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'''Stomiidae''' is a [[Family (biology)|family]] of deep-sea [[ray-finned fish]], including the '''barbeled dragonfishes'''. They are quite small, usually around 15&nbsp;cm, up to 26&nbsp;cm. These fish are apex predators and have enormous jaws filled with fang-like teeth.<ref name="kenaley">{{cite journal |last=Kenaley |first=Christopher P. |date=2012 |title=Exploring Feeding Behavior In Deep-sea Dragonfishes (Teleostei: Stomiidae): Jaw Biomechanics and Functional Significance of a Loosejaw |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=224–240 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01854.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> They are also able to hinge the neurocranium and upper-jaw system, which leads to the opening of the jaw to more than 100 degrees.<ref name="kenaley" /> This ability allows them to consume extremely large prey, often 50% greater than their standard length.<ref name="kenaley" />{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Astronesthes niger.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Astronesthes niger]]''
| taxon = Stomiidae
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = ''[[Aristostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Astronesthes]]''<br/>
''[[Bathophilus]]''<br/>
''[[Borostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Chauliodus]]''<br/>
''[[Chirostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Echiostoma]]''<br/>
''[[Eupogonesthes]]''<br/>
''[[Eustomias]]''<br/>
''[[Flagellostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Grammatostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Heterophotus]]''<br/>
''[[Idiacanthus]]''<br/>
''[[Leptostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Malacosteus]]''<br/>
''[[Melanostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Neonesthes]]''<br/>
''[[Odontostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Opostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Pachystomias]]''<br/>
''[[Photonectes]]''<br/>
''[[Photostomias]]''<br/>
''[[Rhadinesthes]]''<br/>
''[[Stomias]]''<br/>
''[[Tactostoma]]''<br/>
''[[Thysanactis]]''<br/>
''[[Trigonolampa]]''
}}

== Features ==
It is one of the many species of deep-sea fish that can produce their own light through a chemical process known as [[bioluminescence]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Carmichael |first=Stephen W. |date=November 2019 |title=It Can Bite You Even if You Can't See It |url=https://academic.oup.com/mt/article/27/6/8/6813727 |journal=Microscopy Today |language=en |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1017/S1551929519001056 |issn=1551-9295}}</ref> A special organ known as a [[photophore]] helps produce this light. The deep-sea dragonfishes have large heads, and mouths equipped with many sharp fang-like teeth. They have a long stringlike structure known as barbel, with a light-producing photophore at the tip, attached to their chin. They also have photophores attached along the sides of their body. A specific species of Stomiidae, the Chauliodus, cannot luminescence longer than 30 minutes without adrenaline. However, in presence of adrenaline, it can produce light for many hours.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Mallefet |first1=Jérôme |last2=Duchatelet |first2=Laurent |last3=Hermans |first3=Claire |last4=Baguet |first4=Fernand |date=2019-01-01 |title=Luminescence control of Stomiidae photophores |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S006512811830117X |journal=Acta Histochemica |language=en |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=7–15 |doi=10.1016/j.acthis.2018.10.001 |issn=0065-1281 |pmid=30322809 |s2cid=53505749}}</ref> They produce blue-green light, the wavelengths of which can travel the farthest in the ocean. The deep-sea dragonfish waves its barbel back and forth and produces flashing lights on and off to attract prey and potential mates. Many of the species they prey upon also produce light themselves, which is why they have evolved to have black stomach walls to keep the lights concealed while digesting their meal in order to stay hidden from their predators.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

== Representative species gallery ==
<gallery widths="200">
File:Astronesthes niger.PNG|''[[Astronesthes niger]]''
File:Bathophilus vaillanti.jpg|''[[Bathophilus vaillanti]]''
File:Chauliodus danae.jpg|''[[Chauliodus danae]]''
File:Echiostoma barbatum.jpg|''[[Echiostoma barbatum]]''
File:Eustomias trewavasae (no common name).gif|''[[Eustomias trewavasae]]''
File:Grammatostomias dentatus.jpg|''[[Grammatostomias dentatus]]''
File:Idiacanthus atlanticus.jpg|''[[Idiacanthus atlanticus]]''
File:Malacosteus niger (black).jpg|''[[Malacosteus niger]]''
File:Melanostomias melanops.jpg|''[[Melanostomias melanops]]''
File:Neonesthes capensis (no common name).gif|''[[Neonesthes capensis]]''
File:Opostomias micripnus.jpg|''[[Opostomias micripnus]]''
File:Pachystomias microdon.jpg|''[[Pachystomias microdon]]''
File:Photonectes gracilis.jpg|''[[Photonectes gracilis]]''
File:Photostomias atrox.JPG|''[[Photostomias atrox]]''
File:Stneb u0.jpg|''[[Stomias nebulosus]]''
</gallery>

