the novice is asked to join the monastery. If she accepts, she is [[tonsure]]d in a formal service during which she is given the outer robe ([[Cassock|Exorassa]]) and veil ([[Epanokamelavkion]]) to wear, and (because she is now dead to the world) receives a new name. Nuns consider themselves part of a sisterhood; however, tonsured nuns are usually addressed as "Mother" (in some convents, the title of "Mother" is reserved to those who enter into the next level of Stavrophore).
*'''Stavrophore –''' The next level for monastics takes place some years after the first tonsure when the abbess feels the nun has reached a level of discipline, dedication, and [[humility]]. Once again, in a formal service the nun is elevated to the "Little Schema" which is signified by additions to her habit of certain symbolic articles of clothing. In addition, the abbess increases the nun's [[prayer rule]], she is allowed a stricter personal ascetic practice.
*'''Great Schema –''' The final stage, called "Megaloschemos" or "[[Great Schema]]" is reached by nuns whose Abbess feels they have reached a high level of excellence. In some monastic traditions the Great Schema is only given to monks and nuns on their death bed, while in others they may be elevated after as little as 25 years of service.
{| border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="margin:auto;"
|[[File:Nevrev-Princess.jpg|thumb|''Princess Praskovya Yusupova Before Becoming a Nun'', [[Nikolai Nevrev]], 1886]]
|[[File:Nun flowers black white.JPG|thumb|''The Way of Humility'': [[Russian Orthodox]] nun working at [[Ein Karem]], [[Jerusalem]]]]
|}

=== Protestantism ===
[[Image:Monastery Ebstorf.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Ebstorf Abbey]] has continued as a Lutheran convent in the Benedictine tradition since 1529.]]

After the Protestant Reformation, some monasteries in Lutheran lands (such as [[Amelungsborn Abbey]] near [[Negenborn]] and [[Loccum Abbey]] in [[Rehburg-Loccum]]) and convents (such as [[Ebstorf Abbey]] near the town of [[Uelzen]] and [[Bursfelde Abbey]] in [[Bursfelde]]) adopted the Lutheran Christian faith.<ref>{{cite web|date=8 August 2014|title=Kloster Ebstorf|url=http://www.medievalhistories.com/kloster-ebstorf-convent-bad-bevensen-near-luneburg/|access-date=20 November 2017|publisher=Medieval Histories|language=en|quote=The monastery is mentioned for the first time in 1197. It belongs to the group of so-called Lüneklöstern (monasteries of Lüne), which became Lutheran convents following the Protestant Reformation. […] It is currently one of several Lutheran convents maintained by the Monastic Chamber of Hanover (Klosterkammer Hannover), an institution of the former Kingdom of Hanover founded by its Prince-Regent, later King George IV of the United Kingdom, in 1818, in order to manage and preserve the estates of Lutheran convents.|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040013/http://www.medievalhistories.com/kloster-ebstorf-convent-bad-bevensen-near-luneburg/|url-status=live}}</ref> Other convents, especially those in Reformed areas, closed after the Reformation, with some sisters deciding to marry.

A modern resurgence of the early Christian [[Deaconess]] office for women began in Germany in the 1840s and spread through Scandinavia, Britain and the United States, with some elements of the religious life, such as simple vows, and a daily obligation of prayer. Lutherans were especially active, and within both Lutheranism and Anglicanism some Deaconesses formed religious communities, with community living, and the option of life vows in religion.<ref>See CSA history [http://anglicanhistory.org/women/rich_deaconesses1907/ here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610055736/http://anglicanhistory.org/women/rich_deaconesses1907/ |date=2011-06-10 }}.</ref> The modern movement reached a zenith about 1910, then slowly declined as secularization undercut religiosity in Europe, and the professionalization of nursing and social work offered better career opportunities for young women. A small movement still exists, and its legacy is seen in the names of numerous hospitals.<ref>Cynthia A. Jurisson,  "The Deaconess Movement", in Rosemary Skinner Keller et al., eds. ''Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America'' (Indiana U.P., 2006). pp. 821–33 [https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA821 online]</ref>

