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Adding info on the aesthetics of scientific instruments to this page: [[Scientific revolution]]. This could go in many places on Wikipedia, although the current setup of [[Scientific instrument]] and [[Instrumentation]] or even [[science]] pages don't really support its addition. The breadth of what I'm interested in covering doesn't all fit in the era described by the [[Scientific revolution]] page, so I will only include what is relevant to the time period, I guess. The rest will have to go on UChicago wikispaces. I think it's important because the materials, manufacturing techniques, and look of instruments have changed drastically over this time period, and what remains of instruments today colors our views of the science being done then.

Below is a paste of the page as it currently appears, which I will add edits to. '''My additions are "Materials, construction, and aesthetics" below "Other devices".'''

== New mechanical devices ==
As an aid to scientific investigation, various tools, measuring aids and calculating devices were developed in this period.

=== Calculating devices ===
[[File:Napier's_Bones.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napier's_Bones.JPG|right|thumb|An ivory set of [[Napier's Bones]], an early calculating device invented by [[John Napier]]]]
[[John Napier]] introduced [[Logarithm|logarithms]] as a powerful mathematical tool. With the help of the prominent mathematician [[Henry Briggs (mathematician)|Henry Briggs]] their logarithmic tables embodied a computational advance that made calculations by hand much quicker.<ref name="DNB">{{cite DNB|wstitle=Napier, John}}</ref> His [[Napier's bones]] used a set of numbered rods as a multiplication tool using the system of [[lattice multiplication]]. The way was opened to later scientific advances, particularly in [[astronomy]] and [[Dynamics (mechanics)|dynamics]].

At [[Oxford University]], [[Edmund Gunter]] built the first [[analog device]] to aid computation. The 'Gunter's scale' was a large plane scale, engraved with various scales, or lines. Natural lines, such as the line of chords, the line of [[Sine|sines]] and [[Tangent (trigonometric function)|tangents]] are placed on one side of the scale and the corresponding artificial or logarithmic ones were on the other side. This calculating aid was a predecessor of the [[Slide rule#History|slide rule]]. It was [[William Oughtred]] (1575–1660) who first used two such scales sliding by one another to perform direct [[multiplication]] and [[Division (mathematics)|division]], and thus is credited as the inventor of the [[slide rule]] in 1622.

[[Blaise Pascal]] (1623–1662) invented the [[Mechanical calculator#The 17th century|mechanical calculator]] in 1642.<ref>{{cite book|title=Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942|last=Marguin|first=Jean|publisher=Hermann|year=1994|isbn=978-2-7056-6166-3|page=48}} citing {{cite book|title=Le calcul mécanique|last=Taton|first=René|publisher=Presses universitaires de France|year=1963|location=Paris|ref=Taton}}</ref> The introduction of his [[Pascaline]] in 1645 launched the development of mechanical calculators first in Europe and then all over the world.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1979|title=A Review of a Case against Blaise Pascal and His Heirs|journal=Michigan Law Review|volume=77|issue=3|pages=446–483|doi=10.2307/1288133|jstor=1288133|author=Schum, David A.|url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3673&context=mlr }}</ref><ref>[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Pascal.html Pascal biography]. Groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk. Retrieved on 26 September 2011.</ref> [[Gottfried Leibniz]] (1646–1716), building on Pascal's work, became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators; he was the first to describe a [[pinwheel calculator]], in 1685,<ref>{{cite book|title=A Source Book in Mathematics|last=Smith|first=David Eugene|publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.|year=1929|location=New York and London|pages=173–181}}</ref> and invented the [[Leibniz wheel]], used in the [[arithmometer]], the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, foundation of virtually all modern computer architectures.<ref>{{cite journal|date=March 1975|title=A "Revolutionary" Philosophy of Science: Feyerabend and the Degeneration of Critical Rationalism into Sceptical Fallibilism|journal=Philosophy of Science|volume=42|issue=1|doi=10.1086/288620|jstor=187297|author=McEvoy, John G.|pages=49–66 |s2cid=143046530 }}</ref>

[[John Hadley]] (1682–1744) was the inventor of the [[Octant (instrument)|octant]], the precursor to the [[sextant]] (invented by [[John Bird (astronomer)|John Bird)]], which greatly improved the science of [[navigation]].

