View source for User:Jmvelasquez/Gold mining

== Article draft ==
'''Gold mining''' is the extraction of [[gold]] by [[mining]].

Historically, mining gold from [[Alluvium|alluvial]] deposits used manual separation processes, such as [[gold panning]]. The expansion of gold mining to [[Ore|ores]] that are not on the surface has led to more complex extraction processes such as pit mining and [[gold cyanidation]]. In the 20th and 21st centuries, most volume of mining was done by large corporations. However, the value of gold has led to millions of small, [[Artisanal mining|artisanal miners]] in many parts of the [[Global South]].

Like all mining, [[Mining#Human rights|human rights]] and [[Environmental effects of mining|environmental issues]] are common in the gold mining industry, and can result in [[environmental conflict]]. In mines with less regulations, health and safety risks are much higher.

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== History ==
[[File:Miner_underground_at_Pumsaint_gold_mine_(1294028).jpg|thumb|A miner underground at [[Pumsaint]] gold mine, [[Wales]]; {{Circa|1938}}.]]
[[File:Panorámica_de_Las_Médulas_edit.jpg|thumb|Landscape of [[Las Médulas]], Spain, the result of [[hydraulic mining]] on a vast scale by the Ancient Romans]]
The exact date that humans first began to mine gold is unknown, but some of the oldest known gold artifacts were found in the [[Varna Necropolis]] in [[Bulgaria]]. The graves of the necropolis were built between 4700 and 4200 BC, indicating that gold mining could be at least 6,724 years old.<ref name="VANBRUUN">{{Cite book |last1=Ivanov |first1=Ivan Simeonov |title=Varna Necropolis: The Dawn of European Civilization. Treasures of Bulgaria 1 |last2=Avramova |first2=Mai︠a︡ |publisher=Agatʹo Publ |year=2000 |location=Sofia}}</ref> '''During a series of excavations carried out between 1878-1992, several graves were found with more than 6kg of gold.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kuleff |first=Ivelin |date=2005 |title=ARCHEOMETRIC INVESTIGATION OF THE GOLD IN THE CHALCOLITHIC NECROPOLIS OF VARNA (5 TH MILLENNIUM BC) |journal=Advances in Bulgarian Science |volume=16 |pages=16-22 |issn=1312-6164}}</ref> A group of German and Georgian archaeologists claims the [[Sakdrisi]] site in southern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], dating to the 3rd or 4th millennium BC, may be the world's oldest known gold mine.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hauptmann |first=Andreas |author2=Klein, Sabine |date=2009 |title=Bronze Age gold in Southern Georgia |url=http://archeosciences.revues.org/2037?lang=en |url-status=live |journal=ArcheoSciences |volume=33 |issue=33 |pages=75–82 |doi=10.4000/archeosciences.2037 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525232413/http://archeosciences.revues.org/2037?lang=en |archive-date=25 May 2014 |access-date=24 May 2014 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Ancient Times ===

==== Prehistoric Period ====
'''Gold has been prized by humans since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence suggests that humans were mining gold as far back as 4000 BCE, with some the earliest known gold artifacts dating back to ancient [[Mesopotamia]].'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sourcing Mesopotamian Gold {{!}} Research - Penn Museum |url=https://www.penn.museum/research/project.php?pid=49 |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.penn.museum}}</ref> '''Particularly in the region of present-day Iraq, gold was mined extensively. The ancient [[Sumerians]], around 2500 BCE, developed sophisticated tehcniques for extracting gold from alluvial deposiits and underground mines.'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Sumerian Roots of the History of Gold {{!}} U.S. Gold Bureau |url=https://www.usgoldbureau.com/news/importance-gold-history-sumerian-roots |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.usgoldbureau.com}}</ref> '''These techniques included the use of sluice boxes.'''

===== Ancient Egypt =====
Evidence suggests that [[Nubia]] had sporadic access to gold nuggets during the [[Neolithic]] and [[Prehistoric Egypt|Prehistoric Period]].<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |last=Klemm |first=Dietrich |last2=Klemm |first2=Rosemarie |last3=Murr |first3=Andreas |date=2001 |title=Gold of the Pharaohs – 6000 years of gold mining in Egypt and Nubia |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S089953620100094X |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3-4 |pages=643–659 |doi=10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00094-X}}</ref> '''Gold mining in Egypt involved both surface mining such as panning for gold in riverbeads and underground mining, where tunnels were dug to extrac gold-bearing quartz veins.'''<ref name=":21" /> During the [[Bronze Age]], sites in the [[Eastern Desert]] became a great source of gold-mining for nomadic Nubians, who used [[Mallet|"two-hand-mallets"]] and "grinding [[Extractive metallurgy|ore extraction]]." By the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]], the oval mallet was introduced for mining. By the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], stone mortars to process ores and a new gold-washing technique were introduced. During the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]], Nubian mining expanded under [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] occupation with the invention of the [[Mill (grinding)|grinding mill]].<ref name=":21" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Klemm |first1=Rosemarie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ky8bVJ_fYEAC |title=Gold and Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt and Nubia: Geoarchaeology of the Ancient Gold Mining Sites in the Egyptian and Sudanese Eastern Deserts |last2=Klemm |first2=Dietrich |date=2012-12-13 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-22508-6 |pages=3–9 |language=en}}</ref> '''Additionally, gold was associated with the sun god [[Ra]] and was believed to be eternal and indestructible, symbolising the pharoah's divine power and afterlife.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Botros |first=N.S. |date=2015 |title=Gold in Egypt: Does the future get worse or better? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S016913681400345X |journal=Ore Geology Reviews |language=en |volume=67 |pages=189–207 |doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.11.018}}</ref> '''Gold has also been found in the tombs of [[Tutankhamun]] and other pharoahs.'''<ref>{{Cite book |title=The art and culture of ancient Egypt: studies in honor of Dorothea Arnold |date=2015 |publisher=The Egyptological Seminar of New York |isbn=978-0-9816120-2-7 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=Dorothea |series=Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar |location=New York, NY |editor-last2=Oppenheim |editor-first2=Adela |editor-last3=Goelet |editor-first3=Ogden}}</ref> 

===== Ancient Rome and Greece =====
During the Bronze Age, gold objects were also plentiful; especially in Ireland and Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold of Roman Empire - History of Roman Gold Jewellery {{!}} My Gold Guide |url=https://www.mygoldguide.in/significance-gold-roman-empire |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.mygoldguide.in}}</ref> [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] '''employed slave labour and''' used [[hydraulic mining]] methods, such as [[hushing]] and [[ground sluicing]] on a large scale to extract gold from extensive [[alluvial]] (loose sediment) deposits, such as those at [[Las Médulas|Las Medulas]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bernstein |first=Peter L. |title=The power of gold: the history of an obsession |date=2012 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-25210-8 |location=Hoboken, N.J}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1157153560 |title=Debasement: manipulation of coin standards in pre-modern monetary systems |date=2020 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78925-398-6 |editor-last=Butcher |editor-first=Kevin |edition= |location=Oxford ; Philadelphia |oclc=on1157153560}}</ref> Mining was under the control of the state but the mines may have been leased to civilian contractors some time later. The gold served as the primary medium of exchange within the empire, and was an important motive in the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] by [[Claudius]] in the first century AD; although there is only one known Roman gold mine at [[Dolaucothi]] in west Wales. Gold was a prime motivation for the campaign in [[Dacia]] when the Romans invaded [[Transylvania]] in what is now modern [[Romania]] in the second century AD. The legions were led by the emperor Trajan, and their exploits are shown on [[Trajan's Column]] in Rome and the several reproductions of the column elsewhere (such as the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[London]]).<ref>Dan Oancea, [http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Apr2008h.pdf A Tale of Gold] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230636/http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Apr2008h.pdf|date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Under the Eastern Roman Empire Emperor Justinian's rule, gold was mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Egypt, and Nubia.<ref>Dan Oancea, [http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/3707/justinian-gold.roman-mines.egypt-gold/justinian%E2%80%99s.gold.mines.aspx Justinian's Gold Mines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302061813/http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/3707/justinian-gold.roman-mines.egypt-gold/justinian%E2%80%99s.gold.mines.aspx|date=2 March 2009}}</ref> 

===== '''Ancient Asia''' =====
In the area of the [[Kolar Gold Fields]] in [[Bangarpet Taluk]], [[Kolar district]] of [[Karnataka]] state, India; gold was first mined prior to the 2nd and 3rd century AD by digging small pits. Golden objects found in [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]] have been traced to Kolar through the analysis of impurities{{snd}}the impurities include 11% [[silver]] concentration, found only in KGF ore.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}}The Champion reef at the [[Kolar gold fields]] was mined to a depth of {{convert|50|m|ft}} during the [[Gupta period]] in the fifth century AD. During the [[Chola Empire|Chola]] period in the 9th and 10th century AD, the scale of the operation grew.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} The metal continued to be mined by the eleventh century kings of South India, the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] from 1336 to 1560, and later by [[Tipu Sultan]], the king of [[Mysore]] state and the British. It is estimated that the total gold production in Karnataka to date is 1000 tons.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Golden Heritage of Karnataka |url=http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/K-hertage.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118115109/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/K-hertage.htm |archive-date=18 November 2019 |access-date=3 April 2015 |work=ernet.in}}</ref>
[[File:De_Re_Metallica_1556_p_158_AQ23_(2).TIF|left|thumb|Late 15th and early 16th century mining techniques, ''De re metallica'']]
The mining of the Hungarian deposit (present-day Slovakia) primarily around [[Kremnica]] was the largest of the [[Medieval period]] in Europe.<ref name="Postan & Miller">{{Citation |author1=M M Postan |title=The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: Trade and industry in the Middle Ages |year=1987 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSia_4PpeqQC&q=Philip+IV+first+gold+coinage&pg=PR1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521087090 |author2=E Miller |orig-year=1967}}</ref>

===== Ancient South America =====
'''In South America, gold mining in the [[Andes]] dates back to thousands of years, with the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] empire employing extensive gold mining operations in regsions such as present-day [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]].'''<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Incas |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-021935-2 |editor-last=Alconini Mujica |editor-first=Sonia |series=Oxford handbooks |location=New York, NY |editor-last2=Covey |editor-first2=Alan}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last=Cuadra |first=W. A. |last2=Dunkerley |first2=P. M. |date=1991-10-01 |title=A history of gold in Chile |url=http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/economicgeology/article/86/6/1155/20927/A-history-of-gold-in-Chile |journal=Economic Geology |language=en |volume=86 |issue=6 |pages=1155–1173 |doi=10.2113/gsecongeo.86.6.1155 |issn=1554-0774}}</ref> '''They used stone tools and simple mining techniques to extract gold from rivers, streams, and surface deposits.'''<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" /> 

=== Middle Ages: European Gold Rushes ===
'''During the Middle Ages, Europe experience several gold rushes. Most notably in regions like Transylvania, Scotland, and Wales. These rushes were often small-scale and localised compared to later rushes in history.'''

