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This article will inform you what amphetamine dependence is, the affects of amphetamine dependence, as well as the process of recovery.
⚫
'''Amphetamine dependence''' refers to a state of [[psychological dependence]] on a drug in the [[substituted amphetamine|amphetamine class]]. In individuals with [[substance use disorder]], psychotherapy is currently the best treatment option as no pharmacological treatment has been approved.<ref name="Cochrane 2013">{{cite journal|last=Pérez-Mañá|first=C|author2=Castells X |author3=Torrens M |author4=Capellà D |author5=Farre M.|title=Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=September 2013|issue=9|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009695.pub2|url=http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD009695/efficacy-of-psychostimulant-drugs-for-amphetamine-abuse-or-dependence#sthash.R4ahNJF3.dpuf|access-date=8 September 2013|pmid=23996457|volume=9|pages=CD009695}}</ref> Treatment for amphetamines is growing at extremely high rates around the world. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-11-01|title=Corrigendum to “Pharmacotherapy for amphetamine dependence: A systematic review” [Drug Alcohol Depend. 191 (2018) 309–337]|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618305982|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|language=en|volume=192|pages=238|doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.09.002|issn=0376-8716}}</ref> [[Drug tolerance|Tolerance]] is expected to develop with regular [[substituted amphetamine]] use.<ref>{{cite web|last=O'Connor|first=Patrick|title=Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse|url=http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/special_subjects/drug_use_and_abuse/amphetamines.html|work=Merck Manual Home Health Handbook|publisher=Merck|access-date=26 September 2013}}</ref> When substituted amphetamines are used, drug tolerance develops rapidly.<ref name="Cochrane 2013" /> Psychostimulants – including amphetamine and methamphetamine – do not cause [[physical dependence]].<ref name="NHMH_3e-Physical dependence + psychostimulant addiction treatment">{{cite book | vauthors = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2015 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 9780071827706 | edition = 3rd | chapter = Chapter 16: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders | quote = Pharmacologic treatment for psychostimulant addiction is generally unsatisfactory. As previously discussed, cessation of cocaine use and the use of other psychostimulants in dependent individuals does not produce a physical withdrawal syndrome but may produce dysphoria, anhedonia, and an intense desire to reinitiate drug use.}}</ref>


'''Amphetamine dependence''' refers to a state of [[psychological dependence]] on a drug in the [[substituted amphetamine|amphetamine class]].<ref name=":0" /> Dependence on amphetamines seams to be on a rise; one study has shown that drug films heavily influence the sensations of craving in drugs, something that can contribute to amphetamine dependence. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-10-01|title=Cue reactivity and opioid blockade in amphetamine dependence: A randomized, controlled fMRI study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618303879|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|language=en|volume=191|pages=91–97|doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.06.023|issn=0376-8716}}</ref> Though worth knowing that psycho stimulants witch includes amphetamine and methamphetamine do not cause [[physical dependence]].<ref name="NHMH_3e-Physical dependence + psychostimulant addiction treatment">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2015|isbn=9780071827706|edition=3rd|location=New York|chapter=Chapter 16: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders|quote=Pharmacologic treatment for psychostimulant addiction is generally unsatisfactory. As previously discussed, cessation of cocaine use and the use of other psychostimulants in dependent individuals does not produce a physical withdrawal syndrome but may produce dysphoria, anhedonia, and an intense desire to reinitiate drug use.}}</ref>
The acute effect of amphetamine use manifests itself in euphoria, intensification of the train of thought, speech, and movement, and an increase in the initiative and urge to move. In case of chronic use, vegetative disorders soon occur such as bouts of sweating, [[Insomnia|trouble sleeping]], [[tremor]], [[ataxia]] and [[diarrhea]]; the degradation of the personality takes place relatively slowly.<ref>J. Saarma "Kliiniline psühhiaatria". Tallinn, 1980, p. 139</ref>