=== Industrial machines ===
[[File:Savery-engine.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Savery-engine.jpg|thumb|The 1698 ''[[Thomas Savery|Savery Engine]]'' was the first successful [[steam engine]]]]
[[Denis Papin]] (1647–1712) was best known for his pioneering invention of the [[steam digester]], the forerunner of the [[steam engine]].<ref>[http://www.nndb.com/people/558/000096270/ Denis Papin]. NNDB</ref> The first working steam engine was patented in 1698 by the inventor [[Thomas Savery]], as a "...new invention for raising of water and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill work by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use and advantage for drayning mines, serveing townes with water, and for the working of all sorts of mills where they have not the benefitt of water nor constant windes."{{sic}}<ref name="jenkins">{{cite book|url=|title=Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times|last=Jenkins|first=Rhys|publisher=Ayer Publishing|year=1936|isbn=0-8369-2167-4|location=|pages=66|doi=|id=|authorlink=}}</ref> The invention was demonstrated to the [[Royal Society]] on 14 June 1699 and the machine was described by Savery in his book ''The Miner's Friend; or, An Engine to Raise Water by Fire'' (1702),<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_-yJ5c5a98C|title=The Miner's Friend: Or, an Engine to Raise Water by Fire|last=Savery|first=Thomas|publisher=S. Crouch|year=1827|isbn=|location=|pages=|doi=|id=|authorlink=Thomas Savery}}</ref> in which he claimed that it could pump water out of [[Mining|mines]].  [[Thomas Newcomen]] (1664–1729) perfected the practical steam engine for pumping water, the [[Newcomen steam engine]]. Consequently, he can be regarded as a forefather of the Industrial Revolution.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/newcomen_thomas.shtml Thomas Newcomen (1663–1729)], BBC – History</ref>

[[Abraham Darby I]] (1678–1717) was the first, and most famous, of three generations of the Darby family who played an important role in the [[Industrial Revolution]]. He developed a method of producing high-grade iron in a [[blast furnace]] fueled by [[Coke (fuel)|coke]] rather than [[charcoal]]. This was a major step forward in the production of iron as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution.

=== Telescopes ===
[[Refracting telescope|Refracting telescopes]] first appeared in the [[Netherlands]] in 1608, apparently the product of spectacle makers experimenting with lenses (Inventor is unknown but [[Hans Lippershey]] applied for the first patent, followed by [[Jacob Metius]] of [[Alkmaar]]).<ref>[http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/telescope.html galileo.rice.edu '''The Galileo Project > Science > The Telescope''' by Al Van Helden "The Hague discussed the patent applications first of Hans Lipperhey of Middelburg, and then of Jacob Metius of Alkmaar... another citizen of Middelburg, Sacharias Janssen had a telescope at about the same time but was at the Frankfurt Fair where he tried to sell it"]</ref> [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] was one of the first scientists to use this new tool for his astronomical observations in 1609.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq1rd1ecFCYC&pg=PA15|title=Profiles in Colonial History|date=2008|publisher=Aleck Loker|isbn=978-1-928874-16-4|pages=15–|author=Loker, Aleck}}</ref>

The [[reflecting telescope]] was described by [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)|James Gregory]] in his book ''Optica Promota'' (1663). He argued that a mirror shaped like the part of a [[conic section]], would correct the [[spherical aberration]] that flawed the accuracy of refracting telescopes. His design, the "[[Gregorian telescope]]", however, remained un-built.

