View source for White South African English phonology

{{Short description|Phonological system}}
{{Use South African English|date = April 2019}}
{{IPA notice}}
{{listen
| filename     = South African English.ogg
| title        = Speech example.
| description  = An example of a male second-language speaker showcasing South African slang and regionalisms.

Some of the slang is excessive, and it is as if the example is trying to include as much slang as possible. 

The speaker is also mixing in many words from Afrikaans, another official language of South Africa. This is relatively common among bilingual people who speak both languages, but the example uses this mixing in excess.

This mix of English and Afrikaans is used by many South Africans, but predominantly amongst the Caucasian population.
}}

This article covers the '''[[phonology|phonological]] system of [[South African English]]''' ('''SAE''') as spoken primarily by [[White South Africans]]. While there is some variation among speakers, SAE typically has a number of features in common with [[English language in Southern England|English as it is spoken in southern England]] (in places like London), such as [[Rhoticity in English|non-rhoticity]] and the [[trap–bath split|{{sc2|TRAP}}&ndash;{{sc2|BATH}} split]].

The two main phonological features that mark South African English as distinct are the behaviour of the vowels in {{sc2|KIT}} and {{sc2|PALM}}. The {{sc2|KIT}} vowel tends to be "split" so that there is a clear [[Allophone|allophonic]] variation between the front {{IPA|[ɪ]}} and central {{IPA|[ɨ̞]}} or {{IPA|[ə]}}. The {{sc2|PALM}} vowel is characteristically back in the General and Broad varieties of SAE. The tendency to [[monophthong]]ise {{IPA|/ɑʊ/}} and {{IPA|/aɪ/}} to {{IPA|[ɐː]}} and {{IPA|[aː]}} respectively, are also typical features of General and Broad White South African English.

General South African English features phonemic vowel length (so that ''ferry'' {{IPA|/ˈferiː/}} and ''fairy'' {{IPA|/ˈfeːriː/}} and possibly ''cot'' {{IPA|/kɒt/}} and ''cart'' {{IPA|/kɑːt/}} differ only in length) as well as phonemic roundedness, so that ''fairy'' {{IPA|/ˈfeːriː/}} is distinguished from ''furry'' {{IPA|/ˈføːriː/}} by [[roundedness]].{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=613, 615}}{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|pp=936–938}}

Features involving consonants include the tendency for {{IPA|/tj/}} (as in ''tune'') and {{IPA|/dj/}} (as in ''dune'') to be realised as {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and {{IPA|[dʒ]}}, respectively (see [[Yod coalescence]]), and {{IPA|/h/}} has a strong tendency to be voiced initially.

==Vowels==
The vocalic phonemes of South African English are as follows:{{sfnp|Lass|1990|pp=274, 282}}
{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="3" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" | {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}
! colspan="2" | {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! {{small|short}}
! {{small|long}}
! {{small|long}}
! {{small|short}}
! {{small|short}}
! {{small|long}}
! {{small|short}}
! {{small|long}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| ({{IPA link|ɪ}})
| {{IPA link|iː}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɨ̞|ɨ}}
| {{IPA link|ɵ|ʊ}}
| {{IPA link|ʉː}}
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}}
| {{IPA link|eː}}
| {{IPA link|øː}}
| {{IPA link|ə}}
|
|
| ({{IPA link|ʌ}}), ({{IPA link|o}})
| {{IPA link|oː}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
|
|
| ({{IPA link|ä|a}})
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɒ}}
| {{IPA link|ɑː}}
|-
! [[Diphthong]]s
| colspan="8" align="center" | {{IPA|eɪ &nbsp; aɪ &nbsp; ɔɪ &nbsp; ɑʊ &nbsp; œʊ &nbsp; ɪə &nbsp; ʊə}}
|}

