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SVLR |
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<small> |
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |
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|- |
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!Aitken's Scots Vowel # |
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| 1★ |
|||
| 8a |
|||
| 10 |
|||
| 2★ |
|||
| 11★ |
|||
| 3 |
|||
| 4★ |
|||
| 8★ |
|||
| 5 |
|||
| 12 |
|||
| 18★ |
|||
| 6★ |
|||
| 14 |
|||
| 7★ |
|||
| 9 |
|||
| 13★ |
|||
| 15 |
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| 16★ |
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| 19 |
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| 17★ |
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|- |
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! Historical </br>Vowel |
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| bite |
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| bay |
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| boil |
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| beet |
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| bree[sc] |
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| beat |
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| ba(t)e |
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| bait |
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| boat</br>(bow) |
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| bought |
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| bot |
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| aboot |
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| beaut(y) |
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| bøøt[sc] |
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| boy |
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| bow/bout |
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| bit |
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| bet |
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| butt |
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| bat |
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|- |
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! Scots phoneme |
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|{{IPA|/ai/}} |
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| colspan=2| {{IPA|/əi/}} |
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| {{IPA|/i/}} |
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| {{IPA|/iː/}} </br>(Scots only){{efn|Stem-final {{IPA|/iː/}} is [[diphthong]]ised to {{IPA|[əi]}} or {{IPA|[ei]}} in [[Southern Scots]].<ref name="dsl.ac.uk">{{cite book|url=http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=21 |work=Scottish National Dictionary |title=Introduction |page=xxx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819014514/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=21|archive-date=2014-08-19}}</ref>}} |
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| {{IPA|/ei/}}</br>(Scots only){{efn|Vowel 3 remains a distinct phoneme {{IPA|/ei/}} only in some [[North Northern Scots]] varieties,<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=27 Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xxxvi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517181927/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=27 |date=17 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">A History of Scots to 1700, pp. xcviii</ref> generally [[phonological change|merging]] with {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}} in other [[Modern Scots]] varieties.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}} |
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| {{IPA|/e/}}{{efn|The final vowel in {{sc2|HAPPY}} is best identified as an unstressed allophone of {{sc2|FACE}} for most speakers of Scottish English and Ulster English: {{IPA|/ˈhape/}}. In Geordie, it is best identified as an unstressed allophone of {{sc2|FLEECE}}: {{IPA|/ˈhapiː/}}.<ref>{{citation |author=Wells, John C. |title=Accents of English |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1982 |isbn=0-521-22919-7 |id=(vol. 1)|author-link=John C. Wells}}</ref>}} |
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| {{IPA|/eː/}}{{efn|In most Central and Southern Scots varieties {{IPA|/eː/}} merges with {{IPA|/e/}}. Some other varieties distinguish between the two at least partially.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 151.</ref> In [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] the realisation may be {{IPA|[ɛː]}}.<ref>Johnston P. Regional Variation in Jones C. (1997) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburg University Press, p. 465.</ref> In Geordie, which is a non-rhotic dialect they are distinguished by quality; {{sc2|FACE}} is {{IPA|[eː]}}, {{IPA|[ɪə]}} or {{IPA|[eɪ]}}, whereas {{sc2|SQUARE}} is {{IPA|[ɛː]}}, distinguished from {{sc2|DRESS}} by length.<ref name="wattallen"/> The vowels are not phonemically distinct in Scottish English, which is a rhotic variety.}} |
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| {{IPA|/o(ː)/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɔː/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ɔː/}} is typically not distinguished from {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in Scottish English, which features the [[cot-caught merger]]. In Geordie, the vowels are distinct as {{IPA|/ɔː/}} for {{sc2|THOUGHT}} and {{sc2|NORTH}} and {{IPA|/ɒ/}} for {{sc2|LOT}} and {{sc2|CLOTH}}.<ref name="wattallen"/> They are normally distinct in Ulster English as well, where {{sc2|CLOTH}} has a long vowel {{IPA|/ɔː/}}.}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɔ/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ɔ/}} may merge with {{IPA|/o/}} in Central and Southern Scots varieties.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 152.</ref>}} |
