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{{history of Thailand}}
{{main|John Crawfurd}}

[[British Empire|British]] [[East India Company]] [[Governor-General]] [[Francis_Rawdon-Hastings,_1st_Marquess_of_Hastings|Lord Hastings]] despatched Crawfurd's mission with the primary objective of learning Siamese intentions with regards to [[Penang Island]], renamed Prince of Wales Island and held by payment of [[quit-rent]] to a Malay prince feudatory to Siam. A secondary object was to determine Cochin-Chinese intentions with regard an alliance with the French, both as these might affect the Company's [[Economic_history_of_China_(pre-1911)#Qing_.28Manchu.29_Dynasty_.281644.E2.80.931912_CE.29|trade with China]]. While en-route, Crawfurd learns a Malay vassal of  the raja of Ligor, a vassal of the king of Siam, had fled his liege lord for asylum on Penang. This complicates negotiations with Bangkok, but proves to be of little consequence as the primary of objective of the Siamese was to obtain arms. Lastly, Crawfurd finds Emperor [[Minh Mang]] locked in rigid [[Confucian]] orthodoxy, and opposed to French or any other European involvement. The real value of the mission lies in the reports and their aftermath.

== Mission composition ==
As recounted in the '''Journal of an [[Embassy]] from the [[Governor-general of India]] to the Courts of [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siam]] and [[Huế|Cochin China]]''' ; ''exhibiting a view of the 
actual state of those kingdoms''<ref name = "Crawfurd">{{cite book |last= Crawfurd |first= John |authorlink= John Crawfurd |title= Journal of an Embassy from the Governor-general of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sAUPAAAAYAAJ 
|volume= Volume 1 |date= Digitized October 10, 2007 |orig-year= First published 1830 |publisher= H. Colburn and R. Bentley |location= London |oclc= 03452414 |pages= 475 pages |no-pp= 0<!-- hides automatic 'p' or 'pp'.-->  |chapter=  |access-date= February 2, 2012 |edition= 2nd ed., from the New York Public Library 
|archive-url= http://archive.org/details/journalanembass04crawgoog |archive-date= 20071010
|quote= }}</ref>{{rp |pp.1&ndash;2}}'' the mission embarked at [[Calcutta]] the 21st of November, 1821, and returned on December 29, 1822. [[Bengal Army|Indian army]] officer Captain Dangerfield was appointed assistant and second in command, and he also proved to be a skilful [[astronomer]], [[surveyor]], and [[geologist]]. Lieutenant Rutherford commanded an escort of thirty [[Sepoy]]s. [[George Finlayson]] ([[List of botanists by author abbreviation|botanist abbreviation]] '''Finl''') of His Majesty's Medical Service was attached as  medical officer and [[naturalist]]. He also kept a journal of the mission, but died soon after returning. Sir [[Stamford Raffles]] edited and published it with a prefatory note<ref name = "Finlayson">{{cite book |last= Finlayson |first= George |authorlink= George Finlayson |coauthors= Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, F.R.S.
|title= The mission to Siam, and Hué, the capital of Cochin China, in the years 1821-2 ... With a memoir of the author, by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, F.R.S. |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=znkOAAAAQAAJ |volume=  |date= Scan 21 August 2006 |orig-year= First published 1826 |publisher=  J. Murray |location= London |oclc= 12212199 |id= embassytoeaster00unkngoog |pages= 445 pgs |no-pp= 0<!-- hides automatic 'p' or 'pp'.-->  |chapter=  |access-date= March 23, 2012
|edition= |quote= }}</ref>. Both journals agree that the mission had little impact on the [[British Empire]]'s commercial relations. That the mission had an effect on diplomatic relations  was, however, evidenced in 1833 by an American envoy who, while in negotiations with the court of Huế, pointed to a copy of Mr. Crawford's{{sic}} account<ref name = "Roberts">{{cite book 
|last= Roberts|first= Edmund |authorlink= |title= Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat : in the U. S. sloop-of-war Peacock ... during the years 1832-3-4 |url=  https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Here+they+were+pointed+to+Mr.+Crawford%27s%22&pg=PA198
|volume=   |date= First published in 1837 |publisher=   Harper & brothers  |location=  |oclc=  12212199 id= embassytoeaster00unkngoog
|page= 198 |no-pp= <!-- hides automatic 'p' or 'pp'.-->  |chapter=  
|isbn= 9780608404066 |access-date=  March 23, 2012 |edition=  |archive-url=  http://archive.org/stream/embassytoeaster00unkngoog/embassytoeaster00unkngoog_djvu.txt |archive-date=  March 23, 2012 |quote=Here they were pointed to Mr. Crawford's account... page 269...[page 414 in 2nd ed.]}}</ref>{{rp |p.  198}}.

