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{{Short description|Subfield of machine learning}}
{{Machine learning bar}}'''Error-driven learning''' is a type of [[reinforcement learning]] method. This method tweaks a model’s [[Parameter|parameters]] based on the difference between the proposed and actual results. These models stand out as they depend on environmental feedback instead of explicit labels or categories.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Sadre |first1=Ramin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhBtCQAAQBAJ&dq=Error-driven+learning+is+a+sub-area+of+machine+learning+concerned+with+how+an+agent+ought+to+take+actions+in+an+environment+so+as+to+minimize+some+error+feedback.+It+is+a+type+of+reinforcement+learning.&pg=PA201 |title=Scalability of Networks and Services: Third International Conference on Autonomous Infrastructure, Management and Security, AIMS 2009 Enschede, The Netherlands, June 30 - July 2, 2009, Proceedings |last2=Pras |first2=Aiko |date=2009-06-19 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-02627-0 |language=en}}</ref> They are based on the idea that [[language acquisition]] involves the minimization of the [[Mean squared prediction error|prediction error]] (MPSE).<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Hoppe |first=Dorothée B. |last2=Hendriks |first2=Petra |last3=Ramscar |first3=Michael |last4=van Rij |first4=Jacolien |date=2022-10-01 |title=An exploration of error-driven learning in simple two-layer networks from a discriminative learning perspective |url=https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01711-5 |journal=Behavior Research Methods |language=en |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=2221–2251 |doi=10.3758/s13428-021-01711-5 |issn=1554-3528 |pmc=PMC9579095 |pmid=35032022}}</ref> By leveraging these prediction errors, the models consistently refine expectations and decrease computational complexity.  Typically, these [[Algorithm|algorithms]] are operated by the GeneRec algorithm.<ref name=":6" />

Error-driven learning has widespread applications in [[Cognitive science|cognitive sciences]] and [[computer vision]]. These methods have also found successful application in [[natural language processing]] (NLP), including areas like [[part-of-speech tagging]]<ref name=":2">Mohammad, Saif, and Ted Pedersen. "[https://aclanthology.org/W04-2404.pdf Combining lexical and syntactic features for supervised word sense disambiguation.]" Proceedings of the Eighth Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning (CoNLL-2004) at HLT-NAACL 2004. 2004.

APA</ref>, [[parsing]]<ref name=":2" /> [[Named-entity recognition|named entity recognition]] (NER)<ref name=":3">Florian, Radu, et al. "[https://aclanthology.org/W03-0425.pdf Named entity recognition through classifier combination]." Proceedings of the seventh conference on Natural language learning at HLT-NAACL 2003. 2003.</ref>, [[machine translation]] (MT)<ref name=":4">Rozovskaya, Alla, and Dan Roth. "[https://aclanthology.org/P16-1208.pdf Grammatical error correction: Machine translation and classifiers.]" ''Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)''. 2016.</ref>, [[speech recognition]] (SR)<ref name=":2" /> and and [[Dialogue system|dialogue systems]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Iosif |first=Elias |last2=Klasinas |first2=Ioannis |last3=Athanasopoulou |first3=Georgia |last4=Palogiannidi |first4=Elisavet |last5=Georgiladakis |first5=Spiros |last6=Louka |first6=Katerina |last7=Potamianos |first7=Alexandros |date=2018-01-01 |title=Speech understanding for spoken dialogue systems: From corpus harvesting to grammar rule induction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885230816302613 |journal=Computer Speech & Language |volume=47 |pages=272–297 |doi=10.1016/j.csl.2017.08.002 |issn=0885-2308}}</ref>.   

== Formal Definition ==
Error-driven learning models are ones that rely on the feedback of prediction errors to adjust the expectations or parameters of a model. The key components of error-driven learning include the following:

* A set <math>S</math> of states representing the different situations that the learner can encounter.
* A set <math>A</math> of actions that the learner can take in each state.
* A '''prediction function''' <math>P(s,a)</math> that gives the learner’s current prediction of the outcome of taking action <math>a</math> in state <math>s</math>.
* An '''error function''' <math>E(o,p)</math> that compares the actual outcome <math>o</math> with the prediction <math>p</math> and produces an error value.
* An '''update rule''' <math>U(p,e)</math> that adjusts the prediction '''<math>p</math>''' in light of the error <math>e</math>.<ref name=":1" />

== Algorithms ==
Error-driven learning algorithms refer to a category of [[reinforcement learning]] algorithms that leverage the disparity between the real [[output]] and the expected output of a system to regulate the system's parameters. Typically applied in supervised learning, these algorithms are provided with a collection of input-output pairs to facilitate the process of generalization. <ref name=":1" />