== KIT, COMMA, STRUT and PAP ==
RP features three phonemes {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}} and {{IPA|/ʌ/}} which contrast in unstressed closed syllables, so that ''Lenin'' {{IPA|/ˈlenɪn/}} and ''except'' {{IPA|/ɪkˈsept/}} are distinct from ''Lennon'' {{IPA|/ˈlenən/}} and ''accept'' {{IPA|/əkˈsept/}}, whereas ''rabbit'' {{IPA|/ˈræbɪt/}} does not rhyme with ''abbot'' {{IPA|/ˈæbət/}} and ''cucumber'' {{IPA|/ˈkjuːkʌmbə/}} has a different second vowel from ''industry'' {{IPA|/ˈɪndəstri/}}. In stressed closed syllables, only {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ʌ/}} appear. This is also true of Cultivated SAE, but the contrast between {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ə/}} is not always maintained. In General and Broad, it is invariably lost, yielding a high schwa {{IPAblink|ɨ̞}} (hereafter transcribed without the diacritic). This renders ''Lenin'' homophonous with ''Lennon'' as {{IPA|/ˈlenɨn/}}, ''except'' with ''accept'' as {{IPA|/ɨkˈsept/}} and makes ''rabbit'' {{IPA|/ˈrɛbɨt/}} rhyme with ''abbot'' {{IPA|/ˈɛbɨt/}}. This {{IPAblink|ɨ̞|ɨ}} quality is also used in most cases in stressed syllables (so in all three syllables of ''limited'' {{IPA|[ˈlɨmɨtɨd]}}), except when in contact with velars and palatals, after {{IPA|/h/}} as well as in the stressed word-initial position, where the conservative {{IPAblink|ɪ}} quality (further fronted to {{IPAblink|i}} in Broad) is retained. In Broad, {{IPAblink|ɨ̞|ɨ}} may be lowered to {{IPAblink|ə}}. In General, it can happen only in unstressed syllables, so that ''scented'' and ''centered'' can both be pronounced {{IPA|[ˈsentəd]}}, rather than {{IPA|[ˈsentɨd]}}. This phonetic detail is not reflected in transcriptions in this article, except in the word-final position where the vowel is transcribed with {{angbr IPA|ə}}. The {{sc2|STRUT}} vowel is truly contrastive only in the Conservative variety, where there is a clear distinction between {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ə/}}. Because of the merger of those two in General and Broad, {{sc2|STRUT}} may be considered a mere stressed mid schwa {{IPAblink|ə}}, which, according to Lass, is a common and perhaps pivital value in General SAE spoken in Cape Town. He transcribes this vowel with {{angbr IPA|ɜ}}, which is defined as an ''additional mid central vowel'' on the [[History of the International Phonetic Alphabet#1989 Kiel Convention|1989 IPA vowel chart]]. In this article, the symbol {{angbr IPA|ə}} is used instead. {{sc2|STRUT}} is a highly variable vowel, which varies from a centralized {{IPAblink|ʌ|ʌ̈}} (mostly in word-list style) to an open central {{IPAblink|ä}}. The {{sc2|PAP}} vowel {{IPA|/a/}}, a non-native open central vowel that appears mostly in loanwords from Afrikaans overlaps with the openest allophones of {{sc2|STRUT}}. For speakers that have {{IPAblink|ä}} as a norm for {{sc2|STRUT}}, {{sc2|PAP}} is not a distinct class.{{sfnp|Lass|1990|pp=282–3}}{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=612–613}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|pp=113–115}}

