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[[File:Luang Prabang Monks Alm Dawn 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Monks gathering morning alms]] |
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[[File:20171113 Theatre of the Royal Palace, Luang Prabang 2433 DxO.jpg|thumb|Scene from ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', the Lao form of the Indian ''[[Ramayana]]''. Several versions of the story were recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts between the 15th and early 19th centuries.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). ''Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia.'' (pp. 54–73). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.</ref>]] |
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[[File:Laowomenwearingsinh.jpg|thumb|250px|Lao women in traditional Luang Prabang ''sinh'']] |
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''''''Phra Lak Phra Ram'''''' (<big>ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ</big>, pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national [[Epic poetry|epic]] of the [[Lao people]], and is the Lao adaptation of the [[Dasaratha Jataka]], a story narrating one of the previous life of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] as a [[Bodhisattva|Bodhisatta]] named Rama''.''<ref name=":0" /> It was brought to [[Laos]] and other [[Southeast Asia]] by propagation of [[Buddhism]]. The story reached Laos much later than [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]] (Siam) and thus was affected by local adaptation.<ref>{{cite web|website=Phralak Phralam|url=http://phralakphralam.com/phralak_phralam_en/le-phralak-phralam/les-personnages/|title=The characters | Phralak Phralam}}</ref> |
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[[File:Sonnenuntergang Abendrot Luang Prabang Laos.jpg|thumb|250px|Morning on the Mekong River]] |
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[[File:Champasak,_Laos,_Wat_Poo_31.JPG|thumb|250px|Ornate lintel [[Wat Phu]], Champasak]] |
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[[Laos]] developed its culture and customs as the inland crossroads of trade and migration in [[Southeast Asia]] over millennia. As of 2012 Laos has a population of roughly 6.4 million spread over 236,800 sq km (91,400 sq miles), yielding one of the lowest population densities in Asia. Yet the country of Laos has an official count of over forty-seven ethnicities divided into 149 sub-groups and 80 different languages. The [[Lao people|Lao Loum]] have throughout the country’s history comprised the ethnic and linguistic majority. In Southeast Asia, traditional Lao culture is considered one of the [[Greater India|Indic cultures]] (along with [[Burma]], [[Thailand]] and [[Cambodia]]). |
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Laos is geographically isolated and mountainous, bounded by the [[Annamite Range]] in the east, forming a traditional political and cultural boundary with [[Vietnam]] (a more [[China|Chinese]] influenced [[East Asian Cultural Sphere|Sinitic culture]]). Much of the western borders of Laos are formed by the [[Mekong River]] which provided the major means of inland trade despite limited navigability along the river’s length. Prior to the 20th century Lao principalities and the [[Kingdom of Lan Xang]] extended to the [[Sipsong Panna]] ([[China]]), [[Sip Song Chau Tai|Sipsong Chau Tai]] ([[Vietnam]]), and [[Khorat Plateau]] (today the northeast of [[Thailand]]) where the river was used as a transportation artery to connect Lao peoples on both the right and left banks. However, the political history of Laos has been complicated by frequent warfare and colonial conquests by European and regional rivals. As a result, Laos today has cultural influence from [[France]], [[Thailand]], [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Burma]] and [[Cambodia]]. The history of Laos is unique with a national character defined by its diversity in both culture and customs. |
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==Ethnicity== |
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{{See|List of ethnic groups in Laos}} |
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As of 2012, Laos has an estimated population of 6.4 million. The Lao government recognizes 47 distinct ethnicities, which are further sub-divided into 149 subgroups. Lao society is traditionally categorized into three broad groups based on ethnicity and location. Approximately 60% of the total population is ethnic [[Lao people|Lao]] (Lao Loum or Lao Tai); 24% are categorized as [[Lao Theung]] or “upland Lao” who are predominately people of [[Mon people|Mon]] or [[Khmer people|Khmer]] ancestry; another 10% are [[Lao Sung]] or “mountain Lao,” and are also commonly referred to as “hill tribes.” Hill tribe peoples in Laos include the [[Hmong people|Hmong]], [[Yao people|Yao]] ([[Mien people|Mien]]), [[Akha people|Akha]], and [[Lahu people|Lahu]]. Laos is also home to sizeable communities of [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] and [[Chinese people|Chinese]] who make up the 6% remaining. |
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[[File:Brao Couple Planting Food.JPG|thumb|250px|Brao couple farming]] |
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==Introduction== |