==== [[Transylvania]] ====
'''The Transylvania gold rush took place in present-day [[Romania]], primarily in the region of Transylvania during the medieval period. Transylvania was known for its rich mineral resources including gold, silver, and other metals.'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jameson |first=John H. |title=Creating participatory dialogue in archaeological and cultural heritage interpretation: multinational perspectives |last2=Baugher |first2=Sherene |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-81957-6 |edition=1st ed. 2022 |location=Cham}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-12 |title=Romania Backtracks on Bid to Protect Roman Gold Mine in Transylvania |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/romania-gold-mining-fight-rosia-montana-unesco |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=Environment |language=en}}</ref> '''Miners in Transylvania used both surface and underground mining techniques to extract gold from alluvial deposits and veins. These methods include panning, sluicing, and rudiementary shaft mining.'''<ref>{{Cite book |title=Networks of trade in raw materials and technological innovations in prehistory and protohistory, Volume 12/session B34: an archaeometry approach |date=2016 |publisher=Archaeopress Archaeology |isbn=978-1-78491-424-0 |editor-last=Delfino |editor-first=Davide |series=Proceedings of the XVII UISPP World Congress |location=Oxford |editor-last2=Piccardo |editor-first2=Paolo |editor-last3=Baptista |editor-first3=João Carlos}}</ref>

==== [[Scotland]] ====
'''The [[Kildonan Gold Rush|Scottish gold rush]] occurred in Scotland, primarily in the Highlands during the 16th and 17th century. Gold deposits were discovered in rivers and streams, leading to a surge in prospecting and mining activity.'''<ref name=":25">{{Cite book |last=Callender |first=R. M. |title=The Scottish gold rush of 1869 |last2=Reeson |first2=Patrick F. |date=2008 |publisher=The Northern Mine Research Society |isbn=978-0-901450-63-0 |series=British mining |location=Sheffield, Yorkshire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Laurenson |first=Sarah |date=2016-05-03 |title=Material landscapes: the production and consumption of men’s jewellery during the Scottish gold rush of 1869 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2373518X.2016.1204865 |journal=History of Retailing and Consumption |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=129–142 |doi=10.1080/2373518X.2016.1204865 |issn=2373-518X}}</ref> '''The [[Scottish Crown Estate Act 2019|Scottish Crown]] took an interest in gold discoveries, in hopes of aiding the kingdom's economy and revenue. [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV of Scotland]] estbalished a royal mint to produce gold coins from Scottish gold. The Scottish gold rush eventually waned due to a combination of factors including the depletion of easily accessible gold deposits, harsh weather conditions, and the political instability at the time.'''<ref name=":25" />

==== [[Wales]] ====
'''The Welsh gold rush occurred in [[Wales]], more so in the [[Dolgellau]] area of [[Gwynedd]], during the 19th century.'''<ref name=":26">{{Cite web |last=Lo |first=Chris |date=2018-07-23 |title=Dragon’s hoard: the allure of Welsh gold |url=https://www.mining-technology.com/features/dragons-hoard-allure-welsh-gold/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=Mining Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> '''Gold deposits were discovered in Welsh mountains, with reports of gold being found in rivers [[Afon Mawddach|Mawddach]] and [[Afon Tryweryn|Tryweryn]]. By the mid-19th century, commercial mining operations had begun. Wales' gold gained popularity for its quality and rarity, leading to its use in royal jewelry for the [[British royal family]].'''<ref name=":26" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-04-27 |title=Welsh gold wedding ring continues royal tradition |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-south-west-wales-13196514 |access-date=2024-04-11 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Modern Era ===

==== [[California gold rush|California Gold Rush]] ====
'''During the 19th century, numerous [[Gold rush|gold rushes]] in remote regions around the globe caused large migrations of miners, such as the [[California Gold Rush]] of 1849. This is one of the most famous gold rushes in history. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California sparked a massive migration of people froma round thr world to California in search of gold. The rush significanly accelerlated westward expansion in the United States and had profound effects on the region's economy and society.'''

==== [[Australian gold rushes|Australian Gold Rush]] ====
'''The gold rushes began in 1851 when [[Edward Hargraves]], a prospector, discovered gold near [[Bathurst, New South Wales|Bathhurst]], [[New South Wales]].'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian Gold Rush Begins |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/australian-gold-rush-begins |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref> '''The most well known gold rush in Australia was the''' [[Victorian gold rush|Victorian Gold Rush]]'''. Thousands of people, known as 'diggers', came from around the world to Australia in search of gold, which ultimately contributed to the growth of cities like [[Melbourne]] and [[Sydney]].'''<ref>{{Cite book |title=Australians, historical statistics |date=1987 |publisher=Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates |isbn=978-0-949288-29-5 |editor-last=Vamplew |editor-first=Wray |series=Australians, a historical library |location=Broadway, N.S.W., Australia}}</ref>

==== South African Gold Rush ====
The discovery of gold in the [[Witwatersrand]] led to the [[Second Boer War]] and ultimately the founding of South Africa.<ref name=":27">{{Cite journal |last=Richardson |first=Peter |last2=van Helten |first2=Jean-Jacques |date=1984 |title=The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2597284?origin=crossref |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=319 |doi=10.2307/2597284}}</ref> '''This transformed the region into one of the wealthiest gold-producing areas in the world. This rush played a crucial role in the developmenet of South Africa's economy and lead to the estbalishment of Johannesburg, known as the 'city of gold'.'''<ref name=":27" /><ref name=":28">{{Cite book |last=Fetherling |first=George |title=The gold crusades: a social history of gold rushes, 1849-1929 |date=1997 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8046-2 |edition= |location=Toronto}}</ref> Gold-bearing reefs in the neighbouring [[Free State (province)|Free State]] province were found shortly thereafter, driving significant development in the region with the establishment of the [[Free State goldfields]].<ref name=":27" /><ref name=":28" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=A global history of gold rushes |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-29454-7 |editor-last=Mountford |editor-first=Benjamin |series=California world history library |location=Oakland, California |editor-last2=Tuffnell |editor-first2=Stephen}}</ref>
[[File:Chilkoot Pass summit.jpg|thumb|The Chilkoot Pass where Klondikers would establiush themselves and their supplies.]]

==== [[Klondike Gold Rush]] ====
'''Also known as the [[Klondike Gold Rush|Yukon Gold Rush]], brought prospectors from around the world to the [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] region of the [[Yukon]] territory in [[Canada]].'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morrison |first=W.R. |date=1974 |title=The North-West Mounted Police and the Klondike Gold Rush |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002200947400900204 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=93–105 |doi=10.1177/002200947400900204 |issn=0022-0094}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/712115576 |title=Eldorado! the archaeology of gold mining in the far North |date=2011 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press ; Society for Historical Archaeology |isbn=978-0-8032-1099-8 |editor-last=Spude |editor-first=Catherine Holder |series=Historical archaeology of the American West |location=Lincoln : [Rockville, Md.] |oclc=712115576 |editor-last2=Society for Historical Archaeology}}</ref> '''The Klondike God Rush began in 1896, when gold was discovered in [[Bonanza Creek]], a tributary of the Klondike River by [[George Carmack]] and his Indigenous companions, [[Skookum Jim Mason]] and [[Tagish Charlie]].'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkie |first=Rab |title=Skookum Jim: Native and Non-Native Stories and Views About His Life and Times and the Klondike Gold Rush |date=1992 |publisher=Heritage Branch, Department of Tourism, Government of the Yukon}}</ref> '''As prospectors arrived in Klondike, makeshift towns and settlements sprang up along the rivers, including [[Dawson City]], which because the largest town in Yukon at the height of the gold rush.'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Skagway |first=Mailing Address: Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park P. O. Box 517 |last2=Us |first2=AK 99840 Phone: 907 983-9200 Contact |title=What Was the Klondike Gold Rush? - Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/klgo/learn/goldrush.htm |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref> '''Prospectors employed various mining techniques to extract gold from the Klondike's streams and riverbeds, including placer mining, dredging, and hydraulic mining.'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Skagway |first=Mailing Address: Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park P. O. Box 517 |last2=Us |first2=AK 99840 Phone: 907 983-9200 Contact |title=What Was the Klondike Gold Rush? - Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/klgo/learn/goldrush.htm |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref>