== Other vowels ==
* The bracketed {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} appear only in loanwords (such as ''p'''a'''p'' {{IPA|/pap/}} 'weak' or ''g'''o'''gg'''a''''' {{IPA|/ˈxoxa/}} 'insect'), mainly from Afrikaans (in IPA transcriptions of Afrikaans, the latter is often transcribed with {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} despite its height). In addition, Afrikaans {{IPA|[iə]}} and {{IPA|[uə]}} (traditionally transcribed with {{angbr IPA|eː}} and {{angbr IPA|oː}}) are typically nativized as {{sc2|NEAR}} and {{sc2|CURE}}, that is {{IPA|/ɪə/}} (as in ''st'''ee'''n'' {{IPA|/stɪən/}} 'chenin blanc') and {{IPA|/ʊə/}} (as in ''kl'''oo'''f'' {{IPA|/klʊəf/}} 'deep glen'). As a result, {{IPA|/ɪə/}} and {{IPA|/ʊə/}} occur much more frequently in South African English than in other varieties.{{sfnp|Lass|1990|pp=274, 279, 282}} On the recording above, the first three vowels can be heard in many words (although no loanword with {{IPA|/ʊə/}} occurs).
* The original short front vowels {{sc2|TRAP}}, {{sc2|DRESS}} and {{sc2|KIT}} underwent a vowel shift similar to that found in [[New Zealand English]]:
** The {{sc2|TRAP}} vowel {{IPA|/ɛ/}} varies from {{IPAblink|æ}} to {{IPAblink|ɛ}} in General and Cultivated SAE. However, the new prestige value in younger [[Johannesburg]] speakers of the General variety (particularly those who live in the wealthy northern [[suburbs of Johannesburg|suburbs]]) seems to be open front {{IPAblink|a}}, the same as in Modern RP. Before {{IPAblink|ɫ}}, the fully open {{IPAblink|a}} is the norm in the General variety, whereas before voiced stops as well as bilabial and alveolar nasals the vowel tends to be centralised and lengthened to {{IPAblink|æ|æ̈ː}}, often with slight diphthongisation ({{IPA|[æ̈ːə]}}). Broad {{IPA|/ɛ/}} can be as close as mid {{IPAblink|ɛ̝}}, encroaching on the Cultivated realisation of {{sc2|DRESS}}.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=613}}{{sfnp|Lass|1990|p=276}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=115}}{{sfnp|Bekker|2008|pp=83–84}}
** {{sc2|DRESS}} {{IPA|/e/}} is close-mid {{IPAblink|e}} or higher {{IPAblink|e̝}} in General, often with centralisation {{IPA|[{{IPA link|e|ë}} ~ {{IPA link|ɪ}}]}} (it is unclear whether the last allophone is distinct from the front allophone of {{sc2|KIT}} in the General variety). Variants above the close-mid height are typical of female speech. General {{IPA|/e/}} is similar enough to {{IPA|/ɪ/}} in RP and similar accents as to cause perceptual problems for outsiders. Broad variants are very similar to the General ones, but in Cultivated the vowel can be as open as {{IPAblink|e̞}} (within the RP norm). In General and Broad, the vowel can be lowered to {{IPAblink|ɛ}} or even {{IPAblink|æ}} when it occurs before {{IPAblink|ɫ}}.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=613}}{{sfnp|Lass|1990|p=276}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=115}}
** {{sc2|KIT}} is described above.
* The {{sc2|FLEECE}} vowel {{IPA|/iː/}} is a long close front monophthong {{IPAblink|iː}}, either close to cardinal {{IPAblink|iː}} or slightly mid-centralised. It does not have a tendency to diphthongise, which distinguishes SAE from Australian and New Zealand English.{{sfnp|Lass|1990|p=277}}