The example of the Deaconess communities eventually led to the establishment of religious communities of monks and nuns within some Protestant traditions,<ref>One example of a Protestant [http://www.lutheranfranciscans.org/Home.html religious order] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716185753/http://www.lutheranfranciscans.org/Home.html|date=2014-07-16}}</ref> particularly those influenced by the more liturgical Protestant reformers (such as [[Martin Luther]]) rather than the more extreme reformers (such as [[John Calvin]]). This has allowed for communities of nuns (or, in some cases, mixed communities of nuns and monks) to be re-established in some Protestant traditions. Many of these are within the episcopal Lutheran tradition and the closeness of Lutheranism with Anglicanism in its belief and practice has led to local arrangements of inter-Communion between the two traditions, such as the [[Porvoo Communion]].<ref name="TOI">Israeli press report concerning one [http://www.timesofisrael.com/lutheran-nuns-end-jerusalem-mission-to-shoah-survivors/ German Lutheran order] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824234452/http://www.timesofisrael.com/lutheran-nuns-end-jerusalem-mission-to-shoah-survivors/ |date=2014-08-24 }} of nuns.</ref>

==== Lutheranism ====
[[File:Kloster Bursfelde von NO.jpg|thumb|[[Bursfelde Abbey]] has continued as a Lutheran convent since A.D. 1579]]

There are a plethora of religious orders within the [[Lutheran Church]]es, such as the [[Order of Lutheran Franciscans]] and [[Daughters of Mary (Lutheran)|Daughters of Mary]]. Nearly all [[Template:Lutheran orders|active Lutheran orders]] are located in Europe.

The [[Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary]], an order of Lutheran nuns, operates a guesthouse for Holocaust survivors in Jerusalem.<ref name="TOI" />

==== Anglicanism ====
{{main|Anglican religious order}}
[[File:Julianofnorwich.jpg|thumb|Two Anglican nuns]]
[[File:Nunnor - Ystad-2019.jpg|thumb|Two Birgitta sisters in [[Sweden]] 2019.]]
Religious communities throughout England were destroyed by King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] when he separated the [[Church of England]] from papal authority during the [[English Reformation]] (see [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]]). Monasteries and convents were deprived of their lands and possessions, and monastics were forced to either live a secular life on a pension or flee the country. Many Catholic nuns went to France.

Anglican religious orders are organizations of [[laity]] or clergy in the [[Anglican Communion]] who live under a common rule. The term "religious orders" is distinguished from [[Holy Orders]] (the sacrament of [[ordination]] which bishops, priests, and deacons receive), though many communities do have ordained members.

The structure and function of religious orders in Anglicanism roughly parallels that which exists in Catholicism. Religious communities are divided into orders proper, in which members take solemn vows and congregations, whose members take simple vows.

With the rise of the [[Oxford Movement]] in Anglicanism in the early 19th century came interest in the revival of "religious life" in England. Between 1841 and 1855, several religious orders for nuns were founded, among them the Community of St. Mary at [[Wantage]] and the [[Society of Saint Margaret]] at [[East Grinstead]].

In the United States and Canada, the founding of Anglican religious orders of nuns began in 1845 with the Sisterhood of the Holy Communion (now defunct) in New York.