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| {{IPA|/ʉ/}}{{efn|Stem-final {{IPA|/ʉ/}}, is diphthongised to {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} in Southern Scots.<ref name="dsl.ac.uk"/> In Geordie there is a contrastive {{IPA|/ʊ/}} vowel which also encompasses the {{sc2|STRUT}} class, in other varieties there is a [[foot-goose merger]] with a contrastive {{sc2|STRUT}}.<ref name="wattallen"/>}} |
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| {{IPA|/jʉ/}}{{efn|Regardless of the following {{IPA|/r/}}. English {{sc2|CURE}} stems from historical {{IPA|/uːr/}} (in Scotland, the historical {{IPA|/ʊr/}} has evolved into {{IPA|/ʌr/}} instead, see [[nurse mergers]]) regardless of the preceding {{IPA|/j/}}. In Geordie (which is a non-rhotic dialect), it is a centering diphthong {{IPA|/uə/}}, whereas the historical {{IPA|/ʊr/}} has mostly evolved into the {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel {{IPA|/øː/}}, as it has in most other accents of English.}}{{efn|{{IPA|/j/}} merges with the preceding alveolar stop to form a postalveolar affricate in the case of [[yod-coalescence]]. ''Tune'' is best analysed as {{IPA|/tʃʉn/}} for many speakers of Scottish English.}} |
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| {{IPA|/ø/}}{{efn|name=scotsonly}}{{efn|Most [[Central Scots]] varieties merge {{IPA|/ø/}} with {{IPA|/e/}} in long environments and with {{IPA|/ɪ/}} in short environments, but most [[Northern Scots]] varieties merge {{IPA|/ø/}} with {{IPA|/i/}}.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 99.</ref> {{IPA|/ø/}} generally remains {{IPAblink|ø}}, sometimes {{IPAblink|y}} in short environments, in the conservative dialects of Scots spoken in parts of [[Perthshire]] and [[Angus, Scotland|Angus]], [[Berwickshire]], [[Roxburghshire]], East [[Dumfrieshire]], [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]].<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 144-145.</ref> Before {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/x/}} {{IPA|/ø/}} is often realised {{IPA|[(j)ʉ]}} or {{IPA|[(j)ʌ]}} depending on dialect.<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=10 Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xix]</ref>}} |
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| {{IPA|/oi/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} may be merge with {{IPA|/o/}} before {{IPA|/k/}} in many Modern Scots varieties.}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}{{efn|Some eastern and Southern Scots varieties may have more or less {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 101.</ref>}}{{efn|name=firfernfur|Scottish English lacks the [[nurse mergers]], which means that it distinguishes {{sc2|KIT}} {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{sc2|DRESS}} {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{sc2|STRUT}} {{IPA|/ʌ/}} before syllable-final {{IPA|/r/}}, as in ''fir'' {{IPA|/fər/}} (with the same {{IPA|/ər/}} as in ''letter'' {{IPA|/ˈlɛtər/}}), ''fern'' {{IPA|/fɛrn/}} and ''fur'' {{IPA|/fʌr/}}. In other varieties of English (including Geordie, which is non-rhotic), the three vowels fall together as {{IPA|/ɜː/}} (transcribed with {{angbr IPA|øː}} in Geordie), though not always when the {{IPA|/r/}} occurs between vowels (see e.g. [[hurry-furry merger]], which Geordie lacks). In broadest Geordie {{sc2|NURSE}} partially falls together with {{IPA|/ɔː/}}, but the latter is {{IPAblink|aː}} instead in some words.}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}{{efn|name=firfernfur}} |
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| {{IPA|/ʌ/}}{{efn|Not distinguished from {{IPA|/ʊ/}} in Geordie, see [[foot-strut split]].<ref name="wattallen"/>}}{{efn|name=firfernfur}} |
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| {{IPA|/a/}}{{efn|In some Modern Scots varieties {{IPA|/a/}} may merge with {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in long environments.<ref name="Aitken A.J. 1981 p. 150">Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 150.</ref> (see below)}} |
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|- |
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! Scottish English phoneme |
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| {{IPA|/ai/}} or {{IPA|/əi/}} <small>(SVLR)</small> |
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| {{IPA|/e/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɔi/}} |
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| {{IPA|/i/}} |
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| {{N/A}} |
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| {{IPA|/i/}} |
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| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/e/}} |
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| {{IPA|/o/}} |
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| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/ɔ/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ʉ/}} |
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| {{IPA|/jʉ/}} |
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| {{N/A}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɔi/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɪ/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɛ/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ʌ/}} |
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| {{IPA|/a/}} |
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|- |
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! Wells sets |
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| colspan=3 | {{sc2|PRICE}} & others |
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| {{sc2|FLEECE}}, {{sc2|NEAR}} |
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| {{N/A}} |
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| {{sc2|FLEECE}} |
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| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FACE}}, {{sc2|SQUARE}}, {{sc2|HAPPY}} |
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| {{sc2|GOAT}}, {{sc2|FORCE}} |
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| colspan=2 | {{sc2|THOUGHT}}, {{sc2|LOT}}, {{sc2|CLOTH}}, {{sc2|NORTH}} |