==== The Carlin Trend ====
The [[Carlin Unconformity|Carlin Trend]] of Nevada, U.S., was discovered in 1961. Official estimates indicate that total world gold production since the beginning of civilization has been around {{convert|6352216000|ozt|t}} and total [[Gold mining in Nevada|gold production in Nevada]] is 1.1% of that, ranking Nevada as one of the Earth's primary gold-producing regions.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Much Gold Has Been Mined? |url=https://www.gold.org/about-gold/gold-supply/gold-mining/how-much-gold-has-been-mined |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929224149/https://www.gold.org/about-gold/gold-supply/gold-mining/how-much-gold-has-been-mined |archive-date=29 September 2018 |access-date=2021-11-26 |website=www.gold.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dan Oancea – Carlin: Where the Train Stops and the Gold Rush Begins |url=http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Jul2008e.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102253/http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Jul2008e.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=5 May 2013}}</ref>

== Statistics ==
World gold production was 3,612 [[Tonne|tonnes]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supply |url=https://www.gold.org/goldhub/research/gold-demand-trends/gold-demand-trends-full-year-2022/supply |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413032332/https://www.gold.org/goldhub/research/gold-demand-trends/gold-demand-trends-full-year-2022/supply |archive-date=13 April 2023 |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=World Gold Council |language=en}}</ref> {{asof|2020}}, the [[List of countries by gold production|world's largest]] gold producer was [[Gold mining in China|China]] with 368.3 [[Metric ton|tonnes]] of gold mined in that year. The second-largest producer of gold was [[Russia]] where 331.1 tonnes was mined in the same year, followed by [[List of gold mines in Australia|Australia]] with 327.8 tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold Production by Country – Gold Production – Goldhub |url=https://www.gold.org/goldhub/data/historical-mine-production |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626154002/https://www.gold.org/goldhub/data/historical-mine-production |archive-date=26 June 2019 |access-date=2021-11-26 |website=www.gold.org |language=en}}</ref> '''In 2023, the annual gold demand of 4,448 tonnes was 5% below that of 2022. The total gold demand in 2023 was the highest at 4,899 tonnes.''' <ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Gold Demand Trends Full Year 2023 |url=https://www.gold.org/goldhub/research/gold-demand-trends/gold-demand-trends-full-year-2023#disclaimer |url-status=live |access-date= |website=World Gold Council}}</ref>{{-}}Despite its decreasing content in ores, gold production is increasing. This increase can be achieved through ever larger-scale industrial installations as well as innovations, especially in [[hydrometallurgy]].

{{Gallery|File:Top 5 Gold Producers.png|Trends in some gold-producing countries|File:World Gold Production 1900-2014.png|Annual world mined gold production, 1900–2014|file:Evolution minerai or.svg|Gold ore grade evolution|align=center}}

== Methods ==

=== Hard rock mining ===
[[File:Kittilä_mine.jpg|left|thumb|A large [[Open-pit mining|open-pit]] gold mine in [[Kittilä|Kittilä, Finland]], in 2017]]
{{main|Quartz reef mining|Carlin-type gold deposit}}

[[Hard rock mining]] extracts gold encased in rock, rather than fragments in loose sediment, and produces most of the world's gold. Sometimes [[open-pit mining]] is used, such as at the Fort Knox Mine in central Alaska. [[Barrick Gold Corporation]] has one of the largest open-pit gold mines in North America located on its [[Goldstrike mine]] property in north eastern Nevada. Other gold mines use underground mining, where the ore is extracted through tunnels or shafts. South Africa has the world's deepest hard rock gold mine up to {{convert|3900|m|ft}} underground. At such depths, the heat is unbearable for humans, and air conditioning is required for the safety of the workers. The first such mine to receive air conditioning was [[Robinson Deep]], at that time the deepest mine in the world for any mineral.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=YigDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1932+plane&pg=PA22 "Deepest Mine To Be Air Conditioned"] ''Popular Science'', October 1934</ref>

=== By-product gold mining ===
Gold is also produced by mining in which it is not the principal product. Large [[copper]] mines, such as the [[Bingham Canyon mine]] in Utah, often recover considerable amounts of gold and other metals along with copper. Sand and gravel pits, like those in Denver (Colorado), may recover small amounts of gold in their wash operations. The largest producing gold mine in the world, the [[Grasberg mine]] in Papua, Indonesia, is primarily a copper mine.<ref name="investvine">{{cite web |last=Calderon |first=Justin |date=27 May 2013 |title=World's largest gold mine reopens |url=http://investvine.com/worlds-largest-gold-mine-reopens/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019092152/http://investvine.com/worlds-largest-gold-mine-reopens/ |archive-date=19 October 2013 |access-date=27 May 2013 |work=Inside Investor}}</ref>

=== Niche, recreational, or historical methods ===
{{Excerpt|Recreational gold mining}}{{Excerpt|Gold panning}}

==== Placer mining ====
{{main|Placer mining}}

'''Placer mining is a method of extracting gold from alluvial deposits such as sand, gravel, and sediment.'''<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Hines |first=Elizabeth |last2=Smith |first2=Michael |date=2002-01-01 |title=Gold is Where You Find It: Placer Mining in North Carolina, 1799-1849 |url=https://meridian.allenpress.com/esh/article/21/2/119/204929/Gold-is-Where-You-Find-It-Placer-Mining-in-North |journal=Earth Sciences History |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=119–149 |doi=10.17704/eshi.21.2.65765421785w7460 |issn=0736-623X}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Citation |last=LaPerriere |first=Jacqueline D. |title=Gold Placer Mining and Stream Ecosystems of Interior Alaska |date=1997 |work=Freshwaters of Alaska |volume=119 |pages=265–280 |editor-last=Milner |editor-first=Alexander M. |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4612-0677-4_10 |access-date=2024-02-17 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer New York |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-0677-4_10 |isbn=978-1-4612-6866-6 |last2=Reynolds |first2=James B. |editor2-last=Oswood |editor2-first=Mark W.}}</ref> '''These are known as [[Placer deposit|placer deposits]] which are typically found in riverbeds, stream beds, and floodplains.'''<ref name=":14">{{Citation |last=Garnett |first=R. H. T. |title=Placer Deposits |date=2005 |work=One Hundredth Anniversary Volume |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/1940/chapter/107717588 |access-date=2024-02-17 |publisher=Society of Economic Geologists |language=en |doi=10.5382/av100.25 |isbn=978-1-887483-01-8 |last2=Bassett |first2=N. C.}}</ref> '''These deposits typically contain minerals that are resistant to weathering and eroision like [[gold]], [[platinum]], [[Diamond|diamonds]], and more. They are characterized by their relatively hight concentration of valuable minerals compared to the surrounding rock or sediments'''<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":14" />'''. Unlike hard-rock mining, which involves excavating solid rock formations, water or dredging is used to extract the gold.'''<ref name=":2" /> 

===== Sluicing =====
[[File:Gold_sluicing,_Dillman_Town,_West_Coast,_188-%3F.jpg|thumb|Gold sluicing at Dilban Town, New Zealand, 1880s]]
[[File:Taking_gold_out_of_a_sluice_box.jpg|thumb|Taking gold out of a sluice box, western North America, 1900s]]
Using a sluice box to extract gold from placer deposits has long been a very common practice in prospecting and small-scale mining. '''Sluices work on the principle that heavier particles will sink to the bottom of a stream, while those that are lighter will be carried downstream and expelled.'''<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Mathioudakis |first=Spyridon |last2=Xiroudakis |first2=George |last3=Petrakis |first3=Evangelos |last4=Manoutsoglou |first4=Emmanouil |date=2023 |title=Evolution of Alluvial Gold Mining Technologies |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4605/15/1/70 |journal=Materials Proceedings |language=en |publisher=MDPI |pages=70 |doi=10.3390/materproc2023015070}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=C.J |last2=Evans |first2=E.J |last3=Styles |first3=M.T |date=1997 |title=A Reviw of Gold-Particle-Size and Recovery Methods |journal=British Geological Survey |pages=10-14}}</ref> A sluice box is essentially a man made channel with riffles set in the bottom. The riffles are designed to create dead zones in the current to allow gold to drop out of suspension.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> The box is placed in the stream to channel water flow. Gold-bearing material is placed at the top of the box. The material is carried by the current through the volt where gold and other dense material settles out behind the riffles. Less dense material flows out of the box as [[tailings]].<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />

Larger commercial placer mining operations employ screening plants, or [[Trommel|trommels]], to remove the larger alluvial materials such as boulders and gravel, before concentrating the remainder in a sluice box or jig plant.<ref name=":3" />'''After the gold is sorted through trommels, it is then placed through regular sluice boxes for further sorting.''' <ref name=":3" /> These operations typically include diesel powered, earth moving equipment including excavators, bulldozers, [[wheel loaders]], and rock trucks.