== Habitat ==
This family ''Stomiidae'' can be found in all oceans. Brian Coad, ichthyologist from the Canada Museum of Nature once observed that there are “64 [species] reported from Canada, 5 of which reach the Arctic <nowiki>''</nowiki>. These species are most commonly found in the mesopelagic to bathypelagic regions at a depth of 1000m-4000m, and in the Arctic, most samples of these species have been captured along the Davis Strait. The average temperature in these waters is approximately 3-4℃<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coad |first=B. |last2=Reist |first2=J. |date=2017 |title=Fishes of Marine Arctic Canada |url=https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442667297 |journal=Toronto: University of Toronto Press}}</ref> (Coad, B. & Reist, J. 2017).

== Evolution of Sensory Organs ==
The deep-sea dragonfishes are part of the stomiidae family, making up a clade of 28 genera and 290 species. The dragonfish possess unique adaptations to help them thrive in the deepest parts of the ocean. This family species have been discovered to use certain long-wave and short-wave bioluminescence to communicate, lure prey, distract predators, and camouflage themselves<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Kenaley |first=Christopher P. |last2=Devaney |first2=Shannon C. |last3=Fjeran |first3=Taylor T. |date=2014-04 |title=The complex evolutionary history of seeing red: molecular phylogeny and the evolution of an adaptive visual system in deep-sea dragonfishes (Stomiiformes: Stomiidae) |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24274363/ |journal=Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=996–1013 |doi=10.1111/evo.12322 |issn=1558-5646 |pmid=24274363}}</ref>. The stomiidae family has many unique adaptations to their sensory organs for the deep sea. Most deep-sea organisms have only a single visual pigment sensitive to the absorbance ranges of 470-490nm<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Douglas |first=Ronald H. |last2=Genner |first2=Martin J. |last3=Hudson |first3=Alan G. |last4=Partridge |first4=Julian C. |last5=Wagner |first5=Hans-Joachim |date=2016-12-20 |title=Localisation and origin of the bacteriochlorophyll-derived photosensitizer in the retina of the deep-sea dragon fish Malacosteus niger |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep39395 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=39395 |doi=10.1038/srep39395 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>. This type of optical system is commonly found in the stomiidae family. However, three genera of dragonfish evolved the ability to produce both long-wave and short-wave bioluminescence<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Douglas |first=R. H. |last2=Mullineaux |first2=C. W. |last3=Partridge |first3=J. C. |date=2000-09-29 |editor-last=Collin |editor-first=S.P. |editor2-last=Marshall |editor2-first=N.J. |title=Long–wave sensitivity in deep–sea stomiid dragonfish with far–red bioluminescence: evidence for a dietary origin of the chlorophyll–derived retinal photosensitizer of Malacosteus niger |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2000.0681 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=355 |issue=1401 |pages=1269–1272 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0681 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=PMC1692851 |pmid=11079412}}</ref>. In addition, deep-sea dragon fishes evolved retinas with far-red emitting photophores and rhodopsins[kenaley]. These far-red emitting properties produce long-wave bioluminescence greater than 650 nm. This unique evolutionary trait was first seen around 15.4 Ma and had a single evolutionary origin within the stomiidae family<ref name=":4" />. 