* The {{sc2|FOOT}} vowel {{IPA|/ʊ/}} is typically a weakly rounded retracted central vowel {{IPAblink|ɵ|ɵ̠}}, somewhat more central than the traditional RP value. Younger speakers of the General variety (especially females) often use a fully central {{IPAblink|ɵ}}. This vowel is effectively the rounded counterpart of {{sc2|KIT}}. Backer and sometimes more rounded variants ({{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ʊ}} ~ {{IPAplink|ʊ|ʊ̹}}]}}) occur before {{IPAblink|ɫ}}. Broad SAE can feature a more rounded vowel, but that is more common in Afrikaans English.{{sfnp|Lass|1990|p=277}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|pp=115–116}}{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=937}}
* The {{sc2|GOOSE}} vowel {{IPA|/ʉː/}} is usually central {{IPAblink|ʉː}} or somewhat fronter in White varieties, though in the Cultivated variety, it is closer to {{IPAblink|uː}} (typically not fully back, thus {{IPAblink|u|u̟ː}}), which is also the normal realisation before {{IPAblink|ɫ}} in other varieties. Younger (particularly female) speakers of the General variety use an even more front vowel {{IPAblink|yː}}, so that ''food'' {{IPA|[fyːd]}} may be distinguished from ''feed'' {{IPA|[fiːd]}} only by rounding. The vowel is often a monophthong, but there is some tendency to diphthongise it before sonorants (as in ''wounded'' {{IPA|[ˈwʉundɨd]}} and ''school'' {{IPA|[skʉuɫ]}}).{{sfnp|Lass|1990|p=278}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=116}}
* In the General variety, {{sc2|PRICE}} {{IPA|/aɪ/}}, {{sc2|MOUTH}} {{IPA|/ɑʊ/}} and {{sc2|GOAT}} {{IPA|/œʊ/}} are commonly monophthongized to {{IPAblink|äː}}, {{IPAblink|ɑ|ɐ̠ː}} (phonetically between {{sc2|BATH}} and a monophthongal {{sc2|PRICE}}) and {{IPAblink|œː}}. Among those, the monophthongal variant of {{sc2|PRICE}} is the most common. The last monophthong contrasts with the close-mid {{IPAblink|øː}}, which stands for {{sc2|NURSE}}. The monophthonging of {{sc2|GOAT}} can cause intelligibility problems for outsiders; Roger Lass says that he himself once misunderstood the phrase ''the total onslaught'' {{IPA|[ðə ˈtœːtl̩ ˈɒnsloːt]}} for ''the turtle onslaught'' {{IPA|[ðə ˈtøːtl̩ ˈɒnsloːt]}}. On the other hand, {{sc2|CHOICE}} does not monophthongize. In addition, {{IPA|/eɪ/}} is almost monophthongal {{IPA|[ee̝]}}, resulting in a near-merger of {{sc2|FACE}} with {{sc2|SQUARE}}, which is normally a close-mid monophthong {{IPAblink|eː}}.{{sfnp|Lass|1990|pp=278–280}}