===== Dredging =====
{{main|Gold dredge}}

Although this method has largely been replaced by modern methods, some dredging is done by small-scale miners using suction dredges. These are small machines that float on the water and are usually operated by one or two people. A suction dredge consists of a sluice box supported by pontoons, attached to a suction hose which is controlled by a miner working beneath the water. '''This method is particularly popular in areas where gold is found at river bottoms or submerge deposits.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spence |first=Clark C. |date=1980 |title=The Golden Age of Dredging: The Development of an Industry and Its Environmental Impact |url=https://academic.oup.com/whq/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/968288 |journal=The Western Historical Quarterly |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=401 |doi=10.2307/968288}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vieira |first=Rickford |date=2006 |title=Mercury-free gold mining technologies: possibilities for adoption in the Guianas |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.09.007 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=14 |issue=3-4 |pages=448–454 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.09.007 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> 

'''Suction dredging can have enviromental impacts, more so on aquatic habitats and water quality.'''<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Harvey |first=Bret C. |last2=Lisle |first2=Thomas E. |date=1998 |title=Effects of Suction Dredging on Streams: A Review and an Evaluation Strategy |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1577/1548-8446(1998)0232.0.CO;2 |journal=Fisheries |language=en |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=8–17 |doi=10.1577/1548-8446(1998)023<0008:EOSDOS>2.0.CO;2 |issn=0363-2415}}</ref> '''Regulations and best practices are often in place to minimize these impacts.'''<ref name=":9" /> State dredging permits in many of the United States gold dredging areas specify a seasonal time period and area closures to avoid conflicts between dredgers and the spawning time of fish populations. Some US states, such as Montana, require an extensive permitting procedure, including permits. 

Some large suction dredges [{{convert|100|hp|kW}} & {{convert|10|in|mm|-1|abbr=on|order=flip}}] are used in commercial production throughout the world. Small suction dredges are much more efficient at extracting smaller gold than the old ''bucket line''. This has improved the chances of finding gold. Smaller dredges with {{convert|2|to|4|in|adj=on|order=flip|mm|-1}} suction tubes are used to sample areas behind boulders and along potential pay streaks, until "colour" (gold) appears.

Other larger scale dredging operations take place on exposed river gravel bars at seasonal low water. These operations typically use a land based excavator to feed a gravel screening plant and sluice box floating in a temporary pond. The pond is excavated in the gravel bar and filled from the natural water table.<ref name=":7" /> "Pay" gravel is excavated from the front face of the pond and processed through the floating plant, with the gold trapped in the onboard sluice box and tailings stacked behind the plant, steadily filling in the back of the pond as the operation moves forward.<ref name=":7" /> This type of gold mining is characterized by its low cost, as each rock is moved only once. It also has low environmental impact, as no stripping of vegetation or overburden is necessary, and all process water is fully recycled. Such operations are typical on New Zealand's South Island and in the Klondike region of Canada.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spence |first=Clark C. |date=1980 |title=The Golden Age of Dredging: The Development of an Industry and Its Environmental Impact |url=https://academic.oup.com/whq/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/968288 |journal=The Western Historical Quarterly |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=401 |doi=10.2307/968288}}</ref>

===== Rocker box =====
Also called a cradle, a [[rocker box]] uses riffles located in a high-walled box to trap gold in a similar manner to the sluice box. A rocker box uses less water than a sluice box and is well suited for areas where water is limited. A rocking motion provides the water movement needed for the gravity separation of gold in placer material.<ref name=":7" /> '''Rocker boxes gained popularity during the California Gold Rush in the 19th century and remain in use today.'''<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clay |first=Karen |last2=Jones |first2=Randall |date=2008 |title=Migrating to Riches? Evidence from the California Gold Rush |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S002205070800079X/type/journal_article |journal=The Journal of Economic History |language=en |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=997–1027 |doi=10.1017/S002205070800079X |issn=0022-0507}}</ref> '''Although simple and inexpensive, it is not efficient as the previously discussed mining techniques.'''<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nelson |first=Andrew David |date=2017 |title=Gold in the Documents: Estimating Placer Mining Excavation Volumes in the Fraser Basin, British Columbia Using Historical Sources |url=https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/view/189312 |journal=BC Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly |language=en |issue=196 |pages=89–113 |doi=10.14288/bcs.v0i196.189312 |issn=0005-2949}}</ref>

== Gold ore processing ==
{{Main|Gold extraction}}

=== Cyanide process ===
[[File:Gold_heap_leaching.jpeg|thumb|220x220px|Cyanide leaching "heap" at a gold mining operation near [[Elko, Nevada]].  On top of the large mounds of ore, are sprinklers dispensing a solution of cyanide.]]
The dominant method for refining gold is a [[Gold cyanidation|cyanide extraction]] method, '''or [[gold cyanidation]]''', introduced in the late 1800s. '''This a metallurgical technique used to extract gold from lower grade ores by converting gold into a water soluble coordination complex.'''<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Karimi |first=P. |last2=Abdollahi |first2=H. |last3=Amini |first3=A. |last4=Noaparast |first4=M. |last5=Shafaei |first5=S.Z. |last6=Habashi |first6=F. |date=2010 |title=Cyanidation of gold ores containing copper, silver, lead, arsenic and antimony |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301751610000384 |journal=International Journal of Mineral Processing |language=en |volume=95 |issue=1-4 |pages=68–77 |doi=10.1016/j.minpro.2010.03.002}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Citation |last=Deschênes |first=G. |title=Advances in the Cyanidation of Gold |date=2016 |work=Gold Ore Processing |pages=429–445 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444636584000268 |access-date=2024-02-17 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-63658-4.00026-8 |isbn=978-0-444-63658-4}}</ref> Finely ground rock is treated with a solution of [[sodium cyanide]]. The extract is [[Carbon in pulp|absorbed onto carbon]] and then removed from the carbon with a solution of caustic soda and cyanide. Gold cyanide is then converted to relatively pure gold through [[gold parting]].<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" />

There are many [https://earthworks.org/issues/environmental-impacts-of-gold-mining/#:~:text=Gold%20mining%20is%20one%20of,health%20of%20people%20and%20ecosystems. environmental hazards] associated with this extraction method, largely due to the high toxicity of the cyanide compounds. '''Furthermore there are potentials for accidental spills or leaks to cause harm to aquatic ecosystems and human health'''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=González-Valoys |first=Ana Cristina |last2=Arrocha |first2=Jonatha |last3=Monteza-Destro |first3=Tisla |last4=Vargas-Lombardo |first4=Miguel |last5=Esbrí |first5=José María |last6=Garcia-Ordiales |first6=Efrén |last7=Jiménez-Ballesta |first7=Raimundo |last8=García-Navarro |first8=Francisco Jesús |last9=Higueras |first9=Pablo |date=2022 |title=Environmental challenges related to cyanidation in Central American gold mining; the Remance mine (Panama) |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479721020417 |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |language=en |volume=302 |pages=113979 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113979}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Akcil |first=A |date=2002 |title=First application of cyanidation process in Turkish gold mining and its environmental impacts |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0892687502001656 |journal=Minerals Engineering |language=en |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=695–699 |doi=10.1016/S0892-6875(02)00165-6}}</ref> For example, in 2000, the [[2000 Baia Mare cyanide spill|Baia Mare cyanide spill]] in northern Romania released approximately {{convert|100000|m3|ft3}} of waste water contaminated with heavy metal sludge and up to {{convert|120|LT|0}} of cyanide into the [[Tisza]] River.<ref>{{Citation |title=Cyanide spill at Baia Mare Romania: UNEP/OCHA Assessment Mission |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/43CD1D010F030359C12568CD00635880-baiamare.pdf |access-date=7 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925082805/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/43CD1D010F030359C12568CD00635880-baiamare.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Mercury process ===
Historically, [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] was used extensively in [[Amalgam (chemistry)#Use in mining|placer gold mining]] in order to form mercury-gold [[Amalgam (chemistry)|amalgam]] with smaller gold particles, and thereby increase the gold recovery rates.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Aghaei |first=Elham |last2=Alorro |first2=Richard Diaz |last3=Tadesse |first3=Bogale |last4=Browner |first4=Richard |date=2019 |title=A review on current practices and emerging technologies for sustainable management, sequestration and stabilization of mercury from gold processing streams |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S030147971931076X |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |language=en |volume=249 |pages=109367 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109367}}</ref> '''First, the gold ore is crushed and ground to a fine powder to expose the gold particles for amalgamation. Then, this finely ground ore is mixed with liquid mercury to amalgamate it.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Veiga |first=Marcello M. |last2=Maxson |first2=Peter A. |last3=Hylander |first3=Lars D. |date=2006 |title=Origin and consumption of mercury in small-scale gold mining |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.08.010 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=14 |issue=3-4 |pages=436–447 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.08.010 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> '''Mercury forms an amalgam, an alloy, with gold particles to allow for the efficient capture of gold from the ore.''' The gold is concentrated by boiling away the mercury from the [[Amalgam (chemistry)|amalgam]]. '''This process is called retorting.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bosse Jønsson |first=Jesper |last2=Charles |first2=Elias |last3=Kalvig |first3=Per |date=2013 |title=Toxic mercury versus appropriate technology: Artisanal gold miners’ retort aversion |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.09.001 |journal=Resources Policy |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=60–67 |doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.09.001 |issn=0301-4207}}</ref> This is effective in extracting very small gold particles, but the process is hazardous due to the toxicity of mercury vapour.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":12">Chemicals and Waste Branch UNEP: ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BmJTSptLab4 ASGM: Eliminating the worst practices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205024139/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BmJTSptLab4|date=5 December 2017}}'', YouTube, September 2017.</ref> Large-scale use of mercury stopped in the 1960s. However, mercury is still used in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM).<ref name=":13" /><ref>Feijoo, M. D. A., Walker, T. R. (2018). Correspondence to the Editor Re: Artisanal and small-scale gold mining impacts in Madre de Dios, Peru: Management and mitigation strategies. Environment International, 111, 133-134. [[doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.11.029]]</ref> 

== Business ==
=== Small operations ===
{{anchor|garimpeiros}}
[[File:Guinea_Siguiri_miner_woman.jpg|thumb|Woman panning for gold in Guinea]]
[[File:Harold_with_old_bellows_1976.jpg|thumb|Old hand [[bellows]] on abandoned gold mine in western [[New South Wales]], Australia]]
[[File:Artisanal_gold_Dodoma003.jpg|thumb|[[Artisanal mining|Artisanal subsurface mining]] in Tanzania]]
While most gold is produced by major corporations, there are an estimated 10 to 15 million small-scale [[Artisanal mining|artisanal]] gold miners worldwide. Around 4.5 million of them are women, and an estimated 600,000 children work in illegal artisanal gold mines. Artisanal miners use rudimentary methods to extract and process gold. Many of these people are mining to escape [[extreme poverty]], unemployment and [[landlessness]].