== Jaw Morphology ==
The jaw of members in the stomiidae family is adapted extremely well for survival and predation in the deep sea. Although small in size, the dragonfish jaw is adapted to capture large prey that are up to 50% the body mass of themselves<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Pupa U. P. A. |last2=Stifler |first2=Cayla A. |date=2019-07-10 |title=See-Through Teeth, Clearly |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590238519300670 |journal=Matter |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=27–29 |doi=10.1016/j.matt.2019.06.015 |issn=2590-2385}}</ref>. The long “loosejaw” of the dragonfish exhibits increased resistive forces to lower jaw adduction compared to fish with shorter jaws; however, due to decreased surface are of the lower jaw, dragonfish are able to lower the mechanical advantage of adduction and increase adduction velocity through the reduction of resistive forces. Additionally, it is seen that the adductor mass of the lower jaw of deep-sea dragonfish is significantly decreased, allowing for increased ability to attain high adduction velocity<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kenaley |first=Christopher P. |date=2012-05 |title=Exploring feeding behaviour in deep-sea dragonfishes (Teleostei: Stomiidae): jaw biomechanics and functional significance of a loosejaw: DRAGONFISH FEEDING BIOMECHANICS |url=https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01854.x |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |language=en |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=224–240 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01854.x}}</ref>. This makes the deep-sea dragonfish significantly more competitive when hunting for prey due to its ability to capture large prey quickly and efficiently.                            

An important distinction in jaw morphology of an adult dragonfish its larvae is the shape of the mouth. The adult fish have a elongated snout-like face with a protruding jaw, while the larvae have a rounder shaped mouth and a lower jaw that does not protrude.<ref name=":7" />                            

Additionally, members of this family have a unique head joint that contribute to its ability to open its ‘loosejaw’ so wide. Deep-sea dragonfish have a flexible connection between the base of the skull and first vertebrae called the occipito-vertebral gap where only the flexible notochord is present<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Schnell |first=Nalani K. |last2=Johnson |first2=G. David |date=2017-02-01 |title=Evolution of a Functional Head Joint in Deep-Sea Fishes (Stomiidae) |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0170224 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=e0170224 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0170224 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC5287460 |pmid=28146571}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Schnell |first=Nalani K. |last2=Britz |first2=Ralf |last3=Johnson |first3=G. David |date=2010 |title=New insights into the complex structure and ontogeny of the occipito-vertebral gap in barbeled dragonfishes (Stomiidae, Teleostei) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmor.10858 |journal=Journal of Morphology |language=en |pages=n/a–n/a |doi=10.1002/jmor.10858}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Germain |first=Damien |last2=Schnell |first2=Nalani K. |last3=Meunier |first3=François J. |date=2019 |title=Histological data on bone and teeth in two dragonfishes (Stomiidae; Stomiiformes): Borostomias panamensis Regan & Trewavas, 1929 and Stomias boa Reinhardt, 1842 |url=http://sfi-cybium.fr/fr/histological-data-bone-and-teeth-two-dragonfishes-stomiidae-stomiiformes-borostomias-panamensis |doi=10.26028/CYBIUM/2019-431-010}}</ref>. This gap is a result of either vertebral reduction or notochord elongation<ref name=":1" />. Functionally, the gap allows deep-sea dragonfish to pull back their cranium and open their mouths up to 120°, which is significantly farther than other taxa that lack such a head joint<ref name=":2" />. This is what allows deep-sea dragonfish to engulf such large prey, resulting in improved survive through the ability to consume more organisms in an extremely food limited environment.            

On top of an extremely well adapted jaw, members of the stomiidae family also have teeth that are adapted for hunting in deep sea. Their teeth are sharp, hard, stiff, and transparent when wet<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Velasco-Hogan |first=Audrey |last2=Deheyn |first2=Dimitri D. |last3=Koch |first3=Marcus |last4=Nothdurft |first4=Birgit |last5=Arzt |first5=Eduard |last6=Meyers |first6=Marc A. |date=2019-07 |title=On the Nature of the Transparent Teeth of the Deep-Sea Dragonfish, Aristostomias scintillans |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2590238519300359 |journal=Matter |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=235–249 |doi=10.1016/j.matt.2019.05.010}}</ref>, making their teeth dangerous weapons as these teeth become basically invisible in the light absent deep sea. This means the refraction index of their teeth is nearly identical to that of the sea water they inhabit <ref name=":0" />. The transparency is due to a nanoscale structure of hydroxyapatite and collagen, while the tips of the transparent teeth of deep-sea dragonfish were found to emit more red light in seawater<ref name=":3" /> which further contributes to its transparency as red light is close to invisible at the depths that the deep-sea dragonfish reside due to a lack of light penetration.    