Severe [[drug withdrawal|withdrawal]] associated with dependence from recreational substituted amphetamine use can be difficult for a user to cope with.<ref>[http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000166/CH162.htm#SSAT Chronic Amphetamine Use and Abuse] {{webarchive | url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100403085040/http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000166/CH162.htm#SSAT | date=April 3, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal = J Addict Dis | year = 2001 | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 55–65 | title = Behavioral sensitization in humans |vauthors=Sax KW, Strakowski SM | pmid = 11681593 | doi = 10.1300/J069v20n03_06}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=I. Boileau |author2=A. Dagher |author3=M. Leyton |author4=R. N. Gunn |author5=G. B. Baker |author6=M. Diksic |author7=C. Benkelfat | title = Modeling Sensitization to Stimulants in Humans: An <nowiki>[11C]</nowiki>Raclopride/Positron Emission Tomography Study in Healthy Men | year = 2006 | journal = [[Arch Gen Psychiatry]] | volume = 63 | issue = 12 | pages = 1386–1395 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.63.12.1386 | pmid = 17146013 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Long-term use of certain substituted amphetamines, particularly [[methamphetamine]], can reduce [[dopamine]] activity in the brain.<ref name = "Malenka">{{cite book |vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2009 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 9780071481274 | page = 370 | edition = 2nd | chapter = 15 | quote = Unlike cocaine and amphetamine, methamphetamine is directly toxic to midbrain dopamine neurons.}}</ref><ref name="pmid19328213">{{cite journal |vauthors=Krasnova IN, Cadet JL | title = Methamphetamine toxicity and messengers of death | journal = Brain Res Rev | volume = 60 | issue = 2 | pages = 379&ndash;407 |date=May 2009 | pmid = 19328213 | pmc = 2731235 | doi = 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.03.002 |quote=Neuroimaging studies have revealed that METH can indeed cause neurodegenerative changes in the brains of human addicts (Aron and Paulus, 2007; Chang et al., 2007). These abnormalities include persistent decreases in the levels of dopamine transporters (DAT) in the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the caudate-putamen (McCann et al., 1998, 2008; Sekine et al., 2003; Volkow et al., 2001a, 2001c). The density of serotonin transporters (5-HTT) is also decreased in the midbrain, caudate, putamen, hypothalamus, thalamus, the orbitofrontal, temporal, and cingulate cortices of METH-dependent individuals (Sekine et al., 2006).}}</ref> [[Psychostimulant]]s that increase dopamine and mimic the effects of substituted amphetamines, but with lower abuse liability, could theoretically be used as replacement therapy in amphetamine dependence.<ref name="Cochrane 2013" /> However, the few studies that used [[amphetamine]], [[bupropion]], [[methylphenidate]], and [[modafinil]] as a replacement therapy did not result in less methamphetamine use or [[Dopamine#Drug addiction|craving]].<ref name="Cochrane 2013" />