== Siamese invasion of Kedah ==
{{see|Jessadabodindra#Revolt_of_Kedah}}
[[Kedah]] (''Queda'' in Crawfurd's account) had, shortly before his December 11 arrival at the offshore island of [[Penang Island|Penang]], been invaded by the [[Raja]] of [[Nakhon Si Thammarat|Ligor]], in a punitive attack on the "[[Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II|King of Queda]]," who had, in return for [[quit-rent]], earlier ceded Penang to the Company, which then re-named it Prince of Wales Island. the population was alarmed because the Malay prince had taken refuge there. [[Early history of Kedah|Early Kedha]] had once been a kingdom, but the ruler was then a [[vassal]] of the raja of Ligor, who in turn was a vassal of Bangkok. Hostile Burman and Siamese forces disputed over Malay territory in a state of perpetual distrust and insecurity all during [[Burmese–Siamese_wars#Konbaung.E2.80.93|Bangkok's wars with the Burmese]]  [[Konbaung Dynasty]], lasting well into the middle of 19th century. The Raja of Ligor had laid a [[Conscription#Medieval_levies|levy]] on Queda for support, and retaliated in force when her ruler refused. When he then fled to Penang, the raja sent a letter to demand return of the fugitive, threatening punishment of anyone who should screen him. Crawfurd judged the letter ''insolent'', and adds: <blockquote>The terror of this threat alarmed the timidity of the native inhabitants, and the usual supply of grain and other necessaries, for which Penang almost entirely depends upon Queda, being interrupted, the settlement was subjected to considerable temporary inconvenience.</blockquote>    

Crawfurd was then met by two acquaintances from Calcutta, descendants of Mohammedan settlers from [[Arcot]] on the [[Coromandel Coast]], who had already supplied more useful and practical knowledge than that found in printed sources. They had already informed the Raja of Ligor of the mission. Two weeks later, December 24, two men arrive with messages from the Raja, disclaiming all hostile or unfriendly intentions towards the British in the invasion of Queda, despite a Siamese officer with thirty men having crossed into and plundered British territory. A native sergeant with twelve sepoys had taken them without resistance and sent them back. The messengers reported that those ''who had presumed to enter the British territories on the opposite coast in a hostile manner'' had been punished[and Cochin China. 21]. Crawfurd observes: <blockquote>The appearance of the messengers was sufficiently uncivilized : — their dresses were scanty in amount, and not of the best description in point of quality. Above all, their bare and shaggy heads gave them a wild and unpromising aspect. Notwithstanding this, Mong Narrain, the principal, was a man of intelligence, and spoke with an air of much confidence and apparent frankness.</blockquote>
Crawfurd continues to regard Siamese as uncivilized. Later in Bangkok, the Siamese  explain their position, which Crawfurd says was translated to him nearly as follow:<blockquote>" The Governor of Ligor and the Rajah of Quedah are alike slaves of the King of Siam ; and if a dispute arise between them, they must both repair to the Court to have the matter settled...."</blockquote> Crawfurd responds: <blockquote>If the King of Quedah were of his own free will disposed to come to Siam, the British Government would put no obstacle in his way; but that if otherwise, no power should remove him, since he had thrown himself upon our hospitality.[252]</blockquote> (Crawfurd assumes the Siamese lack the power to enforce their claims either way.)

== Background ==
{{see|Mercantilism}}
From the 16th to late-18th centuries, Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse, and was a cause of frequent European wars in that time. European [[East Indiaman]] cargo ships were often armed and used as [[warship]]s. The [[Kingdom of England|English]] [[East India Company]] was the first such company, but was nearly driven from the region by that of  the [[Portuguese East India Company|Portuguese]] (1628 &ndash; 1633.) [[French East India Company|French]] trade lasted from 1664 to 1794, and [[Swedish East India Company|Swedish]], from 1731 to 1813. The [[Danish East India Company]] formed 1616 and reformed in 1730, was entirely lost in an 1801 battle with the British. The [[Dutch East India Company]] dominated the trade from 1602 to 1796, but went bankrupt and was formally dissolved in 1800. While it was slow in coming, the failures of the mercantilist system paved the way for for what Crawfurd advocated: [[Free trade]]. 
=== South Asia ===
The concept of a [[British Empire]] was [[territorial evolution of the British Empire|still evolving]] when the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] consolidated in 1801. In 1815, the annexation of [[British_Ceylon#Kandyan_Wars|Ceylon]], marked the beginning of '''[[Pax Britannica#History|Pax Britannica]]''', a "British Peace" imposed on key maritime trade routes, and the focus turns to the [[Straits of Malacca]]. In 1786, the Company had occupied [[Penang Island]], shortly to become part of the [[Straits Settlements]] (1826.) Crawfurd had previously spent two years on the island and was personally acquainted with the [[Raja]] of [[Kedah|Queda]]. This and his other attributes made him a logical choice as envoy to the region. Captain Dangerfield's presence reflects the latest British advancements in the [[history of longitude#Lunars_or_chronometers.3F|history of longitude]]. Little was known about [[Buddhism]] at the time, and Crawfurd travelled with notes as it was understood by [[Horace Hayman Wilson]].<ref>p. 11; http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Qj3zdIeEVNIC&pg=PA11 Google Books].</ref>