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| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FOOT}}, {{sc2|GOOSE}}, {{sc2|CURE}} |
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| {{N/A}} |
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| {{sc2|CHOICE}} |
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| {{sc2|MOUTH}} |
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| {{sc2|KIT}}, {{sc2|commA}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}, {{sc2|lettER}} |
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| {{sc2|DRESS}}, {{sc2|NURSE}} |
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| {{sc2|STRUT}}, {{sc2|commA}}, {{sc2|NURSE}} |
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| {{sc2|TRAP}}, {{sc2|PALM}}, {{sc2|BATH}}, {{sc2|START}} |
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|- |
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! EEx |
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| colspan=3 | size, fire vs. site, fine |
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| leaf, beet |
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| leave, beer |
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| {{N/A}} |
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| race, bake |
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| raise, bare |
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| coat, low |
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| caught, law |
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| cot, lock |
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| put, food |
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| duty, feud |
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| {{N/A}} |
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| boy, loin |
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| house, now |
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| bid, wrist |
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| bed, rest |
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| bud, rust |
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| bad, Rasta |
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|- |
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! HEx |
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| size, fire |
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| May, pay |
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| join, oil |
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| beet, see |
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| (dee, lee) |
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| (beat, sea) |
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| race, bate |
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| raise, bait |
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| coat, low |
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| caught, law |
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| cot, lock |
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| (aboot, mooth) |
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| true, feud |
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| (fruit, use) |
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| boy, joy |
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| about, mouth |
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| bid, wrist |
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| bed, rest |
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| bud, rust |
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| bad, Rasta |
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|} |
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</small> |
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XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX |
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XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXSVLR |
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |
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|- |
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!Aitken's Scots Vowel # |
|||
| colspan=2| 1★ |
|||
| 8a |
|||
| 10 |
|||
| 2★ |
|||
| 11★ |
|||
| 3 |
|||
| 4★ |
|||
| 8★ |
|||
| 5 |
|||
| 12 |
|||
| 18★ |
|||
| 6★ |
|||
| 14 |
|||
| 7★ |
|||
| 9 |
|||
| 13★ |
|||
| 15 |
|||
| 16★ |
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| 19 |
|||
| 17★ |
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|- |
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! Historical Vowel |
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| BY |
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| BITE |
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| BAY |
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| BOIL |
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| BEET |
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| BREE[Scots] |
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| BEAT |
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| BA(T)E |
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| BAIT |
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| BOAT(BOW) |
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| BOUGHT |
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| BOT |
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| ABOOT |
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| BEAUT(Y) |
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| BØØT[Scots] |
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| BOY |
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| BOW/BOUT |
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| BIT |
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| BET |
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| BUTT |
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| BAT |
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|- |
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! Scots phonemes |