=== Transcriptions ===
Sources differ in the way they transcribe South African English. The differences are listed below. The traditional phonemic orthography for the Received Pronunciation as well as the reformed phonemic orthographies for Australian and New Zealand English have been added for the sake of comparison.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ {{nowrap|Transcription systems}}
! colspan="6" | South African English
! rowspan="99" |
! rowspan="2" style="width:60px;" | {{small|[[Australian English phonology|Australian]]}}
! rowspan="2" style="width:60px;" | {{small|[[New Zealand English phonology|New Zealand]]}}
! rowspan="2" style="width:60px;" | {{small|[[Received Pronunciation|RP]]}}
! rowspan="99" |
! rowspan="2" | Example words
|-
! style="width:60px;" | {{small|This article}}
! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Wells 1982{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=616}}}}
! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Lass 1984{{sfnp|Lass|1984|pp=80, 89–90, 96, 102}}}}
! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Lass 1990{{sfnp|Lass|1990|p=274}}}}
! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Branford 1994{{sfnp|Branford|1994|pp=473, 476}}}}
! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Rogers 2014{{sfnp|Rogers|2014|p=117}}}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|iː}} || {{IPA|iː}} || {{IPA|iː}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|iː}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|i}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|iː}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|iː}} || {{IPA|iː}} || fl'''ee'''ce
|-
| {{IPA|i}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ɪ}} || {{IPA|i}} || happ'''y''', vid'''e'''o
|-
| rowspan="4" | {{IPA|ɨ}} || {{IPA|ɪ}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ɪ}} / {{IPA|ə}} / {{IPA|ɘ}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ɪ̈}} || {{IPA|ɪ}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ɪ}} || rowspan="4" | {{IPA|ə}} || rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ɪ}} || k'''i'''t
|-
| rowspan="4" | {{IPA|ə}} || {{IPA|ɪ̈}} / {{IPA|ə}} || rowspan="4" | {{IPA|ə}} || b'''i'''t
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ə}} / {{IPA|ɘ}} || rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ə}} || rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ə}} || rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ə}} || rabb'''i'''t
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ə}} || '''a'''ccept, abb'''o'''t
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ə}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|a}} || sof'''a''', bett'''er'''
|-
| {{IPA|ʌ}} || {{IPA|ɜ}} || {{IPA|ɜ}} / {{IPA|ɐ}} || {{IPA|ɐ}} || {{IPA|ʌ}} || {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|ʌ}} || str'''u'''t, '''u'''nknown
|-
| {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{IPA|ʊ̈}} || {{IPA|ʊ̈}} || {{IPA|ʊ}} / {{IPA|ʊ̈}} || {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{IPA|ʊ}} || f'''oo'''t
|-
| {{IPA|ʉː}} || {{IPA|uː}} || {{IPA|ʉː}} || {{IPA|ʉː}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|ʉː}} || {{IPA|ʉː}} || {{IPA|uː}} || g'''oo'''se
|-
| {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|ɛ}} / {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || dr'''e'''ss
|-
| {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|eə}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|eː}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|eə}} || {{IPA|eə}} || squ'''are'''
|-
| {{IPA|øː}} || {{IPA|ɜː}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|ø̈ː}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|ɜ}} || {{IPA|ɜː}} || {{IPA|øː}} || {{IPA|ɜː}} || n'''ur'''se
|-
| {{IPA|o}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|o}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || g'''o'''gga
|-
| {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|ɔː}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|ɔː}} || {{IPA|ɔ}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|ɔː}} || th'''ough'''t, n'''or'''th
|-
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|æ}} || {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|æ̝}} || {{IPA|æ}} / {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|æ}} || {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|æ}} || tr'''a'''p
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|ɐ}} || {{IPA|ä}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || p'''a'''p, gogg'''a'''
|-
| {{IPA|ɒ}} || {{IPA|ɒ}} || {{IPA|ɒ̈}} || {{IPA|ɒ̝̈}} || {{IPA|ɒ}} || {{IPA|ɒ}} || {{IPA|ɔ}} || {{IPA|ɒ}} || {{IPA|ɒ}} || l'''o'''t
|-
| {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{IPA|ɑː}} / {{IPA|ɒː}} || {{IPA|ɑ̟ː}} || {{IPA|ɑ}} || {{IPA|ɑ}} || {{IPA|aː}} || {{IPA|aː}} || {{IPA|ɑː}} || p'''al'''m, st'''ar'''t
|-
| {{IPA|eɪ}} || {{IPA|əɪ}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|eɪ}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|əj}} || {{IPA|æɪ}} || {{IPA|æɪ}} || {{IPA|eɪ}} || f'''a'''ce
|-
| {{IPA|aɪ}} || {{IPA|aɪ}} || {{IPA|ɐː}} || {{IPA|äɪ}} / {{IPA|äː}} || {{IPA|aɪ}} || {{IPA|aː}} || {{IPA|ɑɪ}} || {{IPA|aɪ}} || {{IPA|aɪ}} || pr'''i'''ce
|-
| {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|ɔj}} || {{IPA|oɪ}} || {{IPA|oɪ}} || {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || ch'''oi'''ce
|-
| {{IPA|œʊ}} || {{IPA|əʊ}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|œ̈ɤ̈}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|əw}} / {{IPA|ʌː}} || {{IPA|əʉ}} || {{IPA|aʉ}} || {{IPA|əʊ}} || g'''oa'''t
|-
| {{IPA|ɑʊ}} || {{IPA|aʊ}} || {{IPA|ɑ̈ː}} || {{IPA|ɑ̈ɤ}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|ɑw}} || {{IPA|æɔ}} || {{IPA|æʊ}} || {{IPA|aʊ}} || m'''ou'''th
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{N/A}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|iə}} || {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{IPA|iə}} || {{IPA|ɪə}} || n'''ear'''
|-
| {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || kr'''ee'''f
|-
| rowspan="4" | {{IPA|ʊə}} || rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ʊə}} || {{N/A}} || rowspan="4" | {{IPA|ʊ̈ə}} || {{N/A}} || rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ʊə}} || {{IPA|ʉːə}} || rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ʉə}} || rowspan="3" | {{IPA|ʊə}} || c'''ure'''
|-
| {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|ʉː}} || f'''u'''ry
|-
| {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{IPA|oː}} || s'''ure'''
|-
| {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || '''oo'''m
|}