In Ghana, ''[[galamsey]]'' miners are estimated to number 20,000 to 50,000.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news |date=12 November 2009 |title=Women die in Ghana mine collapse |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8356343.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114012359/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8356343.stm |archive-date=14 November 2009 |access-date=12 November 2009 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> In neighboring francophone countries, such workers are called ''[[:fr:orpailleur|orpailleurs]].'' In Brazil, Venezuela, Suriname, and French Guiana, workers are called ''[[:fr:garimpeiros|garimpeiros]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lourenço já contabiliza 20 garimpeiros mortos. Condições de trabalho são precárias |url=https://selesnafes.com/2014/03/lourenco-ja-contabiliza-20-garimpeiros-mortos-condicoes-de-trabalho-sao-precarias/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814192043/https://selesnafes.com/2014/03/lourenco-ja-contabiliza-20-garimpeiros-mortos-condicoes-de-trabalho-sao-precarias/ |archive-date=14 August 2021 |access-date=31 March 2021 |website=Seles Nafes |language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Brazilianen in Suriname |url=https://www.waterkant.net/suriname/2007/09/17/brazilianen-in-suriname/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325131944/https://www.waterkant.net/suriname/2007/09/17/brazilianen-in-suriname/ |archive-date=25 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2021 |website=Waterkant |language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=En Guyane, la lutte sans fin contre les « garimpeiros », ces orpailleurs clandestins |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2021/02/11/en-guyane-la-lutte-sans-fin-contre-les-orpailleurs-clandestins_6069544_823448.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329011101/https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2021/02/11/en-guyane-la-lutte-sans-fin-contre-les-orpailleurs-clandestins_6069544_823448.html |archive-date=29 March 2021 |access-date=31 March 2021 |website=Le Monde |language=fr}}</ref> '''These workers are not required to claim responsibility for their social and environmental impacts.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sousa |first=Rodolfo |last2=Veiga |first2=Marcello |last3=Van Zyl |first3=Dirk |last4=Telmer |first4=Kevin |last5=Spiegel |first5=Sam |last6=Selder |first6=Jeff |date=2011 |title=Policies and regulations for Brazil’s artisanal gold mining sector: analysis and recommendations |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S095965261000452X |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6-7 |pages=742–750 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.12.001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Veiga |first=Marcello M. |last2=Hinton |first2=Jennifer J. |date=2002 |title=Abandoned artisanal gold mines in the Brazilian Amazon: A legacy of mercury pollution |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1477-8947.00003 |journal=Natural Resources Forum |language=en |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=15–26 |doi=10.1111/1477-8947.00003 |issn=0165-0203}}</ref>

Miners risk government persecution, mine shaft collapses, and toxic poisoning from unsafe chemicals used in processing, such as mercury. For example, in Ghana during 2009, the [[Dompoase mine collapse]] killed 18 workers. It was the worst mining disaster in Ghanaian history.<ref name="bbc2">{{cite news |date=12 November 2009 |title=Women die in Ghana mine collapse |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8356343.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114012359/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8356343.stm |archive-date=14 November 2009 |access-date=12 November 2009 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

Children in these mines suffer extremely harsh working conditions and various hazards such as collapsing tunnels, explosions, and chemical exposure. Children may be especially vulnerable to these hazards and many suffer from serious respiratory conditions, hearing, and vision problems.<ref>International Journal of Engineering and Information Systems (IJEAIS) ISSN: 2643-640X Vol. 4 Issue 10, October - 2020, Pages: 12-16 www.ijeais.org/ijeais 12 Small-Scale Gold Mining Progress in Prospects in Improving Countries Umirzoqov Azamat Abdurashidovich, Bekmuratov Ajiniyaz Omirbek ogli http://ijeais.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/IJEAIS201005.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413012628/http://ijeais.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/IJEAIS201005.pdf|date=13 April 2023}}</ref>

=== Large companies ===
Gold mining by large [[Multinational corporation|multi-national corporations]] produces about 80% of the gold supply. Most gold is mined in developing nations. Large mining companies play a key role in [[Economic globalization|globalisation of the economy]] by linking rich and poor companies.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last1=Gifford |first1=Blair |last2=Kestler |first2=Andrew |last3=Anand |first3=Sharmila |date=2010-07-01 |title=Building local legitimacy into corporate social responsibility: Gold mining firms in developing nations |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090951609000686 |journal=Journal of World Business |language=en |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=304–311 |doi=10.1016/j.jwb.2009.09.007 |issn=1090-9516}}</ref> [[Newmont]] and [[Barrick Gold]] are the largest gold mining companies in the world, but there are many smaller corporations in the industry.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last=Dougherty |first=Michael L. |date=2013 |title=The Global Gold Mining Industry: Materiality, Rent-Seeking, Junior Firms and Canadian Corporate Citizenship |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1179/1024529413Z.00000000042 |url-status=live |journal=Competition & Change |language=en |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=339–354 |doi=10.1179/1024529413Z.00000000042 |issn=1024-5294 |s2cid=153829134 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416230425/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1179/1024529413Z.00000000042 |archive-date=16 April 2023 |access-date=13 April 2023}}</ref>

Local communities are frequently vulnerable to environmental degradation caused by large mining companies and may lack government protection or industry regulation.<ref name=":03" /> For example, thousands of people around [[Lega Dembi Mine|Lega Dembi mine]] are exposed to mercury, arsenic, and other toxins resulting in widespread health problems and birth defects.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Boyd |first=David R |url=https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-03/SacrificeZones-userfriendlyversion.pdf |title=Sacrifice zones 50 of the Most Polluted Places on Earth |publisher=Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and the Environment |year=2022 |access-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606101244/https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-03/SacrificeZones-userfriendlyversion.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Vulnerable communities may also lose their land to the mine.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Yankson |first=Paul W. K. |date=2010-05-01 |title=Gold mining and corporate social responsibility in the Wassa West district, Ghana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09614521003709965 |journal=Development in Practice |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=354–366 |doi=10.1080/09614521003709965 |issn=0961-4524 |s2cid=153570328}}</ref> Some large companies have attempted to build local legitimacy through [[corporate responsibility]] initiatives and local development.<ref name=":03" /><ref name=":22" />

== Adverse effects and responses ==
{{also|Gold#Pollution|List of gold mining disasters}}

=== Impact ===

==== '''Environmental impacts''' ====
Gold mining can significantly alter the natural environment. Gold mining activities in tropical forests are increasingly causing deforestation along rivers and in remote areas rich in biodiversity.<ref name="Asner">{{cite journal |last1=Asner |first1=G. P. |last2=Llactayo |first2=W. |last3=Tupayachi |first3=R. |last4=Luna |first4=E. R. |year=2015 |title=Elevated rates of gold mining in the Amazon revealed through high-resolution monitoring |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=110 |issue=46 |pages=18454–18459 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1318271110 |pmc=3832012 |pmid=24167281 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Alvarez">{{cite journal |author1=Alvarez, N.L |author2=T. M. Aide |year=2015 |title=Global demand for gold is another threat for tropical forests |journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=014006 |bibcode=2015ERL....10a4006A |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/10/1/014006 |doi-access=free}}</ref> '''Mining has increased rainforest loss up to 70km beyond lease boundaries, causing nearly 11,670 km<sup>2</sup> of deforestation between 2005 to 2015.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Sonter |first=Laura J. |last2=Herrera |first2=Diego |last3=Barrett |first3=Damian J. |last4=Galford |first4=Gillian L. |last5=Moran |first5=Chris J. |last6=Soares-Filho |first6=Britaldo S. |date=2017 |title=Mining drives extensive deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00557-w |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-00557-w |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=PMC5647322 |pmid=29044104}}</ref> Up to 9% of gold mining occurs outside of these regulated lease boundaries.<ref name=":1" />''' Other gold mining impacts, particularly in aquatic systems with residual cyanide or mercury (used in the recovery of gold from ore), can be highly toxic to people and wildlife even at relatively low concentrations.<ref>[http://www.cyanidecode.org/cyanide_environmental.php Environmental and Health Effects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130094124/http://www.cyanidecode.org/cyanide_environmental.php|date=30 November 2012}}. Cyanidecode.org. Retrieved on 26 October 2010.</ref> '''Illegal gold mining exacerbates the ecological vulnerability of the remaining forest ultimately leading to permanent forest loss.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zemp |first1=D. C. |last2=Schleussner |first2=C.-F. |last3=Barbosa |first3=H. M. J. |last4=Rammig |first4=A. |date=2017-06-28 |title=Deforestation effects on Amazon forest resilience |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2017GL072955 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=44 |issue=12 |pages=6182–6190 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.6182Z |doi=10.1002/2017GL072955 |issn=0094-8276}}</ref> Gold mining clears native forests for mineral extraction, but also indirectly facilitates access to more land and further clearing. Rainforest recovery rates are the lowest ever recorded for tropical forests, with there being little to no tree regeneration at abanded mining camps, even after several years.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Kalamandeen |first1=Michelle |last2=Gloor |first2=Emanuel |last3=Johnson |first3=Isaac |last4=Agard |first4=Shenelle |last5=Katow |first5=Martin |last6=Vanbrooke |first6=Ashmore |last7=Ashley |first7=David |last8=Batterman |first8=Sarah A. |last9=Ziv |first9=Guy |last10=Holder-Collins |first10=Kaslyn |last11=Phillips |first11=Oliver L. |last12=Brondizio |first12=Eduardo S. |last13=Vieira |first13=Ima |last14=Galbraith |first14=David |date=2020 |editor-last=Magrach |editor-first=Ainhoa |title=Limited biomass recovery from gold mining in Amazonian forests |url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13669 |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |language=en |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=1730–1740 |bibcode=2020JApEc..57.1730K |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.13669 |issn=0021-8901}}</ref>''' '''The [[Amazon rainforest]] is at risk for 'savannization', which is the gradual transformation of a tropical rainforest into a savannah.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Asner |first=Gregory P. |last2=Tupayachi |first2=Raul |date=2017 |title=Accelerated losses of protected forests from gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7dab |journal=Environmental Research Letters |language=en |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=094004 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aa7dab |issn=1748-9326}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last=Nobre |first=Carlos A. |last2=Sampaio |first2=Gilvan |last3=Borma |first3=Laura S. |last4=Castilla-Rubio |first4=Juan Carlos |last5=Silva |first5=José S. |last6=Cardoso |first6=Manoel |date=2016-09-27 |title=Land-use and climate change risks in the Amazon and the need of a novel sustainable development paradigm |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1605516113 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=113 |issue=39 |pages=10759–10768 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1605516113 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=PMC5047175 |pmid=27638214}}</ref> '''This would ultimately lead to a collapse of biodiversity, ecosystems, and climate'''.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Piauí |first=F. |date=2021 |title=In Brazilian Amazon, savannization and climate change will expose 12 million to lethal heat stress |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-10-brazilian-amazon-savannization-climate-expose.html#:~:text=In%20this%20region%2C%20approximately%2012,such%20effects%20as%20mass%20migration. |url-status=live}}</ref> 