'''Affect of Amphetamine dependence''' manifests itself in euphoria, intensification of the train of thought, speech, and movement, and an increase in the initiative and urge to move.<ref name="pmid19328213">{{cite journal|vauthors=Krasnova IN, Cadet JL|date=May 2009|title=Methamphetamine toxicity and messengers of death|journal=Brain Res Rev|volume=60|issue=2|pages=379&ndash;407|doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.03.002|pmc=2731235|pmid=19328213|quote=Neuroimaging studies have revealed that METH can indeed cause neurodegenerative changes in the brains of human addicts (Aron and Paulus, 2007; Chang et al., 2007). These abnormalities include persistent decreases in the levels of dopamine transporters (DAT) in the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the caudate-putamen (McCann et al., 1998, 2008; Sekine et al., 2003; Volkow et al., 2001a, 2001c). The density of serotonin transporters (5-HTT) is also decreased in the midbrain, caudate, putamen, hypothalamus, thalamus, the orbitofrontal, temporal, and cingulate cortices of METH-dependent individuals (Sekine et al., 2006).}}</ref> As well as amphetamine use within teenagers can have lasting effects on there brain more specifically their prefrontal cortex. <ref name=":0" /> Amphetamine use is rising among students as well due to the ability to easily access prescribed stimulants like Adderall. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Varga|first=Matthew D.|date=2012-06-06|title=Adderall Abuse on College Campuses: A Comprehensive Literature Review|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15433714.2010.525402|journal=Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work|volume=9|issue=3|pages=293–313|doi=10.1080/15433714.2010.525402|issn=1543-3714|pmid=22694135}}</ref> Also, in case of chronic use, vegetative disorders soon occur such as bouts of sweating, [[Insomnia|trouble sleeping]], [[tremor]], [[ataxia]] and [[diarrhea]]; the degradation of the personality takes place relatively slowly.<ref name=":1">J. Saarma "Kliiniline psühhiaatria". Tallinn, 1980, p. 139</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web|last=O'Connor|first=Patrick|title=Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse|url=http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/special_subjects/drug_use_and_abuse/amphetamines.html|access-date=26 September 2013|work=Merck Manual Home Health Handbook|publisher=Merck}}</ref> [[Drug tolerance|Tolerance]] is expected to develop with regular [[substituted amphetamine]] use.<ref name=":2" /> When substituted amphetamines are used, drug tolerance develops rapidly.<ref name="Cochrane 2013" />Amphetamine dependence has shown to have the highest remission rate compared to cannabis, cocaine, and opiods. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=2010-08-01|title=Systematic review of prospective studies investigating “remission” from amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine or opioid dependence|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460310000985|journal=Addictive Behaviors|language=en|volume=35|issue=8|pages=741–749|doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.03.019|issn=0306-4603}}</ref> Severe [[drug withdrawal|withdrawal]] associated with dependence from recreational substituted amphetamine use can be difficult for a user to cope with.<ref>[http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000166/CH162.htm#SSAT Chronic Amphetamine Use and Abuse] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403085040/http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000166/CH162.htm#SSAT|date=April 3, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Sax KW, Strakowski SM|year=2001|title=Behavioral sensitization in humans|journal=J Addict Dis|volume=20|issue=3|pages=55–65|doi=10.1300/J069v20n03_06|pmid=11681593}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=I. Boileau|author2=A. Dagher|author3=M. Leyton|author4=R. N. Gunn|author5=G. B. Baker|author6=M. Diksic|author7=C. Benkelfat|year=2006|title=Modeling Sensitization to Stimulants in Humans: An <nowiki>[11C]</nowiki>Raclopride/Positron Emission Tomography Study in Healthy Men|journal=[[Arch Gen Psychiatry]]|volume=63|issue=12|pages=1386–1395|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.12.1386|pmid=17146013|doi-access=free}}</ref> Long-term use of certain substituted amphetamines, particularly [[methamphetamine]], can reduce [[dopamine]] activity in the brain.<ref name="Malenka">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=9780071481274|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|page=370|chapter=15|quote=Unlike cocaine and amphetamine, methamphetamine is directly toxic to midbrain dopamine neurons.}}</ref><ref name="pmid19328213" />
In 2013, overdose on amphetamine, methamphetamine, and other compounds implicated in an "amphetamine use disorder" resulted in an estimated 3,788&nbsp;deaths worldwide (3,425–4,145&nbsp;deaths, [[95% confidence interval|95%&nbsp;confidence]]).<ref name=GDB2013>{{cite journal | vauthors = Collaborators | title = Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 | journal = Lancet | volume = 385 | issue = 9963 | pages = 117–171 | year = 2015 | pmid = 25530442 | pmc = 4340604 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2 | url = | quote = Amphetamine use disorders&nbsp;... 3,788&nbsp;(3,425–4,145) }}</ref>
⚫
'''Treatment''' In individuals with [[substance use disorder]], psychotherapy is currently the best treatment option as no pharmacological treatment has been approved.<ref name="Cochrane 2013">{{cite journal|last=Pérez-Mañá|first=C|author2=Castells X |author3=Torrens M |author4=Capellà D |author5=Farre M.|title=Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=September 2013|issue=9|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009695.pub2|url=http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD009695/efficacy-of-psychostimulant-drugs-for-amphetamine-abuse-or-dependence#sthash.R4ahNJF3.dpuf|access-date=8 September 2013|pmid=23996457|volume=9|pages=CD009695}}</ref> Another treatment option for amphetamine dependence is aversion therapy based on classical conditioning module; this will combine the amphetamine with a negative thing or opposite stimulus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Title Page – Abnormal Psychology|url=https://opentext.wsu.edu/abnormal-psych/front-matter/title-page/|access-date=2021-05-28|website=opentext.wsu.edu}}</ref> Treatment for amphetamines is growing at extremely high rates around the world. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-11-01|title=Corrigendum to “Pharmacotherapy for amphetamine dependence: A systematic review” [Drug Alcohol Depend. 191 (2018) 309–337]|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618305982|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|language=en|volume=192|pages=238|doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.09.002|issn=0376-8716}}</ref> [[Psychostimulant]]s that increase dopamine and mimic the effects of substituted amphetamines, but with lower abuse liability, could theoretically be used as replacement therapy in amphetamine dependence.<ref name="Cochrane 2013" /> However, the few studies that used [[amphetamine]], [[bupropion]], [[methylphenidate]], and [[modafinil]] as a replacement therapy did not result in less methamphetamine use or [[Dopamine#Drug addiction|craving]].<ref name="Cochrane 2013" />


