View source for Spectacled bear

{{Short description|Species of mammal}}
{{Speciesbox
 | name = Spectacled bear
 | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|0.1|0}}<small>Late [[Pleistocene]] – Recent</small>
 | image = Urso de óculos.jpg
 | status = VU
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
 | status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|author1= Velez-Liendo, X.|author2= García-Rangel, S.|year= 2017|page= e.T22066A123792952 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22066A45034047.en |title= ''Tremarctos ornatus'' |errata=2018 |access-date= 14 February 2020}}</ref>
 | status2 = CITES_A1 
 | status2_system = CITES 
 | status2_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org|archive-date=2017-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205014647/https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
 | genus = Tremarctos
 | species = ornatus
 | authority = ([[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1825)
 | synonyms = '''''Ursus ornatus''''' [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1825
 | range_map = Tremarctos ornatus distribution.svg
 | range_map_caption = Spectacled bear range
}}

The '''spectacled bear''' ('''''Tremarctos ornatus'''''), also known as the '''South American bear''', '''Andean bear''', '''Andean short-faced bear''' or '''mountain bear''' and locally as '''jukumari''' ([[Aymara language|Aymara]] and [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=epf1KrUl2XsC&pg=PA121|title=La vitalidad del quechua: lengua y sociedad en dos provincias de Cochabamba|last=Sichra|first=Inge|date=2003|publisher=Plural editores|isbn=978-99905-75-14-9|page=121|language=es}}</ref>), '''ukumari''' ([[Quechua language|Quechua]]) or '''ukuku''', is a species of [[bear]] native to the [[Andes]] Mountains in northern and western [[South America]]. It is the only living species of bear native to South America, and the last remaining [[tremarctinae|short-faced bear]] (subfamily [[Tremarctinae]]). Its closest relatives are the extinct ''[[Tremarctos floridanus]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Krause, J. |author2=Unger, T. |author3=Noçon, A. |author4=Malaspinas, A. |author5=Kolokotronis, S. |author6=Stiller, M. |author7=Soibelzon, L. |author8=Spriggs, H. |author9=Dear, P. H. |author10=Briggs, A. W. |author11=Bray, S. C. E. |author12=O'Brien, S. J. |author13=Rabeder, G. |author14=Matheus, P. |author15=Cooper, A. |author16=Slatkin, M. |author17=Pääbo, S. |author18=Hofreiter, M. | title = Mitochondrial genomes reveal an explosive radiation of extinct and extant bears near the Miocene-Pliocene boundary | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 8 | issue = 220 | page = 220  | year = 2008| doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-8-220 | pmid=18662376 | pmc=2518930 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008BMCEE...8..220K }}</ref> and the giant short-faced bears (''[[Arctodus]]'' and ''[[Arctotherium]]''), which became extinct at the end of the [[Pleistocene]] around 12,000 years ago.<ref>[http://www.grizzlybear.org/bearbook/spectacled_bear.htm Spectacled Bear] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029131646/http://www.grizzlybear.org/bearbook/spectacled_bear.htm |date=2007-10-29 }}. Grizzly Bear.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref><ref>[http://www.bearplanet.org/spectacledbear.shtml Spectacled Bears] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121180639/http://www.bearplanet.org/spectacledbear.shtml |date=2007-11-21 }}. Bear Planet. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref> Unlike other omnivorous bears, the diet of the spectacled bear is mostly herbivorous. The species is classified as [[vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] by the [[IUCN]] because of habitat loss.

==Description==
[[File:Tremarctos ornatus 25.jpg|thumb|left|At the [[Cincinnati Zoo]]]]
The spectacled bear is the only bear native to [[South America]] and is the largest land carnivore in that part of the world, although as little as 5% of its diet is composed of meat. Among South America's extant, native land animals, only the [[Baird's tapir]], [[South American tapir]] and [[mountain tapir]] are heavier than the bear.<ref name= Walker/>