In 1666, [[Isaac Newton]] argued that the faults of the refracting telescope were fundamental because the lens refracted light of different colors differently. He concluded that light could not be refracted through a lens without causing [[Chromatic aberration|chromatic aberrations]]<ref>Newton, Isaac. ''Optics'', bk. i. pt. ii. prop. 3</ref> From these experiments Newton concluded that no improvement could be made in the refracting telescope.<ref>''Treatise on Optics'', p. 112</ref> However, he was able to demonstrate that the angle of reflection remained the same for all colors, so he decided to build a [[Newton's reflector|reflecting telescope]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2C3NV38tM0C&pg=PA170|title=Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer|publisher=Perseus Books|year=1999|isbn=978-0-7382-0143-6|page=170|author=White, Michael}}</ref> It was completed in 1668 and is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope.<ref name="mymathdone.com">Hall, Alfred Rupert.  [http://www.mymathdone.com/isaac-newton-adventurer-in-thought/ ''Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought'']. p. 67</ref>

50 years later, [[John Hadley]] developed ways to make precision aspheric and [[Parabolic reflector|parabolic]] [[Objective (optics)|objective]] mirrors for [[Reflecting telescope|reflecting telescopes]], building the first parabolic [[Newtonian telescope]] and a [[Gregorian telescope]] with accurately shaped mirrors.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA77|title=The History of the Telescope|date=2003|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-43265-6|pages=77–|author=King, Henry C.}}</ref><ref>[http://www.telescope-optics.net/two-mirror.htm telescopeѲptics.net – 8.2. Two-mirror telescopes]. Telescope-optics.net. Retrieved on 26 September 2011.</ref> These were successfully demonstrated to the [[Royal Society]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations//groundup/lesson/scopes/hadley/index.php|title=Hadley's Reflector|date=|publisher=amazing-space.stsci.edu|accessdate=1 August 2013}}</ref>

=== Other devices ===
[[File:Boyle_air_pump.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boyle_air_pump.jpg|thumb|[[Air pump]] built by [[Robert Boyle]]. Many new instruments were devised in this period, which greatly aided in the expansion of scientific knowledge.]]
The invention of the [[vacuum pump]] paved the way for the experiments of [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Robert Hooke]] into the nature of [[vacuum]] and [[atmospheric pressure]]. The first such device was made by [[Otto von Guericke]] in 1654. It consisted of a piston and an [[Air gun#History|air gun cylinder]] with flaps that could suck the air from any vessel that it was connected to. In 1657, he pumped the air out of two conjoined hemispheres and demonstrated that a team of sixteen horses were incapable of pulling it apart.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.kuhf.org/cons/cdprojects/steam/track7.html|title=Rain Steam & Speed|last=Lienhard|first=John|publisher=[[KUHF]] FM Radio|year=2005|chapter=Gases and Force}}</ref> The air pump construction was greatly improved by [[Robert Hooke]] in 1658.<ref>{{cite journal|date=15 January 1849|title=On the Early History of the Air-pump in England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNosAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA207|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|author=Wilson, George}}</ref>

[[Evangelista Torricelli]] (1607–1647) was best known for his invention of the mercury [[barometer]]. The motivation for the invention was to improve on the suction pumps that were used to raise water out of the [[Mining|mines]]. Torricelli constructed a sealed tube filled with mercury, set vertically into a basin of the same substance. The column of mercury fell downwards, leaving a Torricellian vacuum above.<ref name="John Timbs">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vGMJAAAAIAAJ|title=Wonderful Inventions: From the Mariner's Compass to the Electric Telegraph Cable|date=1868|publisher=George Routledge and Sons|isbn=978-1172827800|location=London|pages=41|last1=Timbs|first1=John|accessdate=2 June 2014}}</ref>