Whilst there is no single central authority for all religious orders, and many member churches of the Anglican Communion have their own internal structures for recognising and regulating religious orders, some central functions are performed by the Anglican Religious Communities Department at [[Church House, Westminster]], the headquarters of the Church of England's [[Church Commissioners]], [[General Synod of the Church of England|General Synod]], [[Archbishops' Council]], and [[National Society for Promoting Religious Education|National Society]]. This department publishes the biennial ''Anglican Religious Life'', a world directory of religious orders, and also maintains an official Anglican Communion website for religious orders. ''Anglican Religious Life'' defines four categories of community.<ref>Anglican Religious Life 2012–13, published Canterbury Press, Norwich, 2011, {{ISBN|978-1-84825-089-5}}, pp. iii, iv, 19, 147, 151, 171.</ref>
* "Traditional celibate religious orders and communities": Members take a vow of celibacy (amongst other vows) and follow a common Rule of life. They may be enclosed and contemplative or open and engaged in apostolic works.
* "Dispersed communities": These are orders or communities whose members, whilst taking vows (including celibacy), do not live together in community. In most cases the members are self-supporting and live alone, but follow the same Rule of life, and meet together frequently in assemblies often known as 'Chapter meetings'. In some cases some members may share a common life in very small groups of two or three.
* "Acknowledged communities": These communities live a traditional Christian life, including the taking of vows, but the traditional vows are adapted or changed. In many cases these communities admit both single and married persons as members, requiring celibacy on the part of those who are single, and unfailing commitment to their spouse on the part of married members. They also amend the vow of poverty, allowing personal possessions, but requiring high standards of tithing to the community and the wider church. These communities often have residential elements, but not full residential community life, as this would be incompatible with some elements of married family life.
* "Other communities": This group contains communities that are ecumenical (including Anglicans) or that belong to non-Anglican churches that have entered into relationships of full communion with the Anglican Church (particularly, but not only, certain Lutheran churches).

In the United States (only), there is a clear distinction between "orders" and "communities", as the Episcopal Church has its own two-fold definition of "religious orders" (equivalent to the first two groups above) and "Christian communities" (equivalent to the third group above).<ref>See Title III, Canon 24, sections 1 and 2 of the Canons of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, also quoted at [http://communities.anglicancommunion.org Anglican Communion Religious Communities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221122644/http://communities.anglicancommunion.org/ |date=2015-02-21 }}.</ref> The ''Anglican Religious Life'' directory affirms this, stating "This distinction in not used in other parts of the Anglican Communion where 'communities' is also used for those who take traditional vows."<ref>''Anglican Religious Life 2012–13'', Canterbury Press, Norwich, 2011, {{ISBN|978-1-84825-089-5}}, p. 151.</ref>

In some Anglican orders, there are sisters who have been ordained and can celebrate the Eucharist.<ref>[http://www.ssmbos.com/Pages/whatwedo.html What We Do] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616160844/http://www.ssmbos.com/Pages/whatwedo.html|date=2010-06-16}} sisters of St. Margaret, (Episcopal religious community of women)</ref>

==== Presbyterian ====

The Emmanuel Sisterhood in Cameroon, Africa, is part of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon (PCC).<ref>{{cite web |title=Ihre Homepage - HOME PAGE |url=http://www.emmanuel-sisterhood.org/ |website=www.emmanuel-sisterhood.org |access-date=23 October 2023 |language=de |archive-date=7 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107074534/https://www.emmanuel-sisterhood.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2023}}

==== Methodism ====
The [[Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery (Methodist-Benedictine)|Saint Brigid of Kildare Benedictine Monastery]] is a [[United Methodist]] double monastery with both monks and nuns.<ref name="Lefevere">{{cite book|author=Patricia Lefevere|url=http://www.natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives/022103/022103v.htm|title=Methodist woman founds monastery|publisher=National Catholic Reporter|quote=St. Brigid’s oblate group has grown to 16 members since the dedication of the monastery on St. Brigid’s feast in 2000. Besides Stamps, it counts another 13 United Methodists, one Catholic and one Disciples of Christ member. The ages of group members range from 23 to 82. One-third of them are men; half are ordained. The community continues to grow.|access-date=1 October 2011|archive-date=3 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103224914/http://www.natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives/022103/022103v.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Buddhism ==
{{Main|Bhikkhunī}}
[[File:A Chinese nun climbing ascending steps on Mount Putuo Shan island.JPG|left|thumb|A Chinese nun ascending steps on Mount Putuo Shan island]]
{{peoplepalicanon}}