==Consonants==

===Plosives===
* In Broad White South African English, voiceless plosives tend to be [[Aspiration (phonetics)|unaspirated]] in all positions, which serves as a marker of this subvariety. This is usually thought to be an Afrikaans influence.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=939}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=120}}
* General and Cultivated varieties aspirate {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} before a stressed syllable, unless they are followed by an {{IPA|/s/}} within the same syllable.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=939}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=120}}
** Speakers of the General variety can strongly affricate the syllable-final {{IPA|/t/}} to {{IPAblink|ts}}, so that ''wanting'' {{IPA|/ˈwɒntɨŋ/}} can be pronounced {{IPA|[ˈwɒntsɪŋ]}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2013|p=194}}
* {{IPA|/t, d/}} are normally [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]]. In the Broad variety, they tend to be dental {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t̪}}, {{IPAplink|d̪}}]}}. This pronunciation also occurs in older speakers of the Jewish subvariety of General SAE.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=939}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=120}}

===Fricatives and affricates===
* {{IPA|/x/}} occurs only in words borrowed from Afrikaans and Khoisan languages, such as ''gogga'' {{IPA|/ˈxoxa/}} 'insect'. Many speakers realise {{IPA|/x/}} as uvular {{IPAblink|χ}}, a sound which is more common in Afrikaans.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=939}}
* {{IPA|/θ/}} may be realised as {{IPAblink|f}} in Broad varieties (see [[Th-fronting|''Th''-fronting]]), but it is more accurate to say that it is a feature of Afrikaans English. This is especially common word-finally (as in ''myth'' {{IPA|[məf]}}).{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=939}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=120}}
* In the Indian variety, the labiodental fricatives {{IPA|/f, v/}} are realised without audible friction, i.e. as approximants {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ʋ̥}}, {{IPAplink|ʋ}}]}}.{{sfnp|Mesthrie|2004|p=960}}
* In General and Cultivated varieties, intervocalic {{IPA|/h/}} may be [[Voiced glottal fricative|voiced]], so that ''ahead'' can be pronounced {{IPA|[əˈɦed]}}.{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=122}}
* There is not a full agreement about the voicing of {{IPA|/h/}} in Broad varieties:
** {{Harvcoltxt|Lass|2002}} states that:
*** Voiced {{IPAblink|ɦ}} is the normal realisation of {{IPA|/h/}} in Broad varieties.{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=122}}
*** It is often deleted, e.g. in word-initial stressed syllables (as in '''''h'''ouse''), but at least as often, it is pronounced even if it seems deleted. The vowel that follows the {{IPA|[ɦ]}} allophone in the word-initial syllable often carries a low or low rising tone, which, in rapid speech, can be the only trace of the deleted {{IPA|/h/}}. That creates potentially minimal tonal pairs like ''oh'' (neutral {{IPA|[ʌʊ˧]}} or high falling {{IPA|[ʌʊ˦˥˩]}}, phonemically {{IPA|/œʊ/}}) vs. ''hoe'' (low {{IPA|[ʌʊ˨]}} or low rising {{IPA|[ʌʊ˩˨]}}, phonemically {{IPA|/hœʊ/}}). In General, these are normally pronounced {{IPA|[œː]}} and {{IPA|[hœː]}}, without any tonal difference.{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=122}}
** {{Harvcoltxt|Bowerman|2004}} states that in Broad varieties close to Afrikaans English, {{IPA|/h/}} is voiced {{IPAblink|ɦ}} before a stressed vowel.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=939}}