The widely utilized error [[backpropagation]] learning algorithm is known as [[GeneRec]], a generalized recirculation algorithm primarily employed for [[gene]] prediction in [[DNA]] sequences. Many other error-driven learning algorithms are derived from alternative versions of GeneRec. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=O'Reilly |first=Randall C. |date=1996-07-01 |title=Biologically Plausible Error-Driven Learning Using Local Activation Differences: The Generalized Recirculation Algorithm |url=https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1996.8.5.895 |journal=Neural Computation |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=895–938 |doi=10.1162/neco.1996.8.5.895 |issn=0899-7667}}</ref>    

== Applications ==

=== Cognitive science ===
{{see also|Cognitive science}}

Simpler error-driven learning models effectively capture complex human cognitive phenomena and anticipate elusive behaviors. They provide a flexible mechanism for modeling the brain's learning process, encompassing [[perception]], [[attention]], [[memory]], and [[decision-making]]. By using errors as guiding signals, these algorithms adeptly adapt to changing environmental demands and objectives, capturing statistical regularities and structure. <ref name=":1" /> 

Furthermore, cognitive science has led to the creation of new error-driven learning algorithms that are both biologically  acceptable and [[Big O notation|computationally efficient]]. These algorithms, including [[Deep belief network|deep belief networks]], [[Spiking neural network|spiking neural networks]], and [[reservoir computing]], follow the principles and constraints of the brain and nervous system. Their primary aim is to capture the emergent properties and dynamics of [[Neural circuit|neural circuits]] and systems.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Bengio, Y. (2009). Learning deep architectures for AI. Foundations and trends® in Machine Learning, 2(1), 1-127</ref>

=== Computer vision ===
{{See also|Computer vision}}
[[Computer vision]] is a complex task that involves understanding and interpreting visual data, such as images or videos.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Voulodimos |first=Athanasios |last2=Doulamis |first2=Nikolaos |last3=Doulamis |first3=Anastasios |last4=Protopapadakis |first4=Eftychios |date=2018-02-01 |title=Deep Learning for Computer Vision: A Brief Review |url=https://www.hindawi.com/journals/cin/2018/7068349/ |journal=Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience |language=en |volume=2018 |pages=e7068349 |doi=10.1155/2018/7068349 |issn=1687-5265 |pmc=PMC5816885 |pmid=29487619}}</ref>

In the context of error-driven learning, the computer vision model learns from the mistakes it makes during the interpretation process. When an error is encountered, the model updates its internal parameters to avoid making the same mistake in the future. This repeated process of learning from errors helps improve the model’s performance over time.<ref name=":7" />

For NLP to do well at computer vision, it employs deep learning techniques. This form of computer vision is sometimes called neural computer vision (NCV), since it makes use of neural networks. NCV therefore interprets visual data based on a statistical, trial and error approach and can deal with context and other subtleties of visual data.<ref name=":7" />

=== Natural Language Processing ===
{{See also|Natural language processing}}

==== '''Part-of-speech tagging''' ====
{{See also|Part-of-speech tagging}}
Part-of-speech (POS) tagging is a crucial component in Natural Language Processing (NLP). It helps resolve human language ambiguity at different analysis levels. In addition, its output (tagged data) can be used in various applications of NLP such as [[information extraction]], [[information retrieval]], [[Question answering|question Answering]], [[Speech recognition|speech eecognition]], text-to-speech conversion, partial parsing, and grammar correction.<ref name=":2" /> 

==== Parsing ====
{{See also|Part-of-speech tagging}}
Parsing in NLP involves breaking down a text into smaller pieces ([[Phrase|phrases]]) based on grammar rules. If a sentence cannot be parsed, it may contain grammatical errors.

In the context of error-driven learning, the parser learns from the mistakes it makes during the parsing process. When an error is encountered, the parser updates its internal model to avoid making the same mistake in the future. This iterative process of learning from errors helps improve the parser’s performance over time.<ref name=":2" />

In conclusion, error-driven learning plays a crucial role in improving the accuracy and efficiency of NLP parsers by allowing them to learn from their mistakes and adapt their internal models accordingly.

==== '''Named entity recognition (NER)''' ====
{{See also|Named-entity recognition}}
NER is the task of identifying and classifying entities (such as persons, locations, organizations, etc.) in a text. Error-driven learning can help the model learn from its false positives and false negatives and improve its recall and precision on (NER).<ref name=":3" />