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|{{IPA|/ai/}} |
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| colspan=3| {{IPA|/əi/}} |
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| {{IPA|/i/}} |
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| {{IPA|/iː/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/iː/}}, which occurs [[Word stem|stem]] final, is [[diphthong]]ised to {{IPA|[əi]}} or {{IPA|[ei]}} in [[Southern Scots]].<ref name="dsl.ac.uk">{{cite book|url=http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=21 |work=Scottish National Dictionary |title=Introduction |page=xxx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819014514/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=21|archive-date=2014-08-19}}</ref>}} |
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| {{IPA|/ei/}}{{efn|name=scotsonly|Occurs only in Scots.}}{{efn|Vowel 3 remains a distinct phoneme {{IPA|/ei/}} only in some [[North Northern Scots]] varieties,<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=27 Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xxxvi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517181927/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=27 |date=17 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">A History of Scots to 1700, pp. xcviii</ref> generally [[phonological change|merging]] with {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}} in other [[Modern Scots]] varieties.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}} |
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| {{IPA|/e/}}{{efn|The final vowel in {{sc2|HAPPY}} is best identified as an unstressed allophone of {{sc2|FACE}} for most speakers of Scottish English and Ulster English: {{IPA|/ˈhape/}}. In Geordie, it is best identified as an unstressed allophone of {{sc2|FLEECE}}: {{IPA|/ˈhapiː/}}.<ref>{{citation |author=Wells, John C. |title=Accents of English |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1982 |isbn=0-521-22919-7 |id=(vol. 1)|author-link=John C. Wells}}</ref>}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/eː/}}{{efn|In most Central and Southern Scots varieties {{IPA|/eː/}} merges with {{IPA|/e/}}. Some other varieties distinguish between the two at least partially.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 151.</ref> In [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] the realisation may be {{IPA|[ɛː]}}.<ref>Johnston P. Regional Variation in Jones C. (1997) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburg University Press, p. 465.</ref> In Geordie, which is a non-rhotic dialect they are distinguished by quality; {{sc2|FACE}} is {{IPA|[eː]}}, {{IPA|[ɪə]}} or {{IPA|[eɪ]}}, whereas {{sc2|SQUARE}} is {{IPA|[ɛː]}}, distinguished from {{sc2|DRESS}} by length.<ref name="wattallen"/> The vowels are not phonemically distinct in Scottish English, which is a rhotic variety.}} |
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| {{IPA|/o(ː)/}} |
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| {{IPA|/ɔː/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ɔː/}} is typically not distinguished from {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in Scottish English, which features the [[cot-caught merger]]. In Geordie, the vowels are distinct as {{IPA|/ɔː/}} for {{sc2|THOUGHT}} and {{sc2|NORTH}} and {{IPA|/ɒ/}} for {{sc2|LOT}} and {{sc2|CLOTH}}.<ref name="wattallen"/> They are normally distinct in Ulster English as well, where {{sc2|CLOTH}} has a long vowel {{IPA|/ɔː/}}.}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ɔ/}} may merge with {{IPA|/o/}} in Central and Southern Scots varieties.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 152.</ref>}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ʉ/}}{{efn|Stem final {{IPA|/ʉ/}}, is diphthongised to {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} in Southern Scots.<ref name="dsl.ac.uk"/> In Geordie there is a contrastive {{IPA|/ʊ/}} vowel which also encompasses the {{sc2|STRUT}} class, in other varieties there is a [[foot-goose merger]] with a contrastive {{sc2|STRUT}}.<ref name="wattallen"/>}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/jʉ/}}{{efn|Regardless of the following {{IPA|/r/}}. English {{sc2|CURE}} stems from historical {{IPA|/uːr/}} (in Scotland, the historical {{IPA|/ʊr/}} has evolved into {{IPA|/ʌr/}} instead, see [[nurse mergers]]) regardless of the preceding {{IPA|/j/}}. In Geordie (which is a non-rhotic dialect), it is a centering diphthong {{IPA|/uə/}}, whereas the historical {{IPA|/ʊr/}} has mostly evolved into the {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel {{IPA|/øː/}}, as it has in most other accents of English.}}{{efn|{{IPA|/j/}} merges with the preceding alveolar stop to form a postalveolar affricate in the case of [[yod-coalescence]]. ''Tune'' is best analysed as {{IPA|/tʃʉn/}} for many speakers of Scottish English.}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ø/}}{{efn|name=scotsonly}}{{efn|Most [[Central Scots]] varieties merge {{IPA|/ø/}} with {{IPA|/e/}} in long environments and with {{IPA|/ɪ/}} in short environments, but most [[Northern Scots]] varieties merge {{IPA|/ø/}} with {{IPA|/i/}}.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 99.</ref> {{IPA|/ø/}} generally remains {{IPAblink|ø}}, sometimes {{IPAblink|y}} in short environments, in the conservative dialects of Scots spoken in parts of [[Perthshire]] and [[Angus, Scotland|Angus]], [[Berwickshire]], [[Roxburghshire]], East [[Dumfrieshire]], [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]].<ref>Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 144-145.</ref> Before {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/x/}} {{IPA|/ø/}} is often realised {{IPA|[(j)ʉ]}} or {{IPA|[(j)ʌ]}} depending on dialect.<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/INTRO/intro2.php?num=10 Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xix]</ref>}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/oi/}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} may be merge with {{IPA|/o/}} before {{IPA|/k/}} in many Modern Scots varieties.