All [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] traditions have nuns, although their status is different among Buddhist countries. The Buddha is reported to have allowed women into the ''[[sangha]]'' only with great reluctance, predicting that the move would lead to Buddhism's collapse after 500 years, rather than the 1,000 years it would have enjoyed otherwise. (This prophecy occurs only once in the Canon and is the only prophecy involving time in the Canon, leading some to suspect that it is a late addition.)<ref>Hellmuth Hecker, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/hecker/wheel273.html#n-30] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328182957/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/hecker/wheel273.html#n-30|date=2007-03-28}}.</ref> Fully ordained Buddhist nuns (''[[Bhikkhunī|bhikkhuni]]s'') have more ''[[Pāṭimokkha|Patimokkha]]'' rules than the monks (''[[bhikkhu]]s''). The important vows are the same, however.

As with monks, there is quite a lot of variation in nuns' dress and social conventions between Buddhist cultures in Asia. Chinese nuns possess the full ''bhikkuni'' ordination, Tibetan nuns do not. In [[Theravada]] countries it is generally believed that the full ordination lineage of ''bhikkunis'' died out, though in many places they wear the "saffron" colored robes, observing only ten precepts like novices.

=== Thailand ===
In [[Thailand]], a country which never had a tradition of fully ordained nuns (''bhikkhuni''), there developed a separate order of non-ordained female renunciates called ''[[Maechi|mae chi]]''. However, some of them have played an important role in dhamma-practitioners' community. There are in [[Thai Forest Tradition]] foremost nuns such as Mae Ji Kaew Sianglam, the founder of the Nunnery of Baan Huai Saai, who is believed by some to be [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightened]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.forestdhammabooks.com/book/10/MCK/preface%20n%20intro.pdf|title=Mae Chee Kaew – Her Journey to Spiritual Awakening & Enlightenment e-book}}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> as well as [[Kee Nanayon|Upasika Kee Nanayon]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.enabling.org/ia/vipassana/Archive/N/Nanayon/keeNanayonThanisarro.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004073724/http://www.enabling.org/ia/vipassana/Archive/N/Nanayon/keeNanayonThanisarro.html|url-status=dead|title=Upasika Kee Nanayon and the Social Dynamic of Theravadin Buddhist Practice|archivedate=October 4, 2011}}</ref> At the beginning of the 21st century, some Buddhist women in Thailand have started to introduce the ''bhikkhuni sangha'' in their country as well, even if public acceptance is still lacking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=70,1295,0,0,1,0|title=Issues &#124; Authoritarianism of the holy kind|website=www.buddhistchannel.tv|access-date=2022-12-14|archive-date=2022-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214130414/https://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=70,1295,0,0,1,0|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Dhammananda Bhikkhuni]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dhammaweb.net/dhammananda.html |title=Bhikkhuni Dhammananda<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2007-06-22 |archive-date=2007-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928163044/http://www.dhammaweb.net/dhammananda.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> formerly the successful academic scholar Dr. Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, established a controversial monastery for the training of Buddhist nuns in Thailand.<ref>[http://www.thaibhikkhunis.org/eng/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogsection&id=1&Itemid=3 Thai Bhikkhunis – Songdhammakalyani Monastery<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226082911/http://www.thaibhikkhunis.org/eng/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogsection&id=1&Itemid=3 |date=December 26, 2008 }}</ref>

=== Taiwan ===

The relatively active roles of Taiwanese nuns were noted by some studies. Researcher Charles Brewer Jones estimates that from 1951 to 1999, when the Buddhist Association of the ROC organized public ordination, female applicants outnumbered males by about three to one. He adds:

{{blockquote|All my informants in the areas of Taipei and Sanhsia considered nuns at least as respectable as monks, or even more so. [...] In contrast, however, Shiu-kuen Tsung found in Taipei county that female clergy were viewed with some suspicion by society. She reports that while outsiders did not necessarily regard their vocation as unworthy of respect, they still tended to view the nuns as social misfits.<ref>Charles Brewer Jones, ''Buddhism in Taiwan: Religion and the State, 1660–1990''; University of Hawaii Press, 1999; pp. 154–155</ref>}}