The Siamese in particular were impressed by Crawfurd's knowledge of Buddhism. Both Courts, however, being ruled by [[dynasty|dynasties]], were reluctant to accept Crawfurd's assertion that [[Company rule in India]] effectively made the Governor-general a [[head of state]] empowered to act independently of his [[Monarch]]. On Crawfurd's part, a [[Palace economy]] as the monarchical equivalent of mercantilism struck him as mere avarice, and the formalities of a [[Gift economy]], more of the same. Furthermore, while the [[14th century BC]]  phraseology in the letter accompanying [[Pu-Ba'lu#EA 314, "A shipment of glass"|Pu-Ba'lu's shipment of glass]] might have pleased ears of the Courts, Crawfurd deemed such formulas obsequious.
=== Southeast Asia ===
{{see|Mandala (Southeast Asian history)|Bunga mas|Burmese–Siamese wars}}
[[Java]]'s first commercial empire, based at [[Majapahit]] in the reign of [[Hayam Wuruk]] (r. 1350-89) had declined with [[the spread of Islam in Indonesia]]; internal conflict prevented the sultanates from forming effective alliances against the Dutch, who, in turn, lost Java to the British in the [[invasion of Java (1811)]]. The [[Khmer Empire]] (802–1431) collapsed into the [[Dark Ages of Cambodia]], a period of continued decline and territorial loss from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. Conflicts in [[Dai Viet]]  had little impact on

=== Climate ===
[[Paddy field]]s ({{langx|th|''Na'' นา}}) had long been the basis for of power among the principalities, as testified in the names [[Sibsongphanna]], 12,000 Fields; [[Lanna]], Million Fields; and in [[Trailokanat#Feudal_rank|feudal ranks of King Trailokanat]]. Distribution of power underwent radical change during the cold period between 1550 AD and 1850 AD known as the [[Little Ice Age]], disrupting the pattern of the [[monsoon]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.whoi.edu/main/news-releases?tid=3622&cid=132589 |title=  Study Links Past Changes in Monsoon to Major Shifts in Indian Civilizations |author= Media Relations Office |date=  March 15, 2012 |format= |work=  news release |publisher=  [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] |access-date=  March 26, 2012
|quote=  We found that when the Asian continent is least heated by the sun, the northward movement of the rain appears to hesitate between the Equator and Asia, bringing less rain to the north
}}</ref>. The interval began with the [[Bayinnaung|"greatest explosion of human energy ever seen in Burma"]] and ended with the British annexation of Pegu province, renamed [[Lower Burma]]. The [[Lê Dynasty]] that ruled from 1428 to 1788 was the longest ruling in Vietnam, but experienced serious difficulties from around 1550. The [[Nguyễn Dynasty]] began in 1802, but its court in Huế was too unstable to treat with Crawfurd. The [[Chakri Dynasty]] was on its second reign, and struggling to restore the preeminence of the former Ayutthaya kingdom.