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Anthropologists consider the [[Lao people|Lao Loum]] as a subcategory of the wider “[[Tai peoples|Tai]]” ethnic group who share common genetic, linguistic, and cultural heritage. The [[Tai peoples|Tai]] family includes the [[Lao people|Lao]] and [[Thai people|Thai]], as well as smaller groups which have generally been distinguished by their traditional dress and include the [[Tai Dam people|Tai Dam]] (Black Tai), [[Tai Daeng people|Tai Daeng]] (Red Tai), and [[Tai Dón people|Tai Khao]] (White Tai). The term “Lao” is commonly used in Laos to define both the ethnicity and nationality. Further complication is added by the geopolitical history between [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], there are an estimated 19 million “[[Lao language|Lao]]” speakers living in northeastern [[Thailand]] ([[Isan language|Thai Isan]] or [[Lao language|Lao Tai]]) and only 3 million in Laos. As a consequence identity politics has played a major role in the defining the [[Lao people|Lao Loum]]. The Lao government makes no distinction between the bordering groups and views them as sharing a common identity, but the government of [[Thailand]] has through a process known as “[[Thaification]]” assimilated the Lao living in [[Isan]]. The [[Lao people|Lao Loum]] define themselves based on location, agricultural practice, language and religion. The [[Lao people|Lao Loum]] occupy the [[Mekong River]] valleys and cultivate wet rice crops, they are predominately [[Theravada Buddhist]] but have strong [[syncretism]] with traditional [[animist]] beliefs. |
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Waves- sinhalese- differences to Khmer, Thai, Lan Na |
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==Adaption== |
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unique lao |
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==Textual Characteristics== |
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===Genre=== |
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===Form=== |
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AAB Khun Ay; Nitsay |
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==Structure== |
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2 parts |
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==Characters== |
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==Synopsis== |
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==Themes== |
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==Influence== |
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[[Lao Theung]] are culturally distinct from both the [[Lao people|Lao Loum]] and [[Lao Sung]]. The [[Lao Theung]] generally include [[Mon-Khmer|Mon-Khmer peoples]] which are among the indigenous peoples from the [[Mekong River]] valleys. The largest single group (11% or 500,000 people) is [[Khmu people|Khmu]] (Khmou, Kmhmu, Khammu, Khamu, Kammu). Also included in the [[Lao Theung]] population are [[Katang people|Katang]], [[Bru people|Bru]], [[Kuy language|Kui]], Laven, [[Mal people|Mal]], Phai, Katu, Lave, Ngae, Jeh, Khuen, Jeng, Alak, Ir, Kasseng, Khlor, Aheu, Bo, Halang, Doan, Hung, Xinh Mul, Khua, Arem, Bit, Chut, Maleng and Mlabri. The [[Lao Theung]] peoples are distinguished by dry rice cultivation, and [[animist]] beliefs. |
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[[File:Akha laos 11 03d.jpg|thumb|250px|Akha girl in traditional dress]] |
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The [[Lao Sung]] are commonly known as “hill tribe” peoples, and are generally among the most recent mass populations to migrate into Laos having arrived in the nineteenth century from southern [[China]] and [[Vietnam]]. The [[Hmong people|Hmong]] are the largest group, which are generally subdivided by traditional dress including the White, Red, Black and Striped Hmong. The [[Yao people|Yao]] ([[Mien people|Mien]] and Lu Mien) are another large group of [[Lao Sung]], and distinguish themselves through the incorporation of [[Taoist]] deities with their [[animist]] beliefs. Other groups of [[Lao Sung]] include the [[Akha people|Akha]], Kaw, [[Lahu people|Lahu]], Kaduo, [[Lisu people|Lisu]], [[Hani people|Hani]], Phana, Si La, and Kado. The [[Lao Sung]] were heavily recruited by the [[United States]] and its allies during the wars against the communists in the 1960s. As much as 10% of the Lao population and 50% of the [[Lao Sung]] population fled the communist takeover of Laos in 1975, and continued during the following decade. The remaining [[Lao Sung]] population has been the target of government suspicion for a low intensity armed conflict since that time. There are sizeable communities of [[Hmong people|Hmong]] in the [[United States]] and [[France]]. The [[Lao Sung]] are commonly identified by language, dry rice production, [[slash-and-burn agriculture]], traditional [[opium]] production and [[animist]] beliefs. |
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==Names== |
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{{See|Lao language}} |