===Sonorants===
* General and Broad varieties have a [[wine–whine merger]]. However, some speakers of Cultivated SAE (particularly the elderly) still distinguish {{IPA|/hw/}} from {{IPA|/enwiki/w/}}, so that ''which'' {{IPA|/hwɪtʃ/}} is not homophonous with ''witch'' {{IPA|/wɪtʃ/}}. In General and Broad, those are homophonous as {{IPA|/wɨtʃ/}}.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=121}}
* {{IPA|/l/}} has two allophones:
** Clear (neutral or somewhat [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalised]]) {{IPAblink|l}} in syllable-initial and intervocalic positions (as in ''look'' {{IPA|[lʊk]}} and ''polar'' {{IPA|[ˈpœːlə]}}).{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=121}}
*** In Cultivated variety, clear {{IPAblink|l}} is often also used word-finally when another word begins with a vowel (as in ''call up'' {{IPA|[koːl ˈəp]}}, which in General and Broad is pronounced {{IPA|[koːɫ ˈəp]}}).{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=121}}
** [[Velarisation|Velarised]] {{IPAblink|ɫ|lˠ}} (or [[Uvularisation|uvularised]] {{IPAblink|ɫ|lʶ}}) in pre-consonantal and word-final positions.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=121}}
*** One source states that the dark {{IPA|/l/}} has a "hollow [[Pharyngealisation|pharyngealised]]" quality {{IPA|[lˤ]}},{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2013|p=194}} rather than velarised or uvularised.
* In the Broad variety, the sequences {{IPA|/ɨn/}} and {{IPA|/ɨl/}} tend not to form syllabic {{IPA|[n̩]}} and {{IPA|[l̩]}} where they correspond to {{IPA|/ən, əl/}} in RP, so that ''button'' {{IPA|/ˈbətɨn/}} and ''middle'' {{IPA|/ˈmɨdɨl/}} are phonetically {{IPA|[ˈbɐtɨn]}} and {{IPA|[ˈmədɯl]}} (compare General {{IPA|[ˈbətn̩]}} and {{IPA|[ˈmɨdl̩]}}). John Wells analyses the broad pronunciation of these words as having a secondarily stressed schwa in the last syllable: {{IPA|/ˈbətˌɨn/}}, {{IPA|/ˈmɨdˌɨl/}}.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=613}}
* In Cultivated and General varieties, {{IPA|/r/}} is an approximant, usually [[Postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]] or (less commonly) [[Retroflex consonant|retroflex]]. In emphatic speech, Cultivated speakers may realise {{IPA|/r/}} as a (often long) trill {{IPAblink|r}}. Older speakers of the Cultivated variety may realise intervocalic {{IPA|/r/}} as a tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}} (as in ''very'' {{IPA|[ˈveɾɪ]}}), a feature which is becoming increasingly rare.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|pp=120–121}}
* Broad SAE realises {{IPA|/r/}} as a [[Tap consonant|tap]] {{IPAblink|ɾ}}, sometimes even as a trill {{IPAblink|r}} - a pronunciation which is at times stigmatised as a marker of this variety. The trill {{IPAblink|r}} is more commonly considered a feature of the [[second language]] Afrikaans English variety.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=121}}
* Another possible realisation of {{IPA|/r/}} is uvular trill {{IPAblink|ʀ}}, which has been reported to occur in the [[Cape Flats English|Cape Flats dialect]].{{sfnp|Finn|2004|p=976}}
* South African English is [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents|non-rhotic]], except for some Broad varieties spoken in the [[Cape Province]] (typically in -''er'' suffixes, as in ''writ'''er''''' {{IPA|[ˈraɪtɚ]}}). It appears that postvocalic {{IPA|/r/}} is entering the speech of younger people under the influence of [[American English]].{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=121}}
* [[Linking and intrusive R|Linking {{IPA|/r/|cat=no}}]] (as in ''fo'''r''' a while'' {{IPA|/foː ə ˈwaɪl/}}) is used only by some speakers: {{IPA|[foːɹ ə ˈwaːl]}}.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}
* There is not a full agreement about [[Linking and intrusive R|intrusive {{IPA|/r/|cat=no}}]] (as in ''law and order'') in South African English:
** {{Harvcoltxt|Lass|2002}} states that it is rare, and some speakers with linking {{IPA|/r/}} never use the intrusive {{IPA|/r/}}.{{sfnp|Lass|2002|p=122}}
** {{Harvcoltxt|Bowerman|2004}} states that it is absent from this variety.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}
*In contexts where many British and Australian accents use the intrusive {{IPA|/r/}}, speakers of South African English who do not use the intrusive {{IPA|/r/}} create an intervocalic hiatus. In these varieties, phrases such as ''law and order'' {{IPA|/ˈloː ən ˈoːdə/}} can be subject to the following processes:{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}
** Vowel deletion: {{IPA|[ˈloːn ˈoːdə]}};{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}
** Adding a [[semivowel]] corresponding to the preceding vowel: {{IPA|[ˈloːwən ˈoːdə]}};{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}
** Inserting a [[glottal stop]]: {{IPA|[ˈloːʔən ˈoːdə]}}. This is typical of Broad varieties.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}
* Before a high front vowel, {{IPA|/j/}} undergoes [[fortition]] to {{IPAblink|ɣ}} in Broad and some of the General varieties, so that ''yeast'' can be pronounced {{IPA|[ɣiːst]}}.{{sfnp|Bowerman|2004|p=940}}