}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}{{efn|Some eastern and Southern Scots varieties may have more or less {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.<ref>Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 101.</ref>}}{{efn|name=firfernfur|Scottish English lacks the [[nurse mergers]], which means that it distinguishes {{sc2|KIT}} {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{sc2|DRESS}} {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{sc2|STRUT}} {{IPA|/ʌ/}} before syllable-final {{IPA|/r/}}, as in ''fir'' {{IPA|/fər/}} (with the same {{IPA|/ər/}} as in ''letter'' {{IPA|/ˈlɛtər/}}), ''fern'' {{IPA|/fɛrn/}} and ''fur'' {{IPA|/fʌr/}}. In other varieties of English (including Geordie, which is non-rhotic), the three vowels fall together as {{IPA|/ɜː/}} (transcribed with {{angbr IPA|øː}} in Geordie), though not always when the {{IPA|/r/}} occurs between vowels (see e.g. [[hurry-furry merger]], which Geordie lacks). In broadest Geordie {{sc2|NURSE}} partially falls together with {{IPA|/ɔː/}}, but the latter is {{IPAblink|aː}} instead in some words.}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}{{efn|name=firfernfur}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ʌ/}}{{efn|Not distinguished from {{IPA|/ʊ/}} in Geordie, see [[foot-strut split]].<ref name="wattallen"/>}}{{efn|name=firfernfur}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/a/}}{{efn|In some Modern Scots varieties {{IPA|/a/}} may merge with {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in long environments.<ref name="Aitken A.J. 1981 p. 150">Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 150.</ref> (see below)}} |
|||
|- |
|||
! English phonemes |
|||
|{{IPA|/ai/}} |
|||
| colspan=3| {{IPA|/əi/}} |
|||
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/i/}} |
|||
| {{N/A}} |
|||
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/e/}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/o/}} |
|||
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/ɔ/}} |
|||
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/ʉ/}} |
|||
| {{N/A}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ɔi/}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ʌʉ/}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/ʌ/}} |
|||
| {{IPA|/a/}} |
|||
|- |
|||
! Wells sets |
|||
| colspan=4 | {{sc2|PRICE}} |
|||
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FLEECE}}, {{sc2|NEAR}} |
|||
| {{N/A}} |
|||
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FACE}}, {{sc2|SQUARE}}, {{sc2|HAPPY}} |
|||
| {{sc2|GOAT}}, {{sc2|FORCE}} |
|||
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|THOUGHT}}, {{sc2|LOT}}, {{sc2|CLOTH}}, {{sc2|NORTH}} |
|||
| colspan=2 | {{sc2|FOOT}}, {{sc2|GOOSE}}, {{sc2|CURE}} {{IPA|/kjʉr/}} |
|||
| {{N/A}} |
|||
| {{sc2|CHOICE}} |
|||
| {{sc2|MOUTH}} |
|||
| {{sc2|KIT}}, {{sc2|commA}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}, {{sc2|lettER}} |
|||
| {{sc2|DRESS}}, {{sc2|NURSE}} |
|||
| {{sc2|STRUT}}, {{sc2|commA}}, {{sc2|NURSE}} |
|||
| {{sc2|TRAP}}, {{sc2|PALM}}, {{sc2|BATH}}, {{sc2|START}} |
|||
|- |
|||
! EEx |
|||
| colspan=4 | size, fire vs. site, fine |
|||
| leaf, beet |
|||
| leave, beer |
|||
| {{N/A}} |
|||
| race, bake |
|||
| raise, bare |
|||
| coat, low |
|||
| caught, law |
|||
| cot, lock |
|||
| put, food |
|||
| duty, feud |
|||
| {{N/A}} |
|||
| boy, loin |
|||
| house, now |
|||
| bid, wrist |
|||
| bed, rest |
|||
| bud, rust |
|||
| bad, Rasta |
|||
|- |
|||
! HEx |
|||
| size, fire |
|||
|site, fine |
|||
| May, pay |
|||
| join, oil |
|||
| beet, see |
|||
| (dee, lee) |
|||
| (beat, sea) |
|||
| race, bate |
|||
| raise, bait |
|||
| coat, low |
|||
| caught, law |
|||
| cot, lock |
|||
| (aboot, mooth) |
|||
| true, feud |
|||
| (fruit, use) |
|||
| boy, joy |
|||
| about, mouth |
|||
| bid, wrist |
|||
| bed, rest |
|||
| bud, rust |
|||
| bad, Rasta |
|||
|} |
|||
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX |
|||
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX |
|||
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;" |
|||
|+ {{navbar|/æ/ raising in North American English|mini=y|style=float: left;}}[[:/æ/ raising|{{IPA|/æ/}} raising]] in [[North American English]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} |
|||
|- |
|||
! Following <br />consonant |
|||
! Example <br />words{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}} |
|||
! [[New York accent|New York <br />City]], [[New Orleans English|New <br />Orleans]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}} |
|||
! [[Mid-Atlantic American English|Baltimore, <br />Philadel-<br />phia]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}} |
|||
! [[General American|General <br />American]], <br />[[New England English|New England]], <br />[[Western American English|Western US]] |
|||
! [[Midland American English|Midland US]], <br />[[Western Pennsylvania English|Pittsburgh]] |
|||
! [[Southern American English|Southern <br />US]] |
|||
! [[Canadian English|Canada]], <br />Northern <br />Mountain <br />US |
|||
! [[North-Central American English|Minnesota, <br />Wisconsin]] |
|||
! [[Inland Northern American English|Great <br />Lakes <br />US]] |
|||
|- |
|||
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/m, n/}} |
|||
| ''fan, lamb, stand'' |
|||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a|Most function words (''am, can, had'', etc.) and some learned or less common words (''Afghan, alas, asterisk'', etc.) have {{IPA|[æ]}}.}}{{efn|In Philadelphia, the irregular verbs ''began, ran, swam'', and ''wan'' (variant of ''won'') have {{IPA|[æ]}}.{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=238}}}} |
|||
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}} |
|||
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}} |
|||
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə~ɛjə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=178, 180}} |
|||