In the context of error-driven learning, the significance of NER is quite profound. Traditional sequence labeling methods identify nested [[Entity|entities]] layer by layer. If an error occurs in the recognition of an inner [[entity]], it can lead to incorrect identification of the outer entity, leading to a problem known as [[error propagation]] of nested entities.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Chang |first=Haw-Shiuan |last2=Vembu |first2=Shankar |last3=Mohan |first3=Sunil |last4=Uppaal |first4=Rheeya |last5=McCallum |first5=Andrew |date=2020-09-01 |title=Using error decay prediction to overcome practical issues of deep active learning for named entity recognition |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-020-05897-1 |journal=Machine Learning |language=en |volume=109 |issue=9 |pages=1749–1778 |doi=10.1007/s10994-020-05897-1 |issn=1573-0565}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Gao |first=Wenchao |last2=Li |first2=Yu |last3=Guan |first3=Xiaole |last4=Chen |first4=Shiyu |last5=Zhao |first5=Shanshan |date=2022-08-25 |title=Research on Named Entity Recognition Based on Multi-Task Learning and Biaffine Mechanism |url=https://www.hindawi.com/journals/cin/2022/2687615/ |journal=Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience |language=en |volume=2022 |pages=e2687615 |doi=10.1155/2022/2687615 |issn=1687-5265 |pmc=PMC9436550 |pmid=36059424}}</ref>

This is where the role of NER becomes crucial in error-driven learning. By accurately recognizing and classifying entities, it can help minimize these errors and improve the overall accuracy of the learning process. Furthermore, [[deep learning]]-based NER methods have shown to be more accurate as they are capable of assembling words, enabling them to understand the semantic and syntactic relationship between various words better.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" />

==== '''Machine translation''' ====
{{See also|Machine translation}}
Machine translation is a complex task that involves converting text from one language to another.<ref name=":4" />  In the context of error-driven learning, the machine translation model learns from the mistakes it makes during the translation process. When an error is encountered, the model updates its internal parameters to avoid making the same mistake in the future. This iterative process of learning from errors helps improve the model’s performance over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tan |first=Zhixing |last2=Wang |first2=Shuo |last3=Yang |first3=Zonghan |last4=Chen |first4=Gang |last5=Huang |first5=Xuancheng |last6=Sun |first6=Maosong |last7=Liu |first7=Yang |date=2020-01-01 |title=Neural machine translation: A review of methods, resources, and tools |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666651020300024 |journal=AI Open |volume=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.1016/j.aiopen.2020.11.001 |issn=2666-6510}}</ref>

==== Speech recognition ====
{{See also|Speech recognition}}
Speech recognition is a complex task that involves converting spoken language into written text. In the context of error-driven learning, the speech recognition model learns from the mistakes it makes during the recognition process. When an error is encountered, the model updates its internal parameters to avoid making the same mistake in the future. This iterative process of learning from errors helps improve the model’s performance over time.<ref>A. Thakur, L. Ahuja, R. Vashisth and R. Simon, "[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10112511 NLP & AI Speech Recognition: An Analytical Review]," ''2023 10th International Conference on Computing for Sustainable Global Development (INDIACom)'', New Delhi, India, 2023, pp. 1390-1396.</ref>

==== '''Dialogue systems''' ====
{{See also|Dialogue systems}}
Dialogue systems are a popular NLP task as they have promising real-life applications. They are also complicated tasks since many NLP tasks deserving study are involved.

In the context of error-driven learning, the dialogue system learns from the mistakes it makes during the dialogue process. When an error is encountered, the model updates its internal parameters to avoid making the same mistake in the future. This iterative process of learning from errors helps improve the model’s performance over time.<ref name=":5" />

== Advantages ==
Error-driven learning has several advantages over other types of machine learning algorithms:

* They can learn from feedback and correct their mistakes, which makes them adaptive and robust to noise and changes in the data.
* They can handle large and [[Dimension|high-dimensional]] [[Data set|data sets]], as they do not require explicit feature engineering or prior knowledge of the data distribution.
* They can achieve high accuracy and performance, as they can learn complex and nonlinear relationships between the input and the output.<ref name=":1" />

== Limitations ==
Although error driven learning has its advantages, their algorithms also have the following limitations:

* They can suffer from [[overfitting]], which means that they memorize the training data and fail to generalize to new and unseen data. This can be mitigated by using [[Regularization (mathematics)|regularization]] techniques, such as adding a penalty term to the [[loss function]], or reducing the [[complexity]] of the model.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ajila |first=Samuel A. |last2=Lung |first2=Chung-Horng |last3=Das |first3=Anurag |date=2022-06-01 |title=Analysis of error-based machine learning algorithms in network anomaly detection and categorization |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12243-021-00836-0 |journal=Annals of Telecommunications |language=en |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=359–370 |doi=10.1007/s12243-021-00836-0 |issn=1958-9395}}</ref>

* They can be sensitive to the choice of the [[error function]], the [[learning rate]], the initialization of the weights, and other [[Hyperparameter|hyperparameters]], which can affect the [[Convergence of random variables|convergence]] and the quality of the solution. This requires careful tuning and experimentation, or using adaptive methods that adjust the hyperparameters automatically.

* They can be [[Algorithmic efficiency|computationally]] expensive and time-consuming, especially for nonlinear and deep models, as they require multiple iterations(repetitions) and calculations to update the weights of the system. This can be alleviated by using parallel and [[distributed computing]], or using specialized hardware such as GPUs or TPUs.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[:Category:Machine learning algorithms]]