The spectacled bear is a mid-sized species of bear. Overall, its fur is blackish in colour, though bears may vary from jet black to dark brown and to even a reddish hue. The species typically has distinctive beige or ginger-coloured markings across its face and upper chest, though not all spectacled bears have "spectacle" markings. The pattern and extent of pale markings are slightly different on each individual bear, and bears can be readily distinguished by this.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Roth H.H. | year = 1964 | title = Ein beitrag zur Kenntnis von ''Tremarctos ornatus'' (Cuvier) | journal = D. Zoolog. Garten | volume = 29 | pages = 107–129 }}</ref> Males are a third larger than females in dimensions and sometimes twice their weight.<ref name="Bearalmanac">{{cite book | author = Brown, Gary | title = Great Bear Almanac | year = 1996 | isbn = 1-55821-474-7 | page = [https://archive.org/details/greatbearalmanac00gary/page/340 340] | publisher = Lyons & Burford | url = https://archive.org/details/greatbearalmanac00gary/page/340 }}</ref> Males can weigh from {{convert|100|to|200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and females can weigh from {{convert|35|to|82|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1999/2/fact-spectacled.cfm Spectacled, or Andean, Bear – National Zoo| FONZ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509062947/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1999/2/fact-spectacled.cfm |date=2008-05-09 }}. Nationalzoo.si.edu. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref> Head-and-body length can range from {{convert|120|to|200|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}}, though mature males do not measure less than {{convert|150|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>Macdonald, D. (2001). ''The New Encyclopedia of Mammals.'' Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.</ref><ref name=IUCN>Servheen, C., Herrero, S. and Peyton, B. (1999). [http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/1999-004.pdf ''Bears: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007040507/http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/1999-004.pdf |date=2012-10-07 }}. IUCN/SSC Bear and Polar Bear Specialist Groups, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.</ref> On average males weigh about {{convert|115|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and females average about {{convert|65|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, thus it rivals the polar bear for the most sexually dimorphic modern bear.<ref>Soibelzon, L. H., & Tarantini, V. B. (2009). ''Estimación de la masa corporal de las especies de osos fósiles y actuales (Ursidae, Tremarctinae) de América del Sur''. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, 11(2), 243-254.</ref><ref>Bruijnzeel, L. A., Scatena, F. N., & Hamilton, L. S. (Eds.). (2011). ''Tropical montane cloud forests: science for conservation and management''. Cambridge University Press.</ref> A male in captivity that was considered obese weighed {{convert|222.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>Lisi, K. J., Barnes, T. L., & Edwards, M. S. (2013). ''Bear weight management: a diet reduction plan for an obese spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus)''. Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research, 1(2), 81.</ref> The tail is a mere {{convert|7|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length, and the shoulder height is from {{convert|60|to|90|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}}. Compared to other living bears, this species has a more rounded face with a relatively short and broad snout. In some extinct species of the Tremarctinae subfamily, this facial structure has been thought to be an adaptation to a largely carnivorous diet, despite the modern spectacled bears' herbivorous dietary preferences.<ref name=Arkive>[http://www.arkive.org/spectacled-bear/tremarctos-ornatus/ Spectacled bear videos, photos and facts – Tremarctos ornatus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219162124/http://www.arkive.org/spectacled-bear/tremarctos-ornatus/ |date=2011-02-19 }}. ARKive. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref><ref>[http://www.brazilianfauna.com/spectacledbear.php Spectacled Bear] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307133723/http://www.brazilianfauna.com/spectacledbear.php |date=2016-03-07 }}. Brazilianfauna.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Burton, Maurice|author2=Burton, Robert |title=The international wildlife encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9TsB3id66cC&pg=PA2470 |access-date=26 September 2011 |year=1970 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-7266-7 |pages=2470–}}</ref>

The spectacled bear's sense of smell is extremely sensitive. They can perceive from the ground when a tree is loaded with ripe fruit. On the other hand, their hearing is moderate and their vision is short.<ref>Castellanos, A., Altamirano, M., Tapia, G. (2005). Ecología y comportamiento de osos andinos reintroducidos en la Reserva Biológica Maquipucuna, Ecuador: implicaciones en la conservación. Politécnica, 26 (1) Biología 6: pp-pp, 2005. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Armando_Castellanos/publication/237011243_Ecologia_y_Comportamiento_de_Osos_Andinos_Reintroducidos_en_la_Reserva_Biologica_Maquipucuna_Ecuador_Implicaciones_en_Conservacion/links/0c96051ae54b8ef3f0000000/Ecologia-y-Comportamiento-de-Osos-Andinos-Reintroducidos-en-la-Reserva-Biologica-Maquipucuna-Ecuador-Implicaciones-en-Conservacion.pdf</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
Despite some rare spilling-over into eastern [[Panama]],<ref name=EoM>{{cite book|editor= Macdonald, D.|author= Bunnell, Fred|year= 1984|title= The Encyclopedia of Mammals|publisher= Facts on File|location= New York|isbn= 0-87196-871-1|page= [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/96 96]|url= https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/96}}</ref> spectacled bears are mostly restricted to certain areas of northern and western South America. They can range in western [[Venezuela]],<ref>{{cite web| title = Spectacled bear, Andean bear, ucumari| work = BBC – Science & Nature – Wildfacts| publisher = BBC| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/11.shtml| access-date = 2008-05-30| archive-url = https://archive.today/20120721012353/www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/11.shtml| archive-date = 2012-07-21}}</ref> [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], western [[Bolivia]], and northwestern [[Argentina]]. Its elongated geographical distribution is only {{convert|200|to|650|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide but with a length of more than {{convert|4600|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Kattan|first1=Gustavo|last2=Hernández|first2=Olga Lucía|last3=Goldstein|first3=Isaac|last4=Rojas|first4=Vladimir|last5=Murillo|first5=Oscar|last6=Gómez|first6=Carolina|last7=Restrepo|first7=Héctor|last8=Cuesta|first8=Francisco|date=2004|title=Range fragmentation in the spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus in the northern Andes|journal=Oryx|language=en|volume=38|issue=2|pages=155–163|doi=10.1017/S0030605304000298|issn=0030-6053|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The species is found almost entirely in the [[Andes Mountains]]. Before spectacled bear populations became fragmented during the last 500 years, the species had a reputation for being adaptable, as it is found in a wide variety of habitats and altitudes throughout its range, including [[cloud forest]]s, [[Montane grasslands and shrublands|high-altitude grasslands]], [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|dry forests]] and [[Shrubland|scrub deserts]]. A single spectacled bear population on the border of [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]] inhabited as great a range of habitat types as the world's [[brown bear]]s (''Ursus arctos'') now occupy.<ref name="IUCN" /> The best habitats for spectacled bears are humid to very humid montane forests. These cloud forests typically occupy a {{convert|500|to|1000|m|ft|abbr=on}} elevational band between {{convert|1000|and|2700|m|ft|abbr=on}} depending on latitude. Generally, the wetter these forests are the more food species there are that can support bears.<ref name="IUCN" /><ref>{{cite journal|author=Peyton, B.|year=1987|title=Habitat components of the spectacled bear|journal=Ursus |issue=International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage |volume= 7|pages=127–133}}</ref> Occasionally, they may reach altitudes as low as {{convert|250|m|ft|abbr=on}}, but are not typically found below {{convert|1900|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the [[foothill]]s. They can even range up to the [[Snow line|mountain snow line]] at over {{convert|5000|m|ft|abbr=on}} in elevation.<ref name="Walker">Nowak, R.M. (1991). ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, {{ISBN|0801857899}}.</ref><ref name="IUCN" /><ref>Brown, A.D. and Rumiz, D.I. (1989). "Habitat and distribution of the spectacled bear (''Tremarctos ornatus'') in the southern limit of its range", pp. 93–103. in: M. Rosenthal (ed.) ''Proc. First Int. Symp. Spectacled Bear.'' Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens, Chicago Park District Press, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.</ref> Therefore, it is well known that bears use all these types of habitats in regional movements; however, the seasonal patterns of these movements are still unknown.<ref name=":0" />