== Reproduction Features ==
Dragonfish females exhibit two distinct cohorts oocytes, one which is a white cream color during the first growing stage and the other which is orange-reddish in vitellogenesis. The orange-reddish ovaries are released in the current spawning season, while the other batch is in the growing stage. <ref name=":6" /> Stomiids are gonochoristic, allowing them to increase their reproductive fitness by using their energy to produce gametes instead of reconfiguring the reproductive system. The female adult stomiids are also larger than the males.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Marks |first=Alex D. |last2=Kerstetter |first2=David W. |last3=Wyanski |first3=David M. |last4=Sutton |first4=Tracey T. |date=2020 |title=Reproductive Ecology of Dragonfishes (Stomiiformes: Stomiidae) in the Gulf of Mexico |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00101 |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2020.00101 |issn=2296-7745}}</ref> 

== Behavior ==
Dragonfish are a type of teleost fish that inhabit the deep sea and use bioluminescence to detect prey and communicate with potential mates. They possess far-red emitting photophores and rhodopsins that are sensitive to long-wave emissions greater than 650 nm, and have adapted to the unique light conditions of the deep-sea environment.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Kenaley |first=Christopher P. |last2=DeVaney |first2=Shannon C. |last3=Fjeran |first3=Taylor T. |date=2014-01-30 |title=THE COMPLEX EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF SEEING RED: MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY AND THE EVOLUTION OF AN ADAPTIVE VISUAL SYSTEM IN DEEP-SEA DRAGONFISHES (STOMIIFORMES: STOMIIDAE) |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.12322 |journal=Evolution |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=996–1013 |doi=10.1111/evo.12322 |issn=0014-3820}}</ref>

==== '''Reproductive Behavior''' ====
Egg-laying, which predominantly occurs in October, is preceded by a distinctive whirling behavior driven by the male prodding the side of the female's abdomen.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Evans |first=Clive W. |last2=Cziko |first2=Paul |last3=Cheng |first3=Chi-Hing Christina |last4=Devries |first4=Arthur L. |date=2005-09 |title=Spawning behaviour and early development in the naked dragonfish Gymnodraco acuticeps |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antarctic-science/article/abs/spawning-behaviour-and-early-development-in-the-naked-dragonfish-gymnodraco-acuticeps/F583C6B206D2B0FB243620DAAA83C664 |journal=Antarctic Science |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=319–327 |doi=10.1017/S0954102005002749 |issn=1365-2079}}</ref> Additionally, dragonfish possess a unique adaptation of being able to see using chlorophyll in their eyes, which may allow them to detect the weak bioluminescence of their prey and navigate their dark habitats more effectively. This research sheds light on the reproductive behavior and early life stages of the naked dragonfish and contributes to our understanding of the ecology and behavior of dragonfish species. 

Dragonfish also display a parental care behavior, where they guard their nest, staying within close proximity and resting on its pelvic fins. This guarding behavior has been documented in all the major clades of Antarctic notothenoids, except Artedidraconidae.<ref name=":5" />

==== Evolution and Adaptations of the Visual System ====
One study focuses on the stomiid family, which includes loosejaws and dragonfishes, analyzing the genetic makeup of the visual pigments in these fish and how they have adapted to the unique light conditions of the deep-sea environment. The research helps us understand how dragonfish behavior and vision have evolved to allow them to thrive in the deep sea. Dragonfish use far-red emitting photophores and rhodopsins to detect prey and navigate their habitats.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://academic.oup.com/crawlprevention/governor?content=%2fevolut%2farticle-abstract%2f68%2f4%2f996%2f6852063%3fredirectedFrom%3dfulltext |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=academic.oup.com}}</ref> Additionally, dragonfish use chlorophyll in their eyes to detect the weak bioluminescence of their prey, which is an unusual adaptation for a vertebrate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Douglas |first=R. H. |last2=Partridge |first2=J. C. |last3=Dulai |first3=K. |last4=Hunt |first4=D. |last5=Mullineaux |first5=C. W. |last6=Tauber |first6=A. Y. |last7=Hynninen |first7=P. H. |date=1998-06 |title=Dragon fish see using chlorophyll |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/30871 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=393 |issue=6684 |pages=423–424 |doi=10.1038/30871 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>