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{sfnp|Boberg|2008|p=145}} |
|||
| rowspan="8" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=175–7}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| Prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/m, n/}} |
|||
| ''animal, planet, <br />Spanish'' |
|||
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[æ]}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=183}} |
|||
| ''frank, language'' |
|||
| {{IPA|[eɪ]}}{{sfnp|Baker|Mielke|Archangeli|2008}} |
|||
| rowspan="6" | {{IPA|[æ]}} |
|||
| rowspan="6" | {{IPA|[æ~æɛə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=178, 180}} |
|||
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|[ɛː~ɛj]}}{{sfnp|Boberg|2008|p=145}} |
|||
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|[eː~ej]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=181–2}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/ɡ/}} |
|||
| ''bag, drag'' |
|||
| {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}} |
|||
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In Philadelphia, ''bad, mad'', and ''glad'' alone have {{IPA|[eə]}}.}} |
|||
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New England, Pittsburgh,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=181}} and Florida{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} and in scatterings through the Midland US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=175}} the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} </br>the quality of {{IPA|/æ/}} is more close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}, more mid before {{IPA|/d/}} (and possibly other [[voiced stop]]s like {{IPA|/b, ɡ, dʒ/}}), and more open elsewhere.{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=174}} However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere</br> in the Midland US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} it is more continuous, though still the most close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}.}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| Prevocalic {{IPA|/ɡ/}} |
|||
| ''dragon, magazine'' |
|||
| {{IPA|[æ]}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/b, d, ʃ/}} |
|||
| ''grab, flash, sad'' |
|||
| {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}} |
|||
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=82, 123, 177, 179}} |
|||
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[ɛə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=82, 123, 177, 179}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/f, θ, s/}} |
|||
| ''ask, bath, half, <br />glass'' |
|||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| Otherwise |
|||
| ''as, back, happy, <br />locality'' |
|||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New York City, exceptional {{IPA|[eə]}} is found notably in ''avenue'' and variably before {{IPA|/dʒ/}} as in ''imagine'' and ''magic''.{{sfnp|Labov|2007|p=359}}}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="10" class="wrap" style="width: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 85%;" | {{notelist}} |
|||
|}<noinclude>{{reflist}}{{documentation|content= |
|||
==Required references== |
|||
This template requires the following works be cited elsewhere in the article using {{cite xxx}} or {{tlx|citation}}. |
|||
{{refbegin}} |
|||
* {{cite book |
|||
|last1=Baker |
|||
|first1=Adam |
|||
|last2=Mielke |
|||
|first2=Jeff |
|||
|last3=Archangeli |
|||
|first3=Diana |
|||
|year=2008 |
|||
|chapter=More velar than /g/: Consonant Coarticulation as a Cause of Diphthongization |
|||
|editor1-last=Chang |
|||
|editor1-first=Charles B. |
|||
|editor2-last=Haynie |
|||
|editor2-first=Hannah J. |
|||
|title=Proceedings of the 26th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics |
|||
|pages=60–68 |
|||
|location=Somerville, Massachusetts |
|||
|publisher=Cascadilla Proceedings Project |
|||
|isbn=978-1-57473-423-2 |
|||
|chapter-url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wccfl/26/paper1656.pdf |
|||
}} |
|||
* {{cite journal |
|||
|last=Boberg |
|||
|first=Charles |
|||
|year=2008 |
|||
|title=Regional phonetic differentiation in Standard Canadian English |
|||
|journal=Journal of English Linguistics |
|||
|volume=36 |
|||
|issue=2 |
|||
|page=129–154 |
|||
|doi=10.1177/0075424208316648 |
|||
|url=https://www.academia.edu/7683591 |
|||
}} |
|||
* {{cite journal |
|||
|last=Labov |
|||
|first=William |
|||
|year=2007 |
|||
|title=Transmission and Diffusion |
|||
|journal=Language |
|||
|volume=83 |
|||
|issue=2 |
|||
|pages=344–387 |
|||
|doi=10.1353/lan.2007.0082 |
|||
|jstor=40070845 |
|||
|url=https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/Papers/TD.pdf |
|||
}} |
|||
* {{cite book |
|||
|last1=Labov |
|||
|first1=William |
|||
|last2=Ash |
|||
|first2=Sharon |
|||
|last3=Boberg |
|||
|first3=Charles |
|||
|year=2006 |
|||
|title=[[The Atlas of North American English]] |
|||
|location=Berlin |
|||
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |
|||
|isbn=978-3-11-016746-7 |
|||
}} |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
}} |
|||
</noinclude> |
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{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="{{{style|width: 75%; text-align: center;}}}" |
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="{{{style|width: 75%; text-align: center;}}}" |
||
|+ class="nowrap" | {{navbar|/æ/ raising in North American English|mini=y|style=float: left;}}{{IPAc-en|æ}} raising in [[North American English]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Labov|first1=William|authorlink1=William Labov|last2=Ash|first2=Sharon|last3=Boberg|first3=Charles|authorlink3=Charles Boberg|title=The Atlas of North American English|location=Berlin|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=2006|page=182|isbn=3-11-016746-8}}</ref> |