Nowadays, the distribution area of the ''Tremarctos ornatus'' is influenced by the human presence, mainly due to habitat destruction and degradation, hunting and fragmentation of populations. This fragmentation is mainly found in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Argentina. It represents several problems to this population because, first, their persistence is compromised if they are small, isolated populations, even without facing habitat lost or hunting. Second, the transformation of the landscape represents loss of availability of the type of habitats spectacled bears need. Third, fragmentation exposes bears to hunting and killing due to its accessibility.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Photo Two bears with glasses 1962 - Touring Club Italiano 2 5127.jpg|alt=Two spectacled bears|thumb|Two spectacled bears in 1962 - Touring Club Italiano]]

==Naming and etymology==
''Tremarctos ornatus'' is commonly referred to in English as the "spectacled bear", a reference to the light colouring on its chest, neck and face, which may resemble [[glasses|spectacles]] in some individuals, or the "Andean bear" for its distribution along the Andes. The root ''trem''- comes from a Greek word meaning "hole"; ''arctos'' is the Greek word for "bear".  ''Tremarctos'' is a reference to an unusual hole on the animal's [[humerus]]. {{Lang|la|Ornatus}}, Latin for "decorated", is a reference to the markings that give the bear its common English name.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tremarctos rnatus|url=http://www.sendaverde.org/tremarctos-ornatus/|access-date=17 June 2020|archive-date=18 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618200532/http://www.sendaverde.org/tremarctos-ornatus/}}</ref>

==Phylogeny== 
A 2007 investigation into the mitochondrial DNA of bear species indicates that the subfamily Tremarctinae, which includes the extant spectacled bear, diverged from the Ursinae subfamily approximately 5.7 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krause |first1=Unger |title=Mitochondrial genomes reveal an explosive radiation of extinct and extant bears near the Miocene-Pliocene boundary |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |year=2008 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=220 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-8-220 |pmid=18662376 |pmc=2518930 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008BMCEE...8..220K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Li |title=Analysis of complete mitochondrial genome sequences increases phylogenetic resolution of bears (Ursidae), a mammalian family that experienced rapid speciation |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |year=2007 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=198 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-198 |pmid=17956639 |pmc=2151078 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2007BMCEE...7..198Y }}</ref> Tremarctinae includes the extinct American giant short-faced and Florida short-faced bears.

==Behaviour and diet==
{{multiple image
| align             = left
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = Description iconographique comparée du squelette et du système dentaire des mammifères récents et fossiles (Tremarctos ornatus skull).jpg
| caption1          = Skull
| alt1              = Skull of a spectacled bear
| image2            = Description iconographique comparée du squelette et du système dentaire des mammifères récents et fossiles (Tremarctos ornatus).jpg
| caption2          = Skeleton
| alt2              = Skeleton of a spectacled bear
}}

Spectacled bears are one of four extant bear species that are habitually [[Arboreal locomotion|arboreal]], alongside the [[American black bear]] (''Ursus americanus'') and [[Asian black bear]] (''U. thibetanus''), and the [[sun bear]] (''Helarctos malayanus''). In Andean cloud forests, spectacled bears may be active both during the day and night, but 
specimens in the Peruvian desert are reported to bed down under vegetative cover during the day. Their continued survival alongside humans has depended mostly on their ability to climb even the tallest trees of the [[Andes]]. They usually retreat from the presence of humans, often by climbing trees.<ref name = "Union-Tribune">{{cite web | last = LaFee | first = Scott | title = Hanging on, bearly: South America's only bear species struggles to avoid extinction | work = [[The San Diego Union-Tribune]] | date = 2009-09-07 | url = http://www3.signonsandiego.com/stories/2009/sep/07/wild907/?science&zIndex=161647 | access-date = 2009-09-09 | archive-date = 2009-11-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091107163341/http://www3.signonsandiego.com/stories/2009/sep/07/wild907/?science&zIndex=161647  }}</ref> Once up a tree, they may often build a platform, perhaps to aid in concealment, as well as to rest and store food on.<ref name = "Union-Tribune"/> Although spectacled bears are solitary and tend to isolate themselves from one another to avoid competition, they are not territorial. They have even been recorded to feed in small groups at abundant food sources.<ref name=EoM/> Males are reported to have an average home range of {{convert|23|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} during the wet season and {{convert|27|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} during the dry season. Females are reported to have an average home range of {{convert|10|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in the [[wet season]] and {{convert|7|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in the [[dry season]].<ref>Hunter, Luke (2011) ''Carnivores of the World''. Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|9780691152288}}</ref>