Gold mining produces more waste than mining of other minerals, because it can be mined at a lower grade. Tailings can contain lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic. These toxins can pose health risks for local communities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Gifford |first1=Blair |last2=Kestler |first2=Andrew |last3=Anand |first3=Sharmila |date=2010-07-01 |title=Building local legitimacy into corporate social responsibility: Gold mining firms in developing nations |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090951609000686 |journal=Journal of World Business |language=en |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=304–311 |doi=10.1016/j.jwb.2009.09.007 |issn=1090-9516}}</ref> [[Arsenic]] is typically found in gold-containing ores, and gold processing may [[Arsenic contamination of groundwater|contaminate groundwater]] or the atmosphere. This pollution may persist for decades.<ref>{{Citation |last=Eisler |first=Ronald |title=Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |date=2004 |volume=180 |pages=133–165 |access-date=2023-06-12 |chapter=Arsenic Hazards to Humans, Plants, and Animals from Gold Mining |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-21729-0_3 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/0-387-21729-0_3 |isbn=978-0-387-21729-1 |pmid=14561078}}</ref> '''Furthemore, mining operations use large quantities of water for processing ore and can result in the contamination of water sources with heavy metals, such as [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[Cyanide poisoning|cyanide]], used in the extraction process.'''<ref>{{Citation |last=Eisler |first=Ronald |title=Cyanide Hazards to Plants and Animals from Gold Mining and Related Water Issues |date=2004 |work=Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |pages=21–54 |editor-last=Ware |editor-first=George W. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9100-3_2 |access-date=2024-03-22 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-9100-3_2 |isbn=978-1-4419-9100-3 |last2=Wiemeyer |first2=Stanley N.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kazapoe |first=Raymond Webrah |last2=Amuah |first2=Ebenezer Ebo Yahans |last3=Abdiwali |first3=Saad Ahmed |last4=Dankwa |first4=Paul |last5=Nang |first5=Douti Biyogue |last6=Kazapoe |first6=Jesse Pwayivi |last7=Kpiebaya |first7=Prosper |date=2023-08-01 |title=Relationship between small-scale gold mining activities and water use in Ghana: A review of policy documents aimed at protecting water bodies in mining communities |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667010023000513 |journal=Environmental Challenges |volume=12 |pages=100727 |doi=10.1016/j.envc.2023.100727 |issn=2667-0100}}</ref> '''This pollution can have detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems and human heatlh. Soil degradation has also been found to be impacted by gold mining.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Batterman |first=Sarah A. |last2=Hedin |first2=Lars O. |last3=van Breugel |first3=Michiel |last4=Ransijn |first4=Johannes |last5=Craven |first5=Dylan J. |last6=Hall |first6=Jefferson S. |date=2013 |title=Key role of symbiotic dinitrogen fixation in tropical forest secondary succession |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12525 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=502 |issue=7470 |pages=224–227 |doi=10.1038/nature12525 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Román-Dañobeytia |first=Francisco |last2=Huayllani |first2=Mijail |last3=Michi |first3=Anggela |last4=Ibarra |first4=Flor |last5=Loayza-Muro |first5=Raúl |last6=Vázquez |first6=Telésforo |last7=Rodríguez |first7=Liset |last8=García |first8=Mishari |date=2015 |title=Reforestation with four native tree species after abandoned gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.09.075 |journal=Ecological Engineering |volume=85 |pages=39–46 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.09.075 |issn=0925-8574}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last=Román-Dañobeytia |first=Francisco |last2=Cabanillas |first2=France |last3=Lefebvre |first3=David |last4=Farfan |first4=Jhon |last5=Alferez |first5=Jesús |last6=Polo-Villanueva |first6=Fredy |last7=Llacsahuanga |first7=Juana |last8=Vega |first8=Claudia M. |last9=Velasquez |first9=Manuel |last10=Corvera |first10=Ronald |last11=Condori |first11=Edith |last12=Ascorra |first12=Cesar |last13=Fernandez |first13=Luis E. |last14=Silman |first14=Miles R. |date=2021 |title=Survival and early growth of 51 tropical tree species in areas degraded by artisanal gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.106097 |journal=Ecological Engineering |volume=159 |pages=106097 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.106097 |issn=0925-8574}}</ref> '''Mining activities can disturb soil structure, leading to erosion, sedimentation of waterways, and loss of fertile land for agriculture or vegetation regrowth.'''<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> '''More evidently, dust and emissions from mining machiner and processing facilities can contribute to air pollution, impacting air quality and potentially causings respiratory problems for nearby communities.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ames |first=R.G |date=1985 |title=Respiratory disease and suicide among US coal miners: is there a relationship? |journal=American Journal of Preventative Medicine |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=58-60}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |last=Avery |first=A.J |last2=Betts |first2=D.S |last3=Whittington |first3=A |last4=Heron |first4=T.B |last5=Wilson |first5=S.H |last6=Reeves |first6=J.P |date=1998 |title=The mental and physical health of miners following the 1992 national pit closure programme: a cross sectional survey using General Health Questionnaire GHQ-12 and Short Form SF-36 |journal=Public Health |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=169-173}}</ref>

==== '''Social and cultural impacts''' ====
'''Large-scale gold mining projects may require land acquisition and resettlement of local communities, leading to displacement, loss of livelihoods, and disruption of traditional ways of life.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nguyen |first=Nhi |last2=Boruff |first2=Bryan |last3=Tonts |first3=Matthew |date=2018 |title=Fool’s Gold: Understanding Social, Economic and Environmental Impacts from Gold Mining in Quang Nam Province, Vietnam |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/5/1355 |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=1355 |doi=10.3390/su10051355 |issn=2071-1050}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Betancur-Corredor |first=Bibiana |last2=Loaiza-Usuga |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Denich |first3=Manfred |last4=Borgemeister |first4=Christian |date=2018-10-20 |title=Gold mining as a potential driver of development in Colombia: Challenges and opportunities |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652618321279 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=199 |pages=538–553 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.142 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> '''In addition to the possible respiratory problems that could be acquired, individuals may be exposed to hazardous chemicals used in gold extraction such as mercury and cyanide. These chemicals pose risks to gold miners, communities, and wildlife; resulting in further medical problems involving [[Neurological disorder|neurological disorders]] and [[Waterborne disease|waterborne diseases]].'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eisler |first=Ronald |date=2003-09-01 |title=Health Risks of Gold Miners: A Synoptic Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024573701073 |journal=Environmental Geochemistry and Health |language=en |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=325–345 |doi=10.1023/A:1024573701073 |issn=1573-2983}}</ref><ref name=":18" />

'''Gold mining in some regions has been associated with conflicts over land rights, labour rights violations, and exploitation of vulnerable populations, including Indigenous peoples and artisanal miners.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harington |first=J.S |last2=McGlashan |first2=ND |last3=Chelkowska |first3=E |date=2004 |title=A century of migrant labour in the gold mines of South Africa |journal=Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy |volume=104 |issue=2 |pages=65-71}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gibson |first=Ginger |last2=Klinck |first2=Jason |date=2005 |title=Canada’s resilient north: the impact of mining on aboriginal communities |journal=Pimatisiwin |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=116-139}}</ref> '''Mining activities can damage or destroy cultural heritage sites, artifacts, and sacred areas; further impacting cultural identities and heritages. In the Amazon rainforest, Indigenous peoples have been killed and had their rightfully owned land stolen from them.'''<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=E. |last2=Peter |first2=F. |date=1988 |title=Deforestation and Indians in Brazilian Amazonia |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK219288/ |journal=Biodiversity |chapter=15 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=National Academies Press}}</ref> '''As a consequence of this, some have left the rainforest to move to cities which further puts them at risk to disease, homelessness, and poverty.'''<ref name=":19" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bachega |first=Hugo |date=2021 |title=Illegal gold miners stalk Amazon as authorities look away |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-57157017 |url-status=live |website=BBC}}</ref>