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There are over 80 distinct native languages spoken by the different ethnic populations of Laos. [[Lao language|Lao]], the official language of Laos, is a [[monosyllabic]] [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] based language from the [[Tai-Kadai]] family as spoken in [[Vientiane]]. There are 19 million [[Lao language|Lao]] speakers in [[Thailand]] and 3 million in Laos, a reflection of [[Geopolitical|geopolitical history]]. [[Lao language|Lao]] can be further divided according to regional dialects including [[Vientiane]], northern, northeastern, central and southern. Northern dialects are spoken in [[Sainyabuli Province|Sainyabuli]], [[Bokeo Province|Bokeo]], [[Phongsali Province|Phongsali]], [[Luang Nam Tha]], [[Udomxai]], and [[Luang Prabang]]. Northeastern Lao is spoken mainly in [[Xiang Khoang Province|Xiang Khoang]] and [[Houphane Province|Houa Phan]]. Central Lao is found in [[Khammuan]] and [[Bolikhamsai]]. The Southern dialect is used in [[Champasak Province|Champasak]], [[Salavan Province|Salavan]], [[Savannakhet Province|Savannakhet]], [[Attapeu Province|Attapeu]], and [[Sekong Province|Sekong]]. |
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As part of the [[Tai-Kadai]] language family spoken [[Thai language|Thai]] is similar to [[Lao language|Lao]], with some distinctions. Lao has six [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]], whereas [[Central Thai langauge|Bangkok Thai]] has five, the standard [[lexicon]], [[grammar]], usage and pronunciations are also different. The two languages are not mutually intelligible, although [[Lao language|Lao]] speakers tend to have an easier time understanding [[Thai language|Thai]] because of the prevalence of [[Thai language|Thai]] radio and media in and around Laos. |
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''Phra Lak Phra Ram'' is named after two principal characters, the brothers ''Phra Lak'', or [[Lakshaman]], and ''Phra Ram'', or [[Rama]]. Since ''Phra Ram'' is considered the hero, it is believed the altered name was chosen for euphony. Veteran dance performers of Luang Prabang, however, say that ''Phra Lak'' comes first in deference to his voluntary assistance of ''Phra Ram,'' whose actions were obligatory to his kingship.<ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009). Re-designing the role of phalak and pharam in modern Lao Ramayana. Wacana Seni Journal of Art Discourse, 8, p 3-4.</ref> Since it is considered a Jataka tale, it is referred to as ''Phra Ram Xadôk'' (<big>ພຣະຣາມຊາດົກ</big>, pʰrāʔ ráːm sáː dók). It was also called ''Rammakien'' (<big>ຣາມມະກຽນ</big>, Ráːm māʔ kian), but this the name for this other regional varieties in the ''Ramayana'' in general. |
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Other major Language families include [[Austro-Asiatic languages]] spoken by the [[Mon-Khmer]] ([[Lao Theung]]) peoples, [[Hmong-Mien]] and [[Tibetan-Burman languages|Burmo-Tibetan]] ([[Lao Sung]]). [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] is spoken within their respective ethnic communities. |
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==Introduction to Laos== |
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Among Western languages [[French language|French]] is commonly understood among the older (post-colonial) generation, and is still used in limited application for academic and official correspondence. [[English language|English]] is quickly being adopted as the language of business and tourism, and is supplanting [[French language|French]] among younger generations as the unofficial second language. |
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Lao legends attribute to the introduction of the ''Phra Ram Xadôk'' via the first king of [[Lan Xang]], Chao [[Fa Ngoum]], who arrived with his soldiers, artists, dancers, concubines, poets from musicians from [[Angkor]] who would have been familiar with the Reamker. Yet Indic civilizations knew of what is now Yunnan in China, as "Gandhara" no later than the second century B.C.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 247.</ref> [[Hindu culture]], language and religion spread into that part of the world incident to the [[Satavahanas#Cultural achievements|cultural achievements of the Sahavahana]]s (230 BC–AD 220.) Though definitive dates cannot be established for the [[Peopling_of_Laos#Gradual_Tai_inland_migration_from_China|gradual Tai inland migration from China]], transmission of the epic likely occurred much sooner than the traditional date. Tai tribes definitely settled on the fringes of highly Indianized kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer culture, adopting much of Indic learning and knowledge. As those kingdoms receded, the Lao came to venerate the earlier Hindu temples, often decorated in [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]] motifs, such as at [[Vat Phou]] in [[Champasak Province|Champassak]]. |
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==Religion== |
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{{See|Religion in Laos}} |
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[[File:Laos - Luang Prabang 100 - evening prayer at Wat Xieng Thong (6582764551).jpg|thumb|250px|Monks gathered at evening prayer]] |
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Earlier versions remained somewhat similar to other versions, but by the 18th century, the versions are completely localised. Although Theravada Buddhism was known to the Mekong River