When encountered by humans or other spectacled bears, they will react in a docile but cautious manner, unless the intruder is seen as a threat or a mother's cubs are endangered. Like other bears, mothers are protective of their young and have attacked poachers. There is only a single reported human death due to a spectacled bear, which occurred while it was being hunted and was already shot. The only predators of cubs include [[South American cougar|cougar]]s (''Puma concolor'') and possibly male spectacled bears. The bears "appear to avoid" [[jaguar]]s, but the jaguar has considerably different habitat preferences, does not overlap with the spectacled bear in altitude on any specific mountain slope, and only overlaps slightly (900m) in altitude if the entire [[Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)|Cordillera Oriental]] is considered based upon unpublished data.<ref name=IUCN/> Generally, the only threat against adult bears is humans.<ref>[http://www.rosamondgiffordzoo.org/assets/uploads/animals/pdf/SpectacledBear.pdf Spectacled Bear] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324150421/http://www.rosamondgiffordzoo.org/assets/uploads/animals/pdf/SpectacledBear.pdf |date=2012-03-24 }}. rosamondgiffordzoo.org</ref> The longest-lived captive bear, at the Salisbury Zoological Park (United States)|Salisbury Zoo, In Salisbury Maryland, in the US, attained a lifespan of 37 years and 11 months.<ref>https://mdcoastdispatch.com/2011/11/10/zoos-beloved-bear-euthanized/</ref>Lifespan in the wild has not been studied, but bears are believed to commonly live to 20 years or more unless they run foul of humans.<ref name=Walker/>

Spectacled bears are more herbivorous than most other bears; normally about 5 to 7% of their diets is meat.<ref name=Walker/> The most common foods for these bears include [[cactus]], [[bromeliad]]s (especially [[Puya (genus)|''Puya'' ssp.]], ''[[Tillandsia]]'' ssp. and ''[[Guzmania]]'' ssp.) [[Arecaceae|palm nuts]], [[bamboo]] hearts, [[Espeletia|frailejon]] (''Espeletia'' spp.), [[orchid]] bulbs, fallen [[fruit]] on the forest floor, unopened [[Arecaceae|palm]] leaves, and [[moss]].<ref name= Peyton>{{cite journal|author=Peyton, B. |year=1980|title= Ecology, distribution, and food habits of spectacled bears, ''Tremarctos ornatus'', in Peru|journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume= 61|issue=4|pages=639–652|jstor=1380309|doi=10.2307/1380309}}</ref><ref name= Jorgenson>Jorgenson, J.P., and Rodriguez, J.S. (1986). ''Proyecto del oso frontino en Colombia.'' Spectacled Bear Specialist Group Newsletter 10:22–25.</ref><ref name= Goldstein>Goldstein, I. (1989). "Spectacled bear distribution and diet in the Venezuelan Andes", pp. 2–16. in: Rosenthal, M., (Ed.) ''Proc. First Int. Symp. Spectacled Bear''. Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens, Chicago Park District Press, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Tremarctos_ornatus/ | title=Tremarctos ornatus (Spectacled bear) | website=[[Animal Diversity Web]] | access-date=2022-09-04 | archive-date=2022-09-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904024347/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Tremarctos_ornatus/ | url-status=live }}</ref> They will also peel back tree bark to eat the nutritious second layer.<ref>Figueroa, J. and Stucchi, M. (2009). ''El Oso Andino: Alcances Sobre su Historia Natural''. Asociación para la Investigación y Conservación de la Biodiversidad-AICB, Lima, Peru.</ref> Much of this vegetation is very tough to open or digest for most animals, and the bear is one of the few species in its range to exploit these food sources. The spectacled bear has the largest [[Masseter muscle|zygomatic mandibular muscles]] relative to its body size and the shortest muzzle of any living bear, slightly surpassing the relative size of the [[giant panda]]'s (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') morphology here.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Davis, D.D. |year=1955|title= Masticatory apparatus in the spectacled bear (''Tremarctos ornatus'')|journal=Fieldiana Zoology|volume= 37|pages=25–46|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.2809|url=https://archive.org/details/masticatoryappar372davi|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Mondolfi E | year = 1971 | title = El oso frontino | journal = Defensa de la Naturaleza | volume = 1 | pages = 31–35 }}</ref> Not coincidentally, both species are known for extensively consuming tough, fibrous plants. Unlike the ursid bears whose fourth premolar has a more well-developed protoconid, an adaptation for shearing flesh,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kurtén, B. |year=1966|title= Pleistocene bears of North America: Genus ''Tremarctos'', spectacled bears|journal=Acta Zoologica Fennica |volume=115|pages=1–96}}</ref> the fourth premolar of spectacled bears has blunt lophs with three pulp cavities instead of two, and can have three roots instead of the two that characterize ursid bears. The musculature and tooth characteristics are designed to support the stresses of grinding and crushing vegetation. Besides the giant panda, the spectacled bear is perhaps the most herbivorous living bear species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thenius |first1=E. |year=1976 |title=Zur stammesgeschichtlichen Herkunft von ''Tremarctos'' (Ursidae, Mammalia) |journal=Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde |volume=41 |pages=109–114 }}</ref> These bears also eat agricultural products, such as [[sugarcane]] (''Saccharum'' ssp.), [[honey]] (made by ''Apis'' ssp.), and [[maize]] (''Zea mays''), and have been known to travel above the [[tree line]] for [[berries]] and more ground-based [[bromeliad]]s.<ref name="Suárez">{{cite journal|author=Suárez, L. |year=1989|title= Seasonal distribution and food habits of the spectacled bear (''Tremarctos ornatus'') in the highlands of Ecuador|journal=Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment |volume= 23|issue=3|pages=133–136|doi=10.1080/01650528809360755}}</ref> When food is abundant, such as large corn fields, up to nine individual bears have fed close by each other in a single vicinity.