'''Artisanal gold mining is widespread across [[Africa]], occurring in numerous countries including [[Ghana]], [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zimbabwe]], and many others.'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold mining, climate change, and Africa’s transition |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/gold-mining-climate-change-and-africas-transition/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref> '''For many individuals and communities in rural Africa, [[Gold mining in Africa|artisanal gold mining]] represents a critical source of income and livelihood, providing employment opportunities and economic support in regions with limited alternative options.'''<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/907131520 |title=The Oxford handbook of Africa and economics |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-968711-4 |editor-last=Monga |editor-first=Célestin |edition=1st |series=Oxford handbooks |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |oclc=907131520 |editor-last2=Lin |editor-first2=Justin Yifu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miller |first=Duncan |last2=Desai |first2=Nirdev |last3=Lee-Thorp |first3=Julia |date=2000 |title=Indigenous Gold Mining in Southern Africa: A Review |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3858050?origin=crossref |journal=Goodwin Series |volume=8 |pages=91 |doi=10.2307/3858050}}</ref> '''Artisanal mining operations vary in scale, from individuals panning for gold in rivers and streams, to small groups working collectibely in informal mining camps, often referred to as '[[galamsey]]' in [[West Africa]].'''<ref>{{Cite news |last=Greef |first=Kimon de |date=2023-02-20 |title=The Dystopian Underworld of South Africa’s Illegal Gold Mines |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/02/27/the-dystopian-underworld-of-south-africas-illegal-gold-mines |access-date=2024-04-11 |work=The New Yorker |language=en-US |issn=0028-792X}}</ref>

==== '''Economic impacts''' ====
'''Gold mining can create employment opportunities in mining operations and related sectors. Howevers, these jobs may be temporary. The sector's reliance on fluctuating global gold prices can lead to economic stability for communities dependent on mining.  The discovery of significant gold deposits in a region often sees a flood of resources and development, which lasts as long as the mines are economic. When goldfields begin to decline in production, local economies find themselves destabilised and overly reliant upon an industry that will inevitably abandon the region when gold deposits are sufficiently depleted; <ref>{{Cite book |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/68913299 |title=Growth and development in South Africa's heartland: silence, exit, and voice in the Free State : abridged |date=2005 |publisher=Centre for Development and Enterprise |place=Johannesburg |oclc=68913299}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Siqueira-Gay |first1=Juliana |last2=Sonter |first2=Laura J. |last3=Sánchez |first3=Luis E. |date=2020-08-01 |title=Exploring potential impacts of mining on forest loss and fragmentation within a biodiverse region of Brazil's northeastern Amazon |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301420719307470 |journal=Resources Policy |volume=67 |pages=101662 |bibcode=2020RePol..6701662S |doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101662 |issn=0301-4207 |s2cid=216493246}}</ref> leaving the areas without proper rehabilitation.<ref name=":4" />'''

'''The some instances, the '[[resource curse]]' phenomenon may occur, where countries rich in natural resources, like gold, may experience economic challenges, corruption, inequality, and governence issues instead of sustained development.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davis |first=Graham A. |last2=Tilton |first2=John E. |date=2005 |title=The resource curse |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2005.00133.x |journal=Natural Resources Forum |language=en |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=233–242 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.2005.00133.x |issn=0165-0203}}</ref> '''Despite the existence of several laws that regulate environmental crimes, illegal practices in mining tends to happen because of an absence of enforcement.'''<ref name=":20" /> '''The rules for gold mining create ambiguities between the types of 'legal' mining; leaving loopholes for those to exploit.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal |last=Espin |first=Johanna |last2=Perz |first2=Stephen |date=2021 |title=Environmental crimes in extractive activities: Explanations for low enforcement effectiveness in the case of illegal gold mining in Madre de Dios, Peru |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214790X20303269 |journal=The Extractive Industries and Society |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=331–339 |doi=10.1016/j.exis.2020.12.009}}</ref>'''

==== '''Global market impacts''' ====
'''Gold prices are subject to global market trands, economic uncertainties, and geopolitical factors. Fluctuation in gold prices can influence invesment decisions, currency values, and trade balances in gold-producing and consuming countries.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shafiee |first=Shahriar |last2=Topal |first2=Erkan |date=2010-09-01 |title=An overview of global gold market and gold price forecasting |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301420710000243 |journal=Resources Policy |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=178–189 |doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2010.05.004 |issn=0301-4207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baur |first=Dirk G. |date=2014 |title=Gold mining companies and the price of gold |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.rfe.2014.07.001 |journal=Review of Financial Economics |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=174–181 |doi=10.1016/j.rfe.2014.07.001 |issn=1058-3300}}</ref> '''Furthermore, the global gold supply chain involves complex networks of mining companies, refineries, traders, and retailers. Ensuring ethical and sustainable practices throughout this supply chain, including addressing issues such as child labour and environmental degradation, remains a challenge.'''

=== Responses ===
[[Human Rights Watch]] produced a report in 2015 that outlined some of challenges faced globally. The report notes that<blockquote>Thousands of children in the Philippines risk their lives every day mining gold. Children work in unstable 25-meter-deep pits that could collapse at any moment. They mine gold underwater, along the shore, or in rivers, with oxygen tubes in their mouths. They also process gold with mercury, a toxic metal, risking irreversible health damage from mercury poisoning.</blockquote>''Fairtrade'' and ''Fairmined'' dual certification for [[gold]] was launched across the United Kingdom on 14 February 2011, a joint scheme between [[The Fairtrade Foundation]] and [[The Association for Responsible Mining]]. The ''Fairmined'' mark ensures that the gold has been extracted in a fair and responsible manner.

A [[United Nations|UN]] investigation reported human rights abuses such as sexual exploitation of women and children, [[mercury poisoning]], and child labor affecting communities where illegal gold production occurs. The reports said global buyers such as [[Switzerland]], through which roughly two-thirds of global trade transits, need to ensure that human rights are respected throughout supply chains.

The "No Dirty Gold" campaign, working with a number of campaigning partners, was established in 2004 and aims "to ensure that gold mining operations respect human rights and the environment" through a call for changes in gold mining techniques and processes.{{quote|Thousands of children in the Philippines risk their lives every day mining gold. Children work in unstable 25-meter-deep pits that could collapse at any moment. They mine gold underwater, along the shore, or in rivers, with oxygen tubes in their mouths. They also process gold with mercury, a toxic metal, risking irreversible health damage from mercury poisoning.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/09/29/what-if-something-went-wrong/hazardous-child-labor-small-scale-gold-mining|title=What … if Something Went Wrong? Hazardous Child Labor in Small-Scale Gold Mining in the Philippines|date=2015-09-29|newspaper=Human Rights Watch|access-date=2016-10-17|archive-date=18 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018210739/https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/09/29/what-if-something-went-wrong/hazardous-child-labor-small-scale-gold-mining|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

''Fairtrade'' and ''Fairmined'' dual certification for [[gold]] was launched across the United Kingdom on 14 February 2011,<ref>{{cite news |author=Kate Carter |date=14 February 2011 |title=Fairtrade hallmark sets the gold standard |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/feb/14/fairtrade-gold?INTCMP=SRCH |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312150149/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/feb/14/fairtrade-gold?INTCMP=SRCH |archive-date=12 March 2016 |access-date=20 December 2012 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> a joint scheme between [[The Fairtrade Foundation]] and [[The Association for Responsible Mining]]. The ''Fairmined'' mark ensures that the gold has been extracted in a fair and responsible manner.

A [[United Nations|UN]] investigation reported human rights abuses such as sexual exploitation of women and children, [[mercury poisoning]], and child labor affecting communities where illegal gold production occurs. The reports said global buyers such as [[Switzerland]], through which roughly two-thirds of global trade transits, need to ensure that human rights are respected throughout supply chains.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 September 2022 |title=Gold sourcing and Switzerland in focus at the Human Rights Council |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/gold-sourcing-and-switzerland-in-focus-at-the-human-rights-council/47925514 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926070359/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/gold-sourcing-and-switzerland-in-focus-at-the-human-rights-council/47925514 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |access-date=26 September 2022 |website=Swissinfo}}</ref>