==References==
==References==
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Amphetamine Dependence}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Amphetamine Dependence}}
[[Category:Methamphetamine and health]]
[[:Category:Methamphetamine and health]]
[[Category:Substance dependence]]
[[:Category:Substance dependence]]


<references />


# Treatment for amphetamines is growing at extremely high rates around the world. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-11-01|title=Corrigendum to “Pharmacotherapy for amphetamine dependence: A systematic review” [Drug Alcohol Depend. 191 (2018) 309–337]|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618305982|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|language=en|volume=192|pages=238|doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.09.002|issn=0376-8716}}</ref>
# Studies have shown that drug films heavily influence the sensations of craving in drugs, something that can contribute to amphetamine dependence. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-10-01|title=Cue reactivity and opioid blockade in amphetamine dependence: A randomized, controlled fMRI study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618303879|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|language=en|volume=191|pages=91–97|doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.06.023|issn=0376-8716}}</ref>
# Quote directly from the article finding citation to back this statement up--- "The acute effect of amphetamine use manifests itself in euphoria, intensification of the train of thought, speech, and movement, and an increase in the initiative and urge to move." <ref>{{Cite web|title=Module 6: Dissociative Disorders – Abnormal Psychology|url=https://opentext.wsu.edu/abnormal-psych/chapter/module-6-dissociative-disorders/#:~:text=Furthermore,%20dependent,%20avoidant,%20and,among%20the%20dissociative%20disorder%20family.|access-date=2021-05-21|website=opentext.wsu.edu}}</ref>
# Amphetamine dependence has shown to have the highest remission right compared to cannabis, cocaine, and opiods. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=2010-08-01|title=Systematic review of prospective studies investigating “remission” from amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine or opioid dependence|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460310000985|journal=Addictive Behaviors|language=en|volume=35|issue=8|pages=741–749|doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.03.019|issn=0306-4603}}</ref>
# Amphetamine use within teenagers can have lasting effects on there brain more specifically their prefrontal cortex. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-11-01|title=AMPed-up adolescents: The role of age in the abuse of amphetamines and its consequences on cognition and prefrontal cortex development|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0091305720303968|journal=Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior|language=en|volume=198|pages=173016|doi=10.1016/j.pbb.2020.173016|issn=0091-3057}}</ref>
<references />Feedback to Improve Article:

Lead: I believe this article currently in its original state does have a definitive lead section; this is something I can improve with organization though it does have a good leading sentence I plan to find a source to back the statement.

Content: I couldn't find any content out place that was not relevant to the topic though I do believe there is some content missing for example the effects on teenagers and on different age groups I will add.

Tone & Balance: I will be adding more statements to underrepresented topics for example different treatment options and what treatments are available.

Sources & References: There are many statements that don't have sources to back them. I will definitely find sources to back them or take those statements out all together.

Organization: The content is well written though it is not well organised in broken down in proper sections. This will be a great opportunity to improve this article through proper organisation and sections.

Images & Media: I believe this article could benefit by adding one more image to enhance the understanding of the article.

Latest revision as of 18:10, 23 July 2021

Amphetamine dependence
The structural formula of methamphetamine
SpecialtyToxicology, psychiatry

This article will inform you what amphetamine dependence is, the affects of amphetamine dependence, as well as the process of recovery.

Amphetamine dependence refers to a state of psychological dependence on a drug in the amphetamine class.[1] Dependence on amphetamines seams to be on a rise; one study has shown that drug films heavily influence the sensations of craving in drugs, something that can contribute to amphetamine dependence. [2] Though worth knowing that psycho stimulants witch includes amphetamine and methamphetamine do not cause physical dependence.[3]


Affect of Amphetamine dependence manifests itself in euphoria, intensification of the train of thought, speech, and movement, and an increase in the initiative and urge to move.[4] As well as amphetamine use within teenagers can have lasting effects on there brain more specifically their prefrontal cortex. [1] Amphetamine use is rising among students as well due to the ability to easily access prescribed stimulants like Adderall. [5] Also, in case of chronic use, vegetative disorders soon occur such as bouts of sweating, trouble sleeping, tremor, ataxia and diarrhea; the degradation of the personality takes place relatively slowly.[6][7] Tolerance is expected to develop with regular substituted amphetamine use.[7] When substituted amphetamines are used, drug tolerance develops rapidly.[8]Amphetamine dependence has shown to have the highest remission rate compared to cannabis, cocaine, and opiods. [9] Severe withdrawal associated with dependence from recreational substituted amphetamine use can be difficult for a user to cope with.[10][11][12] Long-term use of certain substituted amphetamines, particularly methamphetamine, can reduce dopamine activity in the brain.[13][4]