Animal prey is usually quite small, but these bears can prey on adult [[deer]], [[llama]] (''Lama glama'') and domestic [[cattle]] (''Bos taurus'') and [[horse]]s (''Equus caballus'').<ref name=EoM/><ref name= Goldstein/><ref>[http://wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org/s/0MCarnivor/ursidae/tremarctos/Tremarctos_ornatus/08tremarctos_ornatusnatdiets.html Spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus – Natural Diet (Literature Reports)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723235349/http://wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org/s/0MCarnivor/ursidae/tremarctos/Tremarctos_ornatus/08tremarctos_ornatusnatdiets.html |date=2011-07-23 }}. Wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref> A spectacled bear was captured on a remote video-monitor predaceously attacking an adult [[mountain tapir]] perhaps nearly twice its own body mass, and adult horse and cattle killed by spectacled bears have been even heavier.<ref>Rodriguez, A., Gomez, R., Moreno, A., Cuellar, C., & Lizcano, D. J. (2014). ''Record of a mountain tapir attacked by an Andean bear on a camera trap''. Tapir Conservation, 23, 24-25.</ref> Animal prey has included [[rabbit]]s, [[mice]], other [[rodent]]s, [[bird]]s at the nest (especially ground-nesting birds like [[tinamou]]s or [[lapwing]]s (''Vanellus'' ssp.), [[arthropod]]s, and [[carrion]].<ref name= Peyton/><ref name= Jorgenson/><ref>[http://www.bearsoftheworld.net/spectacled_bears.asp Spectacled Bears] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307121230/http://www.bearsoftheworld.net/spectacled_bears.asp |date=2011-03-07 }}. Bears Of The World. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref> They are occasionally accused of killing livestock, especially [[cattle]], and raiding corn fields.<ref name=IUCN/><ref name = "Union-Tribune"/> Allegedly, some bears become habituated to eating cattle, but the bears are actually more likely to eat cattle as carrion and some farmers may accidentally assume the spectacled bear killed them. Due to fear of loss of stock, bears may be killed on sight.<ref>[http://www.spectacledbearconservation.com/our_project.html Peru: Who We Are] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312010751/http://www.spectacledbearconservation.com/our_project.html |date=2011-03-12 }}. Spectacled Bear Conservation. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref><ref>[http://www.carnivoraforum.com/index.cgi?board=ursidae&action=display&thread=1799 CARNIVORA – Spectacled Bear – Tremarctos ornatus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120102037/http://carnivoraforum.com/index.cgi?board=ursidae&action=display&thread=1799 |date=2010-11-20 }}. Carnivoraforum.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.</ref>

==Reproduction==
[[File:OursChaparriF (12).jpg|thumb|''Tremarctos ornatus'' in the Chaparri Reserve in Chiclayo, Lambayeque, Peru]]
Most of the information available about the reproduction of this species has been through observation of captive animals.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=García-Rangel|first=Shaenandhoa|date=2012|title=Andean bear Tremarctos ornatus natural history and conservation: Andean bear natural history and conservation|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2907.2011.00207.x|journal=Mammal Review|language=en|volume=42|issue=2|pages=85–119|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2907.2011.00207.x}}</ref> In captivity, mating is concentrated in between February and September, according to the latitude,<ref name=":1" /> and, in the wild, it has been seen how mating may occur at almost any time of the year, but activity normally peaks in April and June, at the beginning of the wet season and corresponding with the peak of fruit-ripening. The mating pair are together for one to two weeks, during which they will copulate multiple times for 12–45 minutes at a time. The courtship is based on games and non-aggressive fights while intercourse can be accompanied by loud sounds from both animals.<ref name=":1" />

In the wild, births usually occur in the dry season, between December and February but in captivity it occurs all year within the species' distribution.<ref name=":1" /> The gestation period is 5.5 to 8.5 months.<ref name="Walker" /><ref name="IUCN" /><ref name="Rosenthal">Rosenthal, M.A. (1987). "Biological management of spectacled bears (''Tremarctos ornatus'') in captivity", pp. 93–103. in: Weinhardt, D., (ed.) ''International studybook for the spectacled bear, 1986''. Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens, Chicago Park District Press, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.</ref> From one to three cubs may be born, with four being rare and two being the average. The cubs are born with their eyes closed and weigh about {{convert|300|to|330|g|oz|abbr=on}} each.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bloxam, Q.|year=1977|title= Breeding the Spectacled bear ''Tremarctos ornatus'' at Jersey Zoo|journal= International Zoo Yearbook |volume=17|pages=158–161|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1977.tb00894.x}}</ref> Although this species does not give birth during the hibernation cycle as do northern bear species, births usually occur in a small den and the female waits until the cubs can see and walk before she leaves with them, this occurs in between three and four months after birth.<ref name=":1" />