The "No Dirty Gold" campaign, working with a number of campaigning partners, was established in 2004 and aims "to ensure that gold mining operations respect human rights and the environment" through a call for changes in gold mining techniques and processes.<ref>Earthworks, [https://earthworks.org/campaigns/no-dirty-gold/ No Dirty Gold], accessed 30 October 2023</ref><ref>Bland, A., [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/environmental-disaster-gold-industry-180949762/ The Environmental Disaster That is the Gold Industry], ''Smithsonian Magazine'', published 14 February 2014, accessed 30 October 2023</ref> '''The impacts of mining on the environment are long-lasting, and active land management and restoration are needed to ensure recovery.'''<ref name=":5" /> '''A barrier to the restoration of enviroments is cost. Limited funding is a major barrier in implementing commitments.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chazdon |first=Robin L. |date=2008-06-13 |title=Beyond Deforestation: Restoring Forests and Ecosystem Services on Degraded Lands |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1155365 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=320 |issue=5882 |pages=1458–1460 |doi=10.1126/science.1155365 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> '''Restoration costs vary widley between difference approaches, such as passive and active restoration.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holl |first=K.D. |last2=Aide |first2=T.M. |date=2011 |title=When and where to actively restore ecosystems? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378112710003750 |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |language=en |volume=261 |issue=10 |pages=1558–1563 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2010.07.004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brancalion |first=Pedro H. S. |last2=Schweizer |first2=Daniella |last3=Gaudare |first3=Ulysse |last4=Mangueira |first4=Julia R. |last5=Lamonato |first5=Fernando |last6=Farah |first6=Fabiano T. |last7=Nave |first7=André G. |last8=Rodrigues |first8=Ricardo R. |date=2016 |title=Balancing economic costs and ecological outcomes of passive and active restoration in agricultural landscapes: the case of Brazil |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/btp.12383 |journal=Biotropica |language=en |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=856–867 |doi=10.1111/btp.12383 |issn=0006-3606}}</ref> '''Additionally, governments have started to promote the formalization of gold mining.'''<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Salo |first=Matti |last2=Hiedanpää |first2=Juha |last3=Karlsson |first3=Teemu |last4=Cárcamo Ávila |first4=Luciano |last5=Kotilainen |first5=Juha |last6=Jounela |first6=Pekka |last7=Rumrrill García |first7=Róger |date=2016-11-01 |title=Local perspectives on the formalization of artisanal and small-scale mining in the Madre de Dios gold fields, Peru |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X16301733 |journal=The Extractive Industries and Society |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=1058–1066 |doi=10.1016/j.exis.2016.10.001 |issn=2214-790X}}</ref> '''This formalization puts the government in a better position to govern the sectors, manage environmental impacts, and direct mining away from ecologically sensitive areas.'''<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fritz |first=Morgane M.C |title=Global Trends in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): A review of key numbers and issues |last2=Mcquilken |first2=James |last3=Collins |first3=Nina |last4=Weldegiorgis |first4=Fitsum |date=2017 |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development |location=Winnipeg |language=en}}</ref>

== Peak gold ==
{{update section|date=June 2010}}
Peak gold is the date at which the maximum rate of global [[gold]] extraction is reached. According to [[Hubbert peak]] theory, after the peak, the rate of production [[Resource depletion|declines]] until it approaches zero. Unlike [[petroleum]], which is destroyed in use, gold can be reused and recycled.

=== Supply and demand ===
World gold [[Supply and demand|demand]] (defined in terms of total consumption excluding central banks) in 2007 was 3,519 tonnes.<ref name="gwc0811301">{{cite web |date=November 2008 |title=Supply and Demand Statistics |url=http://www.research.gold.org/supply_demand/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210081030/http://www.research.gold.org/supply_demand/ |archive-date=2009-02-10 |access-date=2009-02-10 |publisher=[[World Gold Council]]}}</ref> Gold demand is subdivided into central bank reserve increases, jewellery production, industrial consumption (including dental), and investment (bars, coins, [[Exchange-traded fund|exchange-traded funds]], etc.)

The supply of gold is provided by mining, official sales (typically gold by central banks), de-hedging (physical delivery of metal sold months before by mining companies on terminal markets), and old gold scraps. The total world supply of gold in 2007 was 3,497 tonnes.<ref name="gwc0811302">{{cite web |date=November 2008 |title=Gold Demand Trends |url=http://www.gold.org/deliver.php?file=/value/stats/statistics/pdf/Supply_Demand.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916033528/http://www.gold.org/deliver.php?file=%2Fvalue%2Fstats%2Fstatistics%2Fpdf%2FSupply_Demand.pdf |archive-date=2010-09-16 |access-date=2009-02-10 |publisher=[[World Gold Council]]}}</ref> Gold production does not need to make up for gold demand because gold is a reusable resource. Currently, yearly gold mining produces 2% of the existing above-ground gold which is 158,000 tonnes (as of 2006).<ref name="gfms070415">{{cite web |date=April 2007 |title=Gold Survey 2007 |url=http://www.gfms.co.uk/Market%20Commentary/Gold%20Survey%202007%20Launch%20Presentation.pdf |access-date=2009-02-11 |publisher=[[GFMS Ltd]]}}</ref> In 2008, gold mining produced 2,400 tonnes of gold, official gold sales close to 300 tonnes, and dehedging (physical delivery of metal sold months before by mining companies on terminal markets) close to 500 tonnes.<ref name="gfms090115">{{cite web |date=January 2009 |title=Gold Survey 2008 - Update 2 |url=http://www.gfms.co.uk/Market%20Commentary/Gold%20Survey%202008%20Update%202%20Toronto%20Launch%20Presentation.pdf?videoId=92028 |access-date=2009-02-11 |publisher=[[GFMS Ltd]]}}</ref>

=== Timing of peak production ===
World mined gold production has peaked four times since 1900: in 1912, 1940, 1971, and 2001, which each peak being higher than previous peaks. The latest peak was in 2001, when production reached 2,600 metric tons, then declined for several years.<ref>Thomas Chaise, [http://news.goldseek.com/Dani/1273767071.php World gold production 2010], 13 May 2010.</ref> Production started to increase again in 2009, spurred by high [[Gold price|gold prices]], and achieved record new highs each year from 2011 through 2015, when production reached 3,100 tonnes. Early estimates of 2016 gold production indicate that it was flat to 2015 production, at 3,100 tonnes.<ref>US Geological Survey,  [https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/ Gold], Mineral commodity summaries, Jan. 2017.</ref>

In 2009, [[Barrick Gold|Barrick]] CEO Aaron Regent claimed that global production had peaked in 2000.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/mining/6546579/Barrick-shuts-hedge-book-as-world-gold-supply-runs-out.html Barrick shuts hedge book as world gold supply runs out]; Telegraph Media Group, November 11, 2009</ref>  Barrick's production costs have been "trending down" despite this peak, reaching {{convert|465|$/ozt|$/g}}. In 2006, with gold at {{convert|650|$/ozt|$/g}}, [[Roland Watson]] claimed that gold production had peaked in 2001 due to falling exploration in the 1990s, when gold prices were low. He predicted that higher prices and new technologies would boost gold production to higher levels in the future.<ref>[http://seekingalpha.com/article/16607-in-defense-of-peak-gold-evidence-gold-production-peaked-in-2001 In Defense of Peak Gold: Evidence Gold Production Peaked in 2001]; Seeking Alpha, September 10, 2006</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=December 2023}}

In July 2012, [[Natural Resource Holdings]] CEO [[Roy Sebag]] wrote a report entitled "2012 World Gold Deposit Ranking"<ref>[http://www.nrh.co.il/i/pdf/NRH_Research_2012%20World_Gold_Deposits.pdf 2012 World Gold Deposit Ranking] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429122247/http://www.nrh.co.il/i/pdf/NRH_Research_2012%20World_Gold_Deposits.pdf|date=April 29, 2013}}; NRH Research, July 26, 2012</ref> claiming that gold production would peak between 2022 and 2025 due to the markedly lower grades and remote locations of the remaining known undeveloped deposits.
{{Blockquote|text="Consequently, the guaranteed depletion in the existing production mix coupled with a more realistic introduction of new mines into the mix (as opposed to our theoretical tomorrow scenario) makes it clear that barring multiple high-grade, multi-million ounce discoveries each year, a significant increase in gold production is unlikely. Moreover our calculations point towards gold production peaking at some point between 2022 and 2025 assuming the 90 million troy ounces [2,800 tonnes] per year figure is maintained."}}
Charles Jeannes, the CEO of [[Goldcorp]], the world's largest gold miner by market capitalization, stated in September 2014 that Peak Gold would be reached in either 2014 or 2015.<ref>[http://www.mining.com/goldcorp-we-have-hit-peak-gold-48704/ Goldcorp: We have hit PEAK gold]; Mining.com, September 8, 2014</ref> "Whether it is this year or next year, I don't think we will ever see the gold production reach these levels again," he claimed. "There are just not that many new mines being found and developed."

== Economics of gold ==
The gold price compared to other valuable metals consistently holds its value and is less prone to price changes as other metals. Gold production tends to excel when there are turbulent market conditions with investors seeking a different investment opportunity outside the stock, bond or real estate markets.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web |title=What Drives the Price of Gold? |url=https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0311/what-drives-the-price-of-gold.aspx |access-date=2024-02-12 |website=Investopedia |language=en}}</ref> Some of the factors affecting gold prices are:

=== Central bank gold reserves ===
Central banks diversify their reserves with gold to protect the value of the dollar during challenging economic times.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Why Central Banks Buy Gold |url=https://www.reuters.com/plus/why-central-banks-buy-gold |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803214230if_/https://www.reuters.com/plus/why-central-banks-buy-gold |archive-date=August 3, 2023 |access-date=February 12, 2024 |website=Reuters}}</ref> When banks are forced to print more money to prevent economic turmoil they are simultaneously devaluing the currency. Gold, unlike money, is a finite valuable material which can be used as a hedge against the inflation cause by increasing the money supply.<ref name=":52" /> Gold has this inverse relationship with the US dollar which is used as a reserve asset by many central banks thus protecting the central banks reserves when there is a dip in the US dollar or the money supply increases.<ref name=":52" />

=== Value of the U.S. dollar ===
As mentioned above the value of the U.S. dollar is normally inversely related to the value of gold, this is because gold is dollar-denominated.<ref name=":42" /> When the U.S. dollar is stronger it tends to keep the price of gold lower and controlled and when there is a weaker U.S. dollar the price of gold is likely to increase as well as the demand for it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is the Real Relationship Between Gold and the US Dollar? |url=https://www.thebalancemoney.com/the-relationship-between-gold-and-the-u-s-dollar-808978 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618012137if_/https://www.thebalancemoney.com/the-relationship-between-gold-and-the-u-s-dollar-808978 |archive-date=June 18, 2023 |access-date=February 12, 2024 |website=The Balance |language=en}}</ref>


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=== References ===

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