==== Visual Communication and Behavior ====
Teleost fishes exhibit a wide range of visual signals, including color, texture, form, and motion, that are used to find mates, establish dominance, defend territory, and coordinate group behavior. Dragonfish have specialized bioluminescent organs that produce red light to communicate with potential mates and prey.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marshall |first=N. J. |title=Communication Behavior: Visual Signals |url=https://ecovis.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/2011_Rosenthal__Marshall_Encyclopedia_Fish_Physiology.pdf}}</ref> Understanding the visual communication and behavior of teleost fishes is essential to understanding the behavior of dragonfish in their natural habitats.

== Overview of Bioluminescence in Stomiidae ==
Dragonfish of the Stomiidae family are largely characterized by their [[Bioluminescence|bioluminescent]] barbels, which act as lures for prey and are a species-specific structure.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Herring |first=Peter J. |date=2007-08 |title=REVIEW. Sex with the lights on? A review of bioluminescent sexual dimorphism in the sea |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/abs/review-sex-with-the-lights-on-a-review-of-bioluminescent-sexual-dimorphism-in-the-sea/5F913C5E66B6CC36E0CDE66D4D555DA9 |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |language=en |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=829–842 |doi=10.1017/S0025315407056433 |issn=1469-7769}}</ref> These barbels extend anteriorly off the bottom jaw, and prey attracted to its bioluminescence include [[lanternfish]] and [[Gonostomatidae|bristlemouths]].<ref name=":12" /> It is proposed that the specificity of bioluminescent barbel structure to certain species allows for advantageous same-species recognition that promotes genetic isolation, in addition to allowing scientists to more easily identify distinct species due to anatomical barbel differences.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last=Davis |first=Matthew P. |last2=Holcroft |first2=Nancy I. |last3=Wiley |first3=Edward O. |last4=Sparks |first4=John S. |last5=Leo Smith |first5=W. |date=2014-05-01 |title=Species-specific bioluminescence facilitates speciation in the deep sea |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-014-2406-x |journal=Marine Biology |language=en |volume=161 |issue=5 |pages=1139–1148 |doi=10.1007/s00227-014-2406-x |issn=1432-1793 |pmc=PMC3996283 |pmid=24771948}}</ref> According to Davis ''et al.,'' the diversity observed among species of Stomiidae is exceptional considering their clad age.<ref name=":14" /> Further, [[sexual dimorphism]] of bioluminescence in dragonfish contributes to even greater diversity within the species, but the greater abundance of immature specimens within research collections makes studying sexual dimorphism challenging.<ref name=":13" />
[[File:Malacosteus.svg|thumb|A red photophore is visible in the suborbital region of this ''Malacosteus'' rendering''.'']]

In addition to a bioluminescent barbel, members of the Stomiidae family have a blue light emitting [[photophore]] in the postorbital region.<ref name=":11" /> Some dragonfish, such as the ''Malacosteus niger,'' also have a unique red light emitting photophore in the suborbital region.<ref name=":11" />  It is thought that the mechanism of red bioluminescence produced by the suborbital photophore is facilitated by energy transmission and is chemically similar to the blue bioluminescence of the barbel.<ref name=":11" /> While suborbital photophores that emit red bioluminescence are particularly helpful for finding prey, since many organisms in the deep sea can only see blue light, it appears as though this red light emission by dragonfish is not directly associated with prey choice, and it is thus hypothesized that it may be used for intraspecific communication.<ref name=":11" /> This raises an interesting question of to what extent the red bioluminescence determines dragonfish prey choice.