Females grow more slowly than males.<ref name=":1" />  The size of the litter has been positively correlated with both the weight of the female and the abundance and variety of food sources, particularly the degree to which fruiting is temporally predictable.<ref name="IUCN" /> The cubs often stay with the female for one year before striking out on their own.<ref name="Walker" /><ref name="IUCN" /><ref name="EoM" /> This is related to the time mothers breastfeed (1 year), but keep providing maternal care for an additional year.<ref name=":1" />  Breeding maturity is estimated to be reached at between four and seven years of age for both sexes, based solely on captive bears.<ref name="Rosenthal" /> Females usually give birth for the first time when they are 5 years old and their fecundity is shorter than that of the males, who keep fertility almost all their lives.<ref name=":1" /> Something that is in favor of the subsistence of the bear population is their longevity, since they are able to raise at least two cubs to adulthood, contributing to population replacement.<ref name=":0" /> Wild bears can live for an average of 20 years.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fenner |first=Kesley |title=Tremarctos ornatus (spectacled bear) |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Tremarctos_ornatus/ |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Animal Diversity Web |language=en |archive-date=2022-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129072740/http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Tremarctos_ornatus/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Conservation==

===Threats===
[[File:Spectacled Bear Tennoji 2.jpg|thumb|Spectacled bear at [[Tennoji Zoo]] in [[Osaka]], Japan]]
The Andean bear is threatened due to [[poaching]] and habitat loss, attributable to agricultural expansion and [[illegal mining]].<ref name=Figel2024>{{cite journal |author=Figel, J. J. |author2=Botero-Cañola, S. |author3=Romero-López, J. M. |author4=Sánchez-Londoño, J. D. |name-list-style=amp |year=2024 |doi=10.2192/URSUS-D-23-00021.1 |journal=Ursus |volume=35|issue=e8|pages=1–8 |title=Spectacled bears surrounded by gold mines in the Serranía de San Lucas, Colombia}}</ref> Poaching might have several reasons: [[trophy hunting]], [[Wildlife trade|pet trade]], religious or magical beliefs, [[natural products]] trade and conflicts with humans.<ref name="poaching">{{Cite journal |author1=Sánchez-Mercado, A. |author2=Ferrer-Paris, J. R. |author3=Yerena, E. |author4=García-Rangel, S. |author5=Rodríguez-Clark, K. M. | title = Factors affecting poaching risk to Vulnerable Andean bears Tremarctos ornatus in the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela: space, parks and people | journal = Oryx | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 437–447  | year = 2008| doi = 10.1017/S0030605308006996| doi-access = free }}</ref>

Trophy hunting of Andean bear was apparently popular during the 19th century in some rural areas of Latin-America. In the [[Costumbrism|costumbrist novel]] ''[[María (novel)|María]]'' by Colombian writer [[Jorge Isaacs]], it was portrayed as an activity for privileged young men in Colombia. Tales regarding [[pet]] bears are also known from documents about the Ecuadorian [[aristocracy]] of that time.<ref name="Memoirs">{{cite book | author = Boussingault, Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonné | title = Memoirs | year = 2005 | url = http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/historia/memov1/memov13a.htm | page = Capítulo XII El Salto de Tequendama – Historia de Manuelita Sáenz | access-date = 2016-04-12 | archive-date = 2016-03-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160322133419/http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/historia/memov1/memov13a.htm  }}</ref> These threats might have diminished in recent years, but there are still isolated reports of captive bears confiscated in rural areas, which usually are unable to adapt again to their natural habitat and must be kept in zoological facilities.<ref name="captivitymanagement">{{Cite journal |author1=Rodríguez-Clark, K. M. |author2=Sánchez-Mercado, A. | title = Population management of threatened taxa in captivity within their natural ranges: Lessons from Andean bears (Tremarctos ornatus) in Venezuela | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 129 | issue = 1 | pages = 134–148  | year = 2006| doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.10.037|bibcode=2006BCons.129..134R }}</ref>

Religious or magical beliefs might be motivations for killing Andean bears, especially in places where bears are related to myths of disappearing women or children, or where bear parts are related to traditional medicine or superstitions. In this context, the trade of bear parts might have commercial value. Their [[gall bladder]]s appear to be valued in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] and can fetch a high price on the international market. Conflicts with humans, however, appear to be the most common cause of poaching in large portions of its distribution.<ref name="poaching"/> Andean Bears are often suspected of attacking cattle and raiding crops, and are killed for retaliation or in order to avoid further damages. It has been argued that attacks to cattle attributed to Andean bear are partly due to other predators. Raiding of crops can be frequent in areas with diminishing natural resources and extensive crops in former bear habitat, or when problematic individuals get used to human environments.