Wei-yi Cheng studied the Luminary (Hsiang Kuang 香光) order in southern Taiwan. Cheng reviewed earlier studies which suggest that Taiwan's [[Zhaijiao]] tradition has a history of more female participation, and that the economic growth and loosening of family restriction have allowed more women to become nuns. Based on studies of the Luminary order, Cheng concluded that the monastic order in Taiwan was still young and gave nuns more room for development, and more mobile believers helped the order.<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Cheng, Wei-yi
|title=Luminary Buddhist Nuns in Contemporary Taiwan: A Quiet Feminist Movement
|journal=Journal of Buddhist Ethics
|issue=V. 10 (2003)
|url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BE/jbe105259.htm
|access-date=2013-06-05
|archive-date=2016-03-04
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191208/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BE/jbe105259.htm
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

=== Tibet ===
The August 2007 [[International Congress on Buddhist Women's Role in the Sangha]], with the support of the [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|XIVth Dalai Lama]], reinstated the [[Gelongma]] ([[Dharmaguptaka]] [[vinaya]] bhikkhuni) lineage, having been lost, in India and Tibet, for centuries. Gelongma ordination requires the presence of ten fully ordained people keeping exactly the same vows. Because ten nuns are required to ordain a new one, the effort to establish the Dharmaguptaka bhikkhu tradition has taken a long time.

It is permissible for a Tibetan nun to receive bhikkhuni ordination from another living tradition, e.g., in [[Vietnam]]. Based on this, Western nuns ordained in Tibetan tradition, like [[Thubten Chodron]], took full ordination in another tradition.

The ordination of monks and nuns in Tibetan Buddhism distinguishes three stages: rabjung-ma, getshül-ma and gelong-ma. The clothes of the nuns in Tibet are basically the same as those of monks, but there are differences between novice and ''gelong'' robes.

===Japan===
[[Hokke-ji]] in 747 was established by the consort of the Emperor. It took charge of provincial convents, performed ceremonies for the protection of the state, and became the site of pilgrimages. Aristocratic Japanese women often became Buddhist nuns in the premodern period. Originally it was thought they could not gain salvation because of the [[Five Hindrances]], which said women could not attain Buddhahood until they changed into men. However, in 1249, 12 women received full ordination as priests.<ref>[[Lori Meeks]], '' Hokkeji and the Reemergence of Female Monastic Orders in Premodern Japan'' (2010)  [https://www.amazon.com/Hokkeji-Reemergence-Monastic-Premodern-Buddhism/dp/0824833945/ excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228082141/https://www.amazon.com/Hokkeji-Reemergence-Monastic-Premodern-Buddhism/dp/0824833945 |date=2017-02-28 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion}}
* [[Catholic religious order]]
* [[Consecrated virgin]]
* [[Deaconess]], Protestant religious women
* [[Miko]], a Japanese priestess
* [[Monasticism]]
* [[Monk]], the male monastic
* [[:Category:Nunsploitation films]]
* [[Priest]]
* [[Religious sister]]
* [[Sadhu|Sādhvī]], Hinduist religious women

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Arai |first=Paula Kane Robinson |title=Women Living Zen: Japanese Soto Buddhist Nuns |year=1999}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bechert |first1=Heinz |author1-link=Heinz Bechert |last2=Gombrich |first2=Richard Francis |author2-link=Richard Gombrich |title=The World of Buddhism: Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture |year=1991}}
* {{cite book |last=Lohuis |first=Elles |title=Glocal Place, Lived Space: Everyday Life in a Tibetan Buddhist Monastery for Nuns in Northern India |year=2013}}