==See also==
* [[Australian English phonology]]
* [[New Zealand English phonology]]
* [[Regional accents of English]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite thesis
|last=Bekker
|first=Ian 
|title=The vowels of South African English
|type=Ph.D.
|publisher=north-West University, Potchefstroom
|year=2008
|url=http://dspace.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/2003/phdmain.pdf?sequence=1
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Bowerman
|first=Sean
|editor-last=Schneider
|editor-first=Edgar W.
|editor2-last=Burridge
|editor2-first=Kate
|editor3-last=Kortmann
|editor3-first=Bernd
|editor4-last=Mesthrie
|editor4-first=Rajend
|editor5-last=Upton
|editor5-first=Clive
|year=2004
|title=A handbook of varieties of English
|chapter=White South African English: phonology
|volume=1: Phonology
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|pages=931–942
|isbn=3-11-017532-0
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Branford
|first=William
|year=1994
|chapter=9: English in South Africa
|editor-last=Burchfield
|editor-first=Robert
|title=The Cambridge History of the English Language
|volume=5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-26478-2
|pages=430–496
}}
* {{Citation
|last1=Collins
|first1=Beverley
|last2=Mees
|first2=Inger M.
|year=2013
|orig-year=First published 2003
|title=Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students
|edition=3rd
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-50650-2
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Finn
|first=Peter
|editor-last=Schneider
|editor-first=Edgar W.
|editor2-last=Burridge
|editor2-first=Kate
|editor3-last=Kortmann
|editor3-first=Bernd
|editor4-last=Mesthrie
|editor4-first=Rajend
|editor5-last=Upton
|editor5-first=Clive
|year=2004
|title=A handbook of varieties of English
|chapter=Cape Flats English: phonology
|volume=1: Phonology
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|pages=964–984
|isbn=3-11-017532-0
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Lass
|first=Roger
|year=1984
|title=Vowel System Universals and Typology: Prologue to Theory
|journal=[[Phonology (journal)|Phonology Yearbook]]
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|volume=1
|pages=75–111
|jstor=4615383
|doi=10.1017/S0952675700000300
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Lass
|first=Roger
|author-mask=1
|year=1990
|editor-last=Ramsaran
|editor-first=Susan
|title=Studies in the Pronunciation of English: A Commemorative Volume in Honour of A.C. Gimson
|chapter=A 'standard' South African vowel system
|publisher=Routledge
|pages=272–285
|isbn=978-0-41507180-2
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Lass
|first=Roger
|author-mask=1
|chapter=South African English
|editor-last=Mesthrie
|editor-first=Rajend
|year=2002
|title=Language in South Africa
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=9780521791052
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Mesthrie
|first=Rajend
|editor-last=Schneider
|editor-first=Edgar W.
|editor2-last=Burridge
|editor2-first=Kate
|editor3-last=Kortmann
|editor3-first=Bernd
|editor4-last=Mesthrie
|editor4-first=Rajend
|editor5-last=Upton
|editor5-first=Clive
|year=2004
|title=A handbook of varieties of English
|chapter=Indian South African English: phonology
|volume=1: Phonology
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|pages=953–963
|isbn=3-11-017532-0
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Rogers
|first=Henry
|year=2014
|orig-year=First published 2000
|title=The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics
|place=Essex
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-582-38182-7
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbiOAwAAQBAJ
}}
* {{Accents of English|hide1=y|hide2=y}}
{{Refend|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite thesis
|last=Da Silva
|first=Arista B.
|year=2008
|title=South African English: a sociolinguistic investigation of an emerging variety.
|degree=Ph.D
|publisher=University of Johannesburg
|hdl=10539/4955
}}
* {{Cite book
|editor-last=De Klerk
|editor-first=Vivian
|year=1996
|title=Focus on South Africa
|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing
|isbn=90-272-4873-7
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IZVqidxVsLwC
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Lanham
|first=Len W.
|year=1967
|title=The pronunciation of South African English
|location=Cape Town
|publisher=Balkema
|oclc=457559
}}
* {{Cite thesis
|last=Prinsloo
|first=Claude Pierre
|year=2000
|title=A comparative acoustic analysis of the long vowels and diphthongs of Afrikaans and South African English
|degree=M.Eng
|publisher=University of Pretoria
|place=Pretoria
|url=http://repository.up.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2263/22950/00front.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
|format=PDF
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104140444/https://repository.up.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2263/22950/00front.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
|archive-date=4 November 2021
|url-status=live
}}
{{Refend}}

{{Language phonologies}}
{{English dialects by continent}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:South African English Phonology}}
[[Category:English phonology]]
[[Category:South African English]]