The intensity of poaching can create ecological traps for Andean bears. That is, if bears are attracted to areas of high habitat quality that are also high in poaching risk.<ref name="ecotraps">{{Cite journal |author1=Sánchez-Mercado, A. |author2=Ferrer-Paris, J. R. |author3=García-Rangel, S. |author4=Yerena, E. |author5=Robertson, B. A. |author6=Rodríguez-Clark, K. M. | title = Combining threat and occurrence models to predict potential ecological traps for Andean bears in the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela | journal = Animal Conservation | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 388–398| year = 2014| doi = 10.1111/acv.12106|bibcode=2014AnCon..17..388S | s2cid = 83556460 }}</ref>

Perhaps the most epidemic problem for the species is extensive logging and farming, which has led to [[habitat loss]] for the largely tree-dependent bears. Shortage of natural food sources might push bears to feed on crops or livestock, increasing the conflict that usually results in poaching of individuals. Impacts of climate changes on bear habitat and food sources are not fully understood, but might have potential negative impact in the near future.

As stated, one of the major limitations to the viability of bear populations is human-caused mortality, mainly poaching and habitat loss; but the other big limitation is population size. Therefore, the most effective actions for their viability will be to increase population size and decrease poaching. For these actions to be effective, it is needed to understand where they are carried out, identifying areas where habitat protection and landscape management are realistically capable of maintaining large bear populations.<ref name=":0" />

==== Perception of the Andean bear ====
There are two views of the Andean Bears. One is ex-situ, people that live far from where the bears inhabit; for them, the spectacled bears are usually charismatic symbols of the wilderness, animals that are not aggressive and that are mainly vegetarians.  The other view is in-situ, people that live in areas where the bears inhabit; for them, bears are cattle predators, pests that should be killed as a preventative measure and where any cattle loss is immediately attributed to them, becoming persecuted and hunted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=Isaac|last2=Paisley|first2=Susanna|last3=Wallace|first3=Robert|last4=Jorgenson|first4=Jeffrey P.|last5=Cuesta|first5=Francisco|last6=Castellanos|first6=Armando|date=2006|title=Andean bear–livestock conflicts: a review|journal=Ursus|volume=17|issue=1|pages=8–15|doi=10.2192/1537-6176(2006)17[8:abcar]2.0.co;2|s2cid=55185188 |issn=1537-6176}}</ref>

=== Conservation actions and plans ===
The [[IUCN]] has recommended the following courses for spectacled bear conservation: expansion and implementation of conservation land to prevent further development, greater species level research and monitoring of trends and threats, more concerted management of current conservation areas, stewardship programs for bears which engage local residents and the education of the public regarding spectacled bears, especially the benefits of conserving the species due to its effect on natural resources.<ref name=IUCN/>

National governments, NGOs and rural communities have made different commitments to conservation of this species along its distribution. Conservation actions in [[Venezuela]] date back to the early 1990s, and have been based mostly on environmental education at several levels and the establishment of protected areas. The effort of several organisations has led to a widespread recognition of the Andean bear in Venezuelan society, raising it as an emblematic species of conservation efforts in the country, and to the establishment of a 10-year action plan.<ref name="PlanAccion">{{cite book |author1=Edgard Yerena |author2=Dorixa Monsalve Dam |author3=Denis Alexander Torres |author4=Ada Sánchez |author5=Shaenandhoa García-Rangel |author6=Andrés Eloy Bracho |author7=Zoila Martínez |author8=Isis Gómez | title = Plan de Acción para la Conservación del Oso Andino (Tremarctos ornatus) en Venezuela (2006-2016) | year = 2007 | page = 60pp| publisher = Fundación AndígenA, FUDENA, Universidad Simón Bolívar}}</ref> Evidence regarding the objective effectiveness of these programs (like reducing poaching risk, maintaining population viability, and reducing extinction risk) is subject to debate and needs to be further evaluated.<ref name="CBEprotegidas">{{Cite journal |author=D. Monsalve-Dam |author2=A Sánchez-Mercado |author3=E. Yerena |author4=S. García-Rangel |author5=D. Torres | title = Efectividad de las áreas protegidas para la conservación del oso andino (Tremarctos ornatus) en los Andes Suramericanos | journal = Ciencia y Conservación de Especies Amenazadas en Venezuela: Conservación Basada en Evidencias e Intervenciones Estratégicas | pages = 127–136  | year = 2010 | publisher=Provita}}</ref><ref name="CBEeducacion">{{Cite journal |author=A. Sánchez-Mercado |author2=E. Yerena |author3=D. Monsalve |author4=S. García-Rangel |author5=D. Torres | title = Efectividad de las iniciativas de educación ambiental para la conservación del oso andino (Tremarctos ornatus) en la cordillera andina | journal = Ciencia y Conservación de Especies Amenazadas en Venezuela: Conservación Basada en Evidencias e Intervenciones Estratégicas | pages = 137–146  | year = 2010 | publisher=Provita}}</ref>

Legislation against bear hunting exists, but is rarely enforced.<ref name="poaching"/><ref>[http://www.thepetwiki.com/wiki/Endangered_Bears "Endangered Bears"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411133235/http://thepetwiki.com/wiki/Endangered_Bears |date=2015-04-11 }}, The Pet Wiki.</ref> This leads to persistence of the poaching problem, even inside protected areas.<ref name="ecotraps"/>