; Catholics
* {{cite book |last = Chadwick |first = Owen |author-link = Owen Chadwick |title = The Popes and European Revolution |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XrLmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |year = 1981 |publisher = [[Clarendon Press]] |pages = 211–52 |isbn = 9780198269199}} also [https://www.questia.com/read/109970197/the-popes-and-european-revolution online]{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite journal |last=Curtis |first=Sarah A. |title=The Double Invisibility of Missionary Sisters |journal=[[Journal of Women's History]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |year=2016 |pages=134–143|doi=10.1353/jowh.2016.0037 |s2cid=151828886 }} Deals with French nuns in the 19th century.
* {{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Teresa |title=Women Religious in the Church: a directory of individual orders / institutes |location=Southport |publisher=Gowland |year=1991 |isbn=1-872480-14-4}} 
* {{cite book |last=McGuinness |first=Margaret M. |title=Called to Serve: A History of Nuns in America |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |year=2013}} 266 pages
* {{cite book |last=McNamara |first=Jo Ann Kay |title=Sisters in Arms: Catholic Nuns through Two Millennia |year=1998}} [https://www.amazon.com/Sisters-Arms-Catholic-through-Millennia/dp/0674809858/ Excerpt and text search]
* {{cite journal |last=O’Brien |first=Anne |title=Catholic nuns in transnational mission, 1528–2015 |journal=[[Journal of Global History]] |volume=11 |issue=3 |year=2016 |pages=387–408|doi=10.1017/S1740022816000206 }}
* {{cite book |last=Power |first=Eileen |author-link=Eileen Power |title=Medieval English Nunneries c. 1275 to 1535 |year=1922 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalenglishn00poweuoft |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Rebecca |title=Le Catholicisme au féminin: Thirty Years of Women's History |journal=[[Historical Reflections]] |year=2013 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=82–100}} On France, especially research on Catholic nuns by Claude Langlois
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Lillian Thomas |editor2-last=Nichols |editor2-first=John A. |title=Medieval Religious Women: Peaceweavers |year=1987}}
* {{cite journal |last=Veale |first=Ailish |title=International and Modern Ideals in Irish Female Medical Missionary Activity, 1937–1962 |journal=[[Women's History Review]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |year=2016 |pages=602–618|doi=10.1080/09612025.2015.1114330 |s2cid=148045770 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Maria Patricia |title=Mobilising Mother Cabrini's educational practice: the transnational context of the London school of the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 1898–1911 |journal=[[History of Education]] |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=2015 |pages=631–650|doi=10.1080/0046760X.2015.1063711 |s2cid=148067468 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Nuns}}
* [http://monasticmatrix.org/ Monastic Matrix: A Scholarly Resource for the Study of Women's Religious Communities 400–1600 C.E.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070608154837/http://monasticmatrix.org/ |date=2007-06-08 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090429131220/http://www.historyfish.net/anchorites/clay_anchorites.html Full text + illustrations, ''The Hermits and Anchorites of England'' by Rotha Mary Clay]
* [http://www.historyfish.net/monastics/nuns.html ''Nuns of Medieval England'', full text + illustrations]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090225053520/http://www.historyfish.net/monastics/gasquetorders.html ''Religious Orders including Female Religious'', full text + illustrations]
* [http://www.historyfish.net/shrines/british_shrines.html ''Medieval Shrines of British Saints, including sainted women religious'', full text + illustrations]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11164a.htm Nuns article] from ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]''
* [https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccscrlife/documents/rc_con_ccscrlife_doc_13051999_verbi-sponsa_en.html Instruction on the Contemplative Life and on the Enclosure of Nuns] ''Verbi Sponsa'' of the Vatican's Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and for Societies of Apostolic Life
* [http://www.many-lives.com/lives/buddhist-nun.html A Biography of a Vajrayana Buddhist Nun]
* [[Martin Luther]]'s [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/nuns.txt letter To Several Nuns, August 6, 1524] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091207220033/http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/nuns.txt |date=December 7, 2009 }} (two reasons life at the convent and vows may be forsaken)
* [http://www.sakyadhita.org/ Sakyadhita&nbsp;'''–''' The International Association of Buddhist Women]
* [http://www.sistersofcarmel.com/ The Carmelite Sisters]

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[[Category:Nuns| ]]
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