Treatment In individuals with substance use disorder, psychotherapy is currently the best treatment option as no pharmacological treatment has been approved.[8] Another treatment option for amphetamine dependence is aversion therapy based on classical conditioning module; this will combine the amphetamine with a negative thing or opposite stimulus.[14] Treatment for amphetamines is growing at extremely high rates around the world. [15] Psychostimulants that increase dopamine and mimic the effects of substituted amphetamines, but with lower abuse liability, could theoretically be used as replacement therapy in amphetamine dependence.[8] However, the few studies that used amphetamine, bupropion, methylphenidate, and modafinil as a replacement therapy did not result in less methamphetamine use or craving.[8]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ "Cue reactivity and opioid blockade in amphetamine dependence: A randomized, controlled fMRI study". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 191: 91–97. 2018-10-01. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.06.023. ISSN 0376-8716.
  3. ^ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM (2015). "Chapter 16: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 9780071827706. Pharmacologic treatment for psychostimulant addiction is generally unsatisfactory. As previously discussed, cessation of cocaine use and the use of other psychostimulants in dependent individuals does not produce a physical withdrawal syndrome but may produce dysphoria, anhedonia, and an intense desire to reinitiate drug use.
  4. ^ a b Krasnova IN, Cadet JL (May 2009). "Methamphetamine toxicity and messengers of death". Brain Res Rev. 60 (2): 379–407. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.03.002. PMC 2731235. PMID 19328213. Neuroimaging studies have revealed that METH can indeed cause neurodegenerative changes in the brains of human addicts (Aron and Paulus, 2007; Chang et al., 2007). These abnormalities include persistent decreases in the levels of dopamine transporters (DAT) in the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the caudate-putamen (McCann et al., 1998, 2008; Sekine et al., 2003; Volkow et al., 2001a, 2001c). The density of serotonin transporters (5-HTT) is also decreased in the midbrain, caudate, putamen, hypothalamus, thalamus, the orbitofrontal, temporal, and cingulate cortices of METH-dependent individuals (Sekine et al., 2006).
  5. ^ Varga, Matthew D. (2012-06-06). "Adderall Abuse on College Campuses: A Comprehensive Literature Review". Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work. 9 (3): 293–313. doi:10.1080/15433714.2010.525402. ISSN 1543-3714. PMID 22694135.
  6. ^ J. Saarma "Kliiniline psühhiaatria". Tallinn, 1980, p. 139
  7. ^ a b O'Connor, Patrick. "Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse". Merck Manual Home Health Handbook. Merck. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
  8. ^ a b c d Pérez-Mañá, C; Castells X; Torrens M; Capellà D; Farre M. (September 2013). "Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 9 (9): CD009695. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009695.pub2. PMID 23996457. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
  9. ^ "Systematic review of prospective studies investigating "remission" from amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine or opioid dependence". Addictive Behaviors. 35 (8): 741–749. 2010-08-01. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.03.019. ISSN 0306-4603.
  10. ^ Chronic Amphetamine Use and Abuse Archived April 3, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ Sax KW, Strakowski SM (2001). "Behavioral sensitization in humans". J Addict Dis. 20 (3): 55–65. doi:10.1300/J069v20n03_06. PMID 11681593.
  12. ^ I. Boileau; A. Dagher; M. Leyton; R. N. Gunn; G. B. Baker; M. Diksic; C. Benkelfat (2006). "Modeling Sensitization to Stimulants in Humans: An [11C]Raclopride/Positron Emission Tomography Study in Healthy Men". Arch Gen Psychiatry. 63 (12): 1386–1395. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.12.1386. PMID 17146013.
  13. ^ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "15". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 370. ISBN 9780071481274. Unlike cocaine and amphetamine, methamphetamine is directly toxic to midbrain dopamine neurons.
  14. ^ "Title Page – Abnormal Psychology". opentext.wsu.edu. Retrieved 2021-05-28.
  15. ^ "Corrigendum to "Pharmacotherapy for amphetamine dependence: A systematic review" [Drug Alcohol Depend. 191 (2018) 309–337]". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 192: 238. 2018-11-01. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.09.002. ISSN 0376-8716.
[edit]

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