In 2006, the [[Spectacled Bear Conservation Society]] was established in Peru to study and protect the spectacled bear.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sbc-peru.org/ |title=Spectacled Bear Conservation Society - Peru |publisher=[[Spectacled Bear Conservation Society]] |access-date=2015-10-10 |archive-date=2020-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812085218/http://sbc-peru.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Spectacled bear and protected areas ====
To evaluate the protected status of the Andean bears researchers evaluated the percentage of their habitats included in national and protected areas in 1998.  This evaluation showed that only 18.5% of the bear range was located in 58 protected areas, highlighting that many of them were small, especially those in the northern Andes. The largest park had an area of {{convert|2050|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} while the median size of 43 parks from Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador was {{convert|1250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, which may result too small to maintain a sustainable bear population.  Therefore, these researchers stated the importance of the creation of habitat blocks outside protected areas since they might provide opportunities for the protection of these animals.<ref name=":0" />

==== Other suggested conservation strategies ====
[[File:Spectacled Bear - Houston Zoo.jpg|thumb|Spectacled bear at the [[Houston Zoo]] in Texas, USA]]
Researchers suggest the following spectacled bear conservation strategies:<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Peralvo|first1=Manuel F.|last2=Cuesta|first2=Francisco|last3=van Manen|first3=Frank|date=2005|title=Delineating priority habitat areas for the conservation of Andean bears in northern Ecuador|journal=Ursus|volume=16|issue=2|pages=222–233|doi=10.2192/1537-6176(2005)016[0222:dphaft]2.0.co;2|s2cid=86289594 |issn=1537-6176}}</ref>

* Protect high-quality habitats while maintaining connectivity between their different elevational zones. In reality, it is not possible to manage all the undisturbed habitat the bears need in the long term. As such, it is important to identify those high-quality habitats that maximize biodiversity gain.
* Alleviate human-bear conflicts through conflict management, thinking about the spatial configuration of this animal habitat.
* Mitigate human impacts on protected areas through the design of comprehensive management strategies.
* Sustain landscape diversity in the bear conservation study areas to ensure them food and seasonal access to resources in all the habitats they frequent.
* Maintain bear population connectivity, emphasizing those conservation areas that connect different ecosystems, such as the cloud forest and the paramo.
* Rethink roads: where they are built, how and with what purpose, understanding that they define the macro configuration of bear habitat and are a barrier for bear movements and population connectivity.
* Integrate hydrological criteria at a landscape scale will benefit bears and other biotic communities that associate with aquatic environments, including humans. Linking bear habitat conservation and water management can be effective for the development of conservation strategies that benefit all.
*In places where it is almost impossible to establish new protected areas due mainly to the fact that many people already live in the area, the creation of natural corridors is possibly the best tool for the conservation of species with migratory patterns such as the endangered Andean bear.

=== Spectacled bear in Ecuador ===
Spectacled bears in Ecuador live in approximately {{convert|50000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of paramo and cloud forest habitats. About one-third of this area is part of the National System of Protected Areas and the remaining 67% is located on unprotected, undeveloped areas that have suffered a substantial reduction of approximately 40% from its original distribution.<ref name=":2" />

Due to this land-use conversion to agricultural uses, important amounts of the spectacled bear habitat have been lost. This has fragmented their territory and isolated populations to small areas that might result in extirpations in the long term. Therefore, the distribution of the species in the country is set in numerous habitat patches, from which many are small.<ref name=":2" />

==In popular culture==
*The children's character [[Paddington Bear]] is a spectacled bear from Peru.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Alice Vincent|title=Paddington Bear: 13 things you didn't know|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/film-news/10777912/Paddington-Bear-13-things-you-didnt-know.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/film-news/10777912/Paddington-Bear-13-things-you-didnt-know.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|website=www.telegraph.co.uk|publisher=The Telegraph|access-date=8 January 2018|date=10 Jun 2014|quote=It's surprising that the earnest little chap wasn't given glasses. Bond wanted to Paddington to have 'travelled all the way from darkest Africa', but wrescing as advised by his agent to change his country of origin due to the lack of bears in Africa. Instead, he picked Peru - home to the Spectacled Bear.}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* [[Stephen Fry]] authored a book, ''Rescuing the Spectacled Bear: A Peruvian Diary'', following two BBC programmes documenting him visiting Peru to participate in rescuing a couple of spectacled bears.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fry|first=Stephen|year=2002|title=Rescuing the Spectacled Bear: A Peruvian Diary|publisher=Hutchinson|isbn=978-0-8129-6819-4|url=}}</ref>

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Biology|Animals|Mammals|Latin America|Andes}}
{{Commons and category|Tremarctos ornatus|Tremarctos ornatus}}
{{Wikispecies|Tremarctos ornatus}}
* [http://www.sbc-peru.org Spectacled Bear Conservation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130902161427/http://cordilleratropical.org/en/activities/bear/bear.html Don Oso Program by Fundación Cordillera Tropical]
*[https://www.bearbiology.org/ International Association for Bear Research and Management]
*[http://osoandino.org/ Fundación Oso Andino] 
*[http://areasprotegidas.ambiente.gob.ec/en/info-snap National System of Protected Areas in Ecuador] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130172909/http://areasprotegidas.ambiente.gob.ec/en/info-snap |date=2020-11-30 }} 
*[https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/tropical-andes Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund]

{{Carnivora|Ca.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q137641}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tremarctinae]]
[[Category:Carnivorans of South America|Bear, spectacled]]
[[Category:Extant Late Pleistocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1825]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier]]
[[Category:Mammals of the Andes|Bear, spectacled]]
[[Category:Pleistocene bears]]
[[Category:Vulnerable biota of South America]]
[[Category:Species that are or were threatened by habitat loss]]