it is this that of the desire by]control of or   ''with letters addressed from the [[Governor-General of India|Governor-general]]<ref group="n">Lord Hastings) [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings]])</ref>, accompanied by such presents as are required by the usages of the East'' sent by, , to  (now [[Thailand]])  and  [[Cochin-China]] to the court of King [[Buddha Loetla Nabhalai|Rama II]] was nearly the first official visit to one of the most powerful nations in the region since the [[France%E2%80%93Thailand_relations#Siam-England_war_.281687.29|Siam–England war of 1687]] with the previous Siamese [[Ayutthaya kingdom]]. 
In 1821, Crawfurd's expertise had recognised by who sent him as an envoy to the courts of. <ref>{{ODNBweb|id=9468|title=Finlayson, George|first=Giles|last=Hudson}}</ref><nowiki>http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Finlayson,_George_%28DNB00%29
FINLAYSON, GEORGE (1790-1823), naturalist and traveller, born of humble parents at Thurso in 1790, was clerk to Dr. Somerville, chief of the army medical staff in Scotland, and afterwards to Dr. Farrel, chief of the army medical staff in Ceylon, whence he was removed to Bengal, and attached to the 8th light dragoons as assistant-surgeon in 1819. In 1821-2 he accompanied the mission to Siam and Cochin China in the character of naturalist, returning with it to Calcutta in 1823. By this time his health was thoroughly broken, and he soon afterwards died. The journal which he had kept during the mission was edited, with a prefatory notice of the author, by Sir Stamford Raffles, F.R.S., under the title of 'The Mission to Siam and Hue, the capital of Cochin China, in the years 1821-2, from the Journal of the late George Finlayson, Esq.,' London. 1826, 8vo.</nowiki>.   The mission embarked the 21st of November, 1821 on The John Adam, an Indian-built ship of about 380 tons burthen,  Lord Hastings was especially interested in learning more about Siamese policy with regard to the northern [[Malay states]].

== Bangkok ==
Crawfurd's journal entry for April 1 notes that the Siamese, for their part, were especially interested in the acquisition of arms. Pointedly questioned in this regard in a urgent private meeting with the [[Phra Klang|Prah-klang]], the reply was, "that if the Siamese were at peace with the friends and neighbours of the British nation, they would certainly be permitted to purchase fire-arms and ammunition at our ports, but not otherwise<ref name = "Crawfurd">{{rp |p.137}}".<!-- April 1— I had yesterday evening an urgent communication from the Prah-klang, intreating I would wave ceremony, and. meet him at his house, as he had matters of considerable importance to communicate.  April 17, in a late-night audience with the Prince Krom-chiat<ref group="n">[[Thai_royal_and_noble_titles#Krom|''krom kritsadika'']]</ref>, a Siamese chief coolly observed, "If you are at peace with all the world, why do you keep up so great a navy as that which you now describe<ref name="Crawfurd" />{{rp|p.192}}?"<ref group="n">''cf. [[Pax Britannica]]''</ref>   On the heels of this dispute, the Prah-klang gave a formal audience to ambassadors recently arrived from [[Cochin China]]: "four in number, moving with that slow, measured, and solemn step which with us is confined to funeral processions<ref name = "Crawfurd"></ref>{{rp|pp. 244-8}}." With so little understanding by the one side of the protocols of the other, there seemed little prospect of success. May 19, Crawfurd reports a visit from a "Chief of Lao" [ [[Anouvong]] ], who "appeared well-informed respecting his own country, which forms so interesting and considerable, but to Europeans so little known, a portion of the present Siamese Empire<ref name="Crawfurd" />{{rp|p.240}}". This visit was despite the isolation imposed on the mission (which Crawfurd attributes to "extreme jealousy<ref name = "Crawfurd"></ref>{{rp| pp.247-8}}.") In mid-July ss Crawfurd was preparing to depart, the Phra-klang requested a final interview. In the course of long conference, the Prah-klang plainly stated that what the Court most required from the English were fire-arms. Respecting Quedah, he said that 
the Governor of Ligor would soon be at the capital, and that all matters should be amicably arranged<ref name="Crawfurd" />{{rp| p.278}}.  
The contact with Siam paved the way for closer relations with Britain, leading King Rama II to ally his kingdom with the British in the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] (1824–1826). This in turn helped Captain [[Henry Burney]] conclude the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce (Siam–UK)]] in June 1826. in the reign of King [[Rama III]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.pattayamail.com/563/columns.shtml#hd6|title= Dr. John Crawfurd and the Mission to Thailand, 1822|accessdate= 11 August 2011|last= Steam|first= Duncan |date= 14 – 20 May 2004|format= Column|work=A Slice of Thai History|publisher=Pattaya Mail|quote= This in turn helped Captain Henry Burney conclude a treaty of commerce with Thailand in June 1826.}}</ref>.


===Mission to Cochin China===
[[File:Quan phuc nha Nguyen.gif|thumb|left|Vietnamese mandarins, illustration from Crawfurd's ''Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China''.]]
Text to be added.

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=n}}


== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.example.com/ example.com]

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{{Rattanakosin}}
[[:Category:Bilateral relations of the United Kingdom]]
[[:Category:Bilateral relations of Thailand|United Kingdom]]
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