== Lure Bioluminescence ==
Species of the Stomiidae family use blue bioluminescence for communication, camouflage, and as a luring mechanism.<ref name=":9" /> They emit shortwave blue bioluminescence from postorbital photophores and from a long, slender appendage on the chin, called the barbel.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Splendor in the Dark |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/splendor-in-the-dark |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=Discover Magazine |language=en}}</ref> The shaft of the barbel is composed of cylindrical muscles, blood vessels and nervous fibers, and the bulb of the barbel has a single photophore.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Herring |first=Peter J. |last2=Cope |first2=Celia |date=2005-12-01 |title=Red bioluminescence in fishes: on the suborbital photophores of Malacosteus, Pachystomias and Aristostomias |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-005-0085-3 |journal=Marine Biology |language=en |volume=148 |issue=2 |pages=383–394 |doi=10.1007/s00227-005-0085-3 |issn=1432-1793}}</ref> The catecholamine adrenaline is found in the connective tissue within the stem.<ref name=":02" /> One hypothesis regarding barbel control is that adrenaline innervation may control both the movement of the barbel and its production of bioluminescence. Data from a study performed on specimens of the Stomias boa species agree with this hypothesis because the barbels produced light emissions following exposure to external adrenaline.<ref name=":02" />

The loose jaw dragonfishes, which include species from Aristostomias, Malacosteus, and Pachystomias, have the ability to detect and produce red bioluminescence.<ref name=":9" /> This is made possible by far-red emitting photophores located under the eye and rhodopsins that are sensitive to long-wave emissions.<ref name=":10" /> This red bioluminescence is used to illuminate prey and to detect other far-red dragonfishes, because it goes undetected by most other species.<ref name=":10" /> The species with far-red emitting photophores differ in morphology and behavior from most other dragonfish species. For example, the barbels of these species are more simple in structure than those of other dragonfishes.<ref name=":9" /> They also differ in foraging strategies. While most dragonfishes that produce shortwave blue bioluminescence undergo regular diel vertical migrations, this is not seen in those with far-red emissions. The foraging strategy they undergo involves remaining in the deep-sea and emitting far-red bioluminescence to illuminate a small area and search for prey.<ref name=":9" /> Although Malacosteus, Pachystomias, and Aristostomias all have suborbital photophores that produce red bioluminescence, there are differences in the suborbital photophores between these three genera, in their shape, color, flash duration, and maximum emission.<ref name=":11" />

=== References ===
<references group="" responsive="1"></references><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Evans |first=Clive W. |last2=Cziko |first2=Paul |last3=Cheng |first3=Chi-Hing Christina |last4=Devries |first4=Arthur L. |date=2005-09 |title=Spawning behaviour and early development in the naked dragonfish Gymnodraco acuticeps |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0954102005002749/type/journal_article |journal=Antarctic Science |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=319–327 |doi=10.1017/S0954102005002749 |issn=0954-1020}}</ref>
[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]]
<references /><ref name=":8" />
<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Barrera-Oro |first=Esteban R. |last2=Lagger |first2=Cristian |date=2010-11-01 |title=Egg-guarding behaviour in the Antarctic bathydraconid dragonfish Parachaenichthys charcoti |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-010-0847-3 |journal=Polar Biology |language=en |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1585–1587 |doi=10.1007/s00300-010-0847-3 |issn=1432-2056}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Novillo |first=Manuel |last2=Moreira |first2=Eugenia |last3=Macchi |first3=Gustavo |last4=Barrera-Oro |first4=Esteban |date=2018-11-01 |title=Reproductive biology in the Antarctic bathydraconid dragonfish Parachaenichthys charcoti |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-018-2359-5 |journal=Polar Biology |language=en |volume=41 |issue=11 |pages=2239–2248 |doi=10.1007/s00300-018-2359-5 |issn=1432-2056}}</ref>
<references />External links
* [https://www.sciencealert.com/spectacular-rare-dragonfish-spotted-shimmering-in-the-depths]
* {{FishBase family|family=Stomiidae|month=January|year=2006}}
* [http://fishdb.sinica.edu.tw/pdf/64.pdf%20fishdb.sinica.edu.tw/pdf/64.pdf Review of the Astronesthid Fishes]
* [http://www.fishbase.org/summary/10157 Malacosteus niger]
* [http://marinebio.org/oceans/deep/ The Deep Sea ocean biology]
* [https://www.scienceandthesea.org/program/201106/dragonfish Science and the Sea, ''Dragonfish'']
* [http://www.seasky.org/deep-sea/dragonfish.html Seasky, ''dragonfish'']