|+ class="nowrap" | {{navbar|/æ/ raising in North American English|mini=y|style=float: left;}}{{IPAc-en|æ}} raising in [[North American English]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Labov|first1=William|authorlink1=William Labov|last2=Ash|first2=Sharon|last3=Boberg|first3=Charles|authorlink3=Charles Boberg|title=The Atlas of North American English|location=Berlin|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=2006|page=182|isbn=3-11-016746-8}}</ref> |
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|headerstyle=text-align: left;}} |
|headerstyle=text-align: left;}} |
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|}<noinclude> |
|}<noinclude> |
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[[Category:North America language templates]] |
|||
</noinclude> |
</noinclude> |
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Latest revision as of 16:17, 14 March 2021
SVLR
Aitken's Scots Vowel # | 1★ | 8a | 10 | 2★ | 11★ | 3 | 4★ | 8★ | 5 | 12 | 18★ | 6★ | 14 | 7★ | 9 | 13★ | 15 | 16★ | 19 | 17★ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Historical Vowel |
bite | bay | boil | beet | bree[sc] | beat | ba(t)e | bait | boat (bow) |
bought | bot | aboot | beaut(y) | bøøt[sc] | boy | bow/bout | bit | bet | butt | bat |
Scots phoneme | /ai/ | /əi/ | /i/ | /iː/ (Scots only)[a] |
/ei/ (Scots only)[b] |
/e/[c] | /eː/[d] | /o(ː)/ | /ɔː/[e] | /ɔ/[f] | /ʉ/[g] | /jʉ/[h][i] | /ø/[j][k] | /oi/ | /ʌʉ/[l] | /ɪ/[m][n] | /ɛ/[n] | /ʌ/[o][n] | /a/[p] | |
Scottish English phoneme | /ai/ or /əi/ (SVLR) | /e/ | /ɔi/ | /i/ | — | /i/ | /e/ | /o/ | /ɔ/ | /ʉ/ | /jʉ/ | — | /ɔi/ | /ʌʉ/ | /ɪ/ | /ɛ/ | /ʌ/ | /a/ | ||
Wells sets | PRICE & others | FLEECE, NEAR | — | FLEECE | FACE, SQUARE, HAPPY | GOAT, FORCE | THOUGHT, LOT, CLOTH, NORTH | FOOT, GOOSE, CURE | — | CHOICE | MOUTH | KIT, commA, NURSE, lettER | DRESS, NURSE | STRUT, commA, NURSE | TRAP, PALM, BATH, START | |||||
EEx | size, fire vs. site, fine | leaf, beet | leave, beer | — | race, bake | raise, bare | coat, low | caught, law | cot, lock | put, food | duty, feud | — | boy, loin | house, now | bid, wrist | bed, rest | bud, rust | bad, Rasta | ||
HEx | size, fire | May, pay | join, oil | beet, see | (dee, lee) | (beat, sea) | race, bate | raise, bait | coat, low | caught, law | cot, lock | (aboot, mooth) | true, feud | (fruit, use) | boy, joy | about, mouth | bid, wrist | bed, rest | bud, rust | bad, Rasta |
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXSVLR
Aitken's Scots Vowel # | 1★ | 8a | 10 | 2★ | 11★ | 3 | 4★ | 8★ | 5 | 12 | 18★ | 6★ | 14 | 7★ | 9 | 13★ | 15 | 16★ | 19 | 17★ | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Historical Vowel | BY | BITE | BAY | BOIL | BEET | BREE[Scots] | BEAT | BA(T)E | BAIT | BOAT(BOW) | BOUGHT | BOT | ABOOT | BEAUT(Y) | BØØT[Scots] | BOY | BOW/BOUT | BIT | BET | BUTT | BAT |
Scots phonemes | /ai/ | /əi/ | /i/ | /iː/[q] | /ei/[j][r] | /e/[s] | /eː/[t] | /o(ː)/ | /ɔː/[u] | /ɔ/[v] | /ʉ/[w] | /jʉ/[x][y] | /ø/[j][z] | /oi/ | /ʌʉ/[aa] | /ɪ/[ab][n] | /ɛ/[n] | /ʌ/[ac][n] | /a/[ad] | ||
English phonemes | /ai/ | /əi/ | /i/ | — | /e/ | /o/ | /ɔ/ | /ʉ/ | — | /ɔi/ | /ʌʉ/ | /ɪ/ | /ɛ/ | /ʌ/ | /a/ | ||||||
Wells sets | PRICE | FLEECE, NEAR | — | FACE, SQUARE, HAPPY | GOAT, FORCE | THOUGHT, LOT, CLOTH, NORTH | FOOT, GOOSE, CURE /kjʉr/ | — | CHOICE | MOUTH | KIT, commA, NURSE, lettER | DRESS, NURSE | STRUT, commA, NURSE | TRAP, PALM, BATH, START | |||||||
EEx | size, fire vs. site, fine | leaf, beet | leave, beer | — | race, bake | raise, bare | coat, low | caught, law | cot, lock | put, food | duty, feud | — | boy, loin | house, now | bid, wrist | bed, rest | bud, rust | bad, Rasta | |||
HEx | size, fire | site, fine | May, pay | join, oil | beet, see | (dee, lee) | (beat, sea) | race, bate | raise, bait | coat, low | caught, law | cot, lock | (aboot, mooth) | true, feud | (fruit, use) | boy, joy | about, mouth | bid, wrist | bed, rest | bud, rust | bad, Rasta |
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Following consonant |
Example words[24] |
New York City, New Orleans[24] |
Baltimore, Philadel- phia[24] |
General American, New England, Western US |
Midland US, Pittsburgh |
Southern US |
Canada, Northern Mountain US |
Minnesota, Wisconsin |
Great Lakes US |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non-prevocalic /m, n/ |
fan, lamb, stand | [eə][ae][af] | [eə] | [eə] | [eə~ɛjə][26] | [eə][27] | [eə][28] | ||
Prevocalic /m, n/ |
animal, planet, Spanish |
[æ] | |||||||
/ŋ/[29] | frank, language | [eɪ][30] | [æ] | [æ~æɛə][26] | [ɛː~ɛj][27] | [eː~ej][31] | |||
Non-prevocalic /ɡ/ |
bag, drag | [eə][ae] | [æ][ag] | [æ][ah] | |||||
Prevocalic /ɡ/ | dragon, magazine | [æ] | |||||||
Non-prevocalic /b, d, ʃ/ |
grab, flash, sad | [eə][ae] | [æ][35] | [ɛə][35] | |||||
Non-prevocalic /f, θ, s/ |
ask, bath, half, glass |
[eə][ae] | |||||||
Otherwise | as, back, happy, locality |
[æ][ai] | |||||||
|
- ^ a b c d Introduction. p. xxx. Archived from the original on 2014-08-19.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xxxvi Archived 17 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d A History of Scots to 1700, pp. xcviii
- ^ Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22919-7, (vol. 1)
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 151.
- ^ Johnston P. Regional Variation in Jones C. (1997) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburg University Press, p. 465.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Cite error: The named reference
wattallen
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 152.
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 99.
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 144-145.
- ^ Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xix
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 101.
- ^ a b Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 150.
- ^ Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xxxvi Archived 17 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22919-7, (vol. 1)
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 151.
- ^ Johnston P. Regional Variation in Jones C. (1997) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburg University Press, p. 465.
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 152.