=== Materials, construction, and aesthetics ===
Surviving instruments from this period,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chsi.harvard.edu/|title=The Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments|website=chsi.harvard.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-05-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://collections.peabody.yale.edu/search/|title=Search Home|website=collections.peabody.yale.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-05-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://utsic.escalator.utoronto.ca/home/|title=University of Toronto Scientific Instruments Collection|website=utsic.escalator.utoronto.ca|language=en-US|access-date=2017-05-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/collections/|title=Adler Planetarium Collections Department|work=Adler Planetarium|access-date=2017-05-30|language=en-US}}</ref> tend to be made of durable metals such as brass, gold, or steel, although examples such as telescopes<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dioptrice.com/|title=Dioptrice : pre-1775 refracting telescopes|website=www.dioptrice.com|language=en|access-date=2017-05-30}}</ref> made of wood, pasteboard, or with leather components exist.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dioptrice.com/telescopes/466?search=wooden|title=Dioptrice : Accession #: M-428a|last=|first=|date=|website=www.dioptrice.com|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2017-05-30}}</ref> Those instruments that exist in collections today tend to be robust examples, made by skilled craftspeople for and at the expense of wealthy patrons.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kemp|first=Martin|year=1991|title='Intellectual Ornaments': Style, Function, and Society in Some Instruments of Art.|url=|journal=Interpretation and Cultural History|publisher=St. Martin's Press|volume=|pages=135–52|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-21272-9_6 |isbn=978-1-349-21274-3 }}</ref> These may have been commissioned as displays of wealth. In addition, the instruments preserved in collections may not have received heavy use in scientific work; instruments that had visibly received heavy use were typically destroyed, deemed unfit for display, or excluded from collections altogether.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schaffer|first=Simon|title=Easily Cracked: Scientific Instruments in States of Disrepair|url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/663608|journal=Isis|year=2011 |volume=102|issue=4|pages=706–717|doi=10.1086/663608|pmid=22448545 |s2cid=24626572 }}</ref> It is also postulated that the scientific instruments preserved in many collections were chosen because they were more appealing to collectors, by virtue of being more ornate, more portable, or made with higher-grade materials.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.refa.org.ar/contenido-autores-revista.php?idAutor=75.|title=REFA, Revista Electrónica de Fuentes y Archivos del Centro de Estudios Históricos Prof. Carlos S. A. Segreti, publicacion periodica digital.|last=Anderson|first=Katharine|date=|website=www.refa.org.ar|language=Spanish|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2017-05-30}}</ref>

Intact air pumps are particularly rare.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Bennett|first=Jim|date=2011-12-01|title=Early Modern Mathematical Instruments|url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/663607|journal=Isis|volume=102|issue=4|pages=697–705|doi=10.1086/663607|pmid=22448544 |s2cid=22184409 |issn=0021-1753}}</ref> The pump at right included a glass sphere to permit demonstrations inside the vacuum chamber, a common use. The base was wooden, and the cylindrical pump was brass.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kingscollections.org/exhibitions/specialcollections/to-scrutinize-nature/boyle-and-hooke/boyles-air-pump|title=King's Collections : Online Exhibitions : Boyle's air-pump|website=www.kingscollections.org|language=en|access-date=2017-05-31}}</ref> Other vacuum chambers that survived were made of brass hemispheres.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://waywiser.rc.fas.harvard.edu/view/objects/asitem/search@/4/displayDate-asc?t:state:flow=efd7f60c-909c-47d9-8399-d61d27444422|title=Abbé Jean-Antoine Nollet Air Pump|last=|first=|date=|website=waywiser.rc.fas.harvard.edu|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2017-05-31}}</ref>

Instrument makers of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century were commissioned by organizations seeking help with navigation, surveying, warfare, and astronomical observation.<ref name=":3" /> The increase in uses for such instruments, and their widespread use in global exporation and conflict, created a need for new methods of manufacture and repair, which would be met by the [[Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution.]]<ref name=":2" /> 
[[:Category:Sculptures by Henry Moore]]
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[[:Category:Abstract sculptures in Illinois]]
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