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 99.
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1981) 'The Scottish Vowel-Length Rule' in 'So meny People Longages and Tonges' Benskin, M. and Samuels M.S. (eds). p. 144-145.
- ^ Scottish National Dictionary, Introduction p. xix
- ^ Aitken A.J. (1984) 'Scottish Accents and Dialects' in 'Language in the British Isles' Trudgill, P. (ed). p. 101.
- ^ a b c d Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 182. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ a b c Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 173–4. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 238. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 178, 180. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ a b Boberg (2008), p. 145.
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 175–7. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 183. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ Baker, Mielke & Archangeli (2008).
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 181–2. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 181. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 175. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 174. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 82, 123, 177, 179. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ Labov (2007), p. 359.
Documentation
Required references
This template requires the following works be cited elsewhere in the article using {{cite xxx}} or {{citation}}
.
- Baker, Adam; Mielke, Jeff; Archangeli, Diana (2008). "More velar than /g/: Consonant Coarticulation as a Cause of Diphthongization" (PDF). In Chang, Charles B.; Haynie, Hannah J. (eds.). Proceedings of the 26th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Somerville, Massachusetts: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. pp. 60–68. ISBN 978-1-57473-423-2.
- Boberg, Charles (2008). "Regional phonetic differentiation in Standard Canadian English". Journal of English Linguistics. 36 (2): 129–154. doi:10.1177/0075424208316648.
- Labov, William (2007). "Transmission and Diffusion" (PDF). Language. 83 (2): 344–387. doi:10.1353/lan.2007.0082. JSTOR 40070845.
- Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-016746-7.
Environment | Phonemic systems | Non-phonemic (continuous) systems | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consonant after /æ/ | Example words | New York City & New Orleans | Baltimore & Philadelphia | General US, Florida, Midland US, New England, & Western US | Canadian, Northwest US, & Upper Midwest US | Southern US & Black Vernacular | Great Lakes US | ||||||
/m, n/ | Checked: aunt, fan, ham, pants, plan, lamb, understand,[2] etc.[a] | [eə][4] | [iə][b] | [ɛə~æ] | [ɛə~eə] | [eə] | |||||||
Free: animal, ceramic, manatee, Montana, planet, Spanish,[5] etc.[note 1] | [æ][7] | ||||||||||||
/ɡ/ | Checked: bag, drag, tag,[8] etc. | [eə][9] | [æ][10] | [æ][c] | [eːɪ̯][17][d] | continuous [eʲ] | [ɛ(j)ə~æ] | [ɛə~æ] | |||||
Free: agate, dragon, magazine, etc. | [æ][19] | ||||||||||||
/b, d, dʒ, ʃ/ | Checked: bad, flash, glad, grab, mad, sad,[20] etc.[e] | [eə][21] | continuous [æ] | [eə~ɛə] | |||||||||
/f, s, θ/ | Checked: ask, bath, calf, half, glass,[22] etc. | [eə][23] | |||||||||||
Others | as, back, frank, happy, locality;[24] etc. | [æ][25] | |||||||||||
For the phoneme /æ/, [eə] represents a tense pronunciation and [æ] a non-tense (or lax) pronunciation. The term "continuous" refers to a system without a decisive phonemic split of /æ/, followed by whichever allophone predominates in the given context. | |||||||||||||
Notes
Footnotes
|
TENSE": magic, imagine,
checked /b, d, dʒ/ or any old /b, d, ʃ, v, z/?
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
represented by the diaphoneme /ɒr/ | represented by the diaphoneme /ɔr/ | ||
---|---|---|---|
pronounced [ɒɹ] in mainstream England | pronounced [ɔːɹ] in mainstream England | ||
pronounced [ɒɹ] in Boston | pronounced [ɔɹ] in Boston | ||
pronounced [ɔɹ] in Canada | |||
pronounced [ɒɹ~ɑɹ] in New York City | pronounced [ɔɹ] in New York City | ||
pronounced [ɑɹ] in the mainstream United States | pronounced [ɔɹ] in the mainstream United States | ||
these five words only: borrow, morrow, sorry, sorrow, tomorrow |
corridor, euphoric, foreign, forest, Florida, historic, horrible, majority, minority, moral, orange, Oregon, origin, porridge, priority, quarantine, quarrel, sorority, warranty, warren, warrior (etc.) |
aura, boring, choral, deplorable, flooring, flora, glory, hoary, memorial, menorah, orientation, Moorish, oral, pouring, scorer, storage, story, Tory, warring (etc.) |
- ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 182. ISBN 3-11-016746-8.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Labov, 2006, p. 238.
- ^ Labov, 2006, p. 173.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Trager, George L. (1940) One Phonemic Entity Becomes Two: The Case of 'Short A' in American Speech: 3rd ed. Vol. 15: Duke UP. 256. Print.
- ^ Labov, 2006, p. 173.
- ^ Labov, 2006, p. 174.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Labov, 2006, p. 181.
- ^ Labov, 2006, p. 182.
- ^ Labov, 2006, p. 175.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 182.
- ^ Labov, 2006, p. 174.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 182.
- ^ Boberg, 2008, p. 145
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 181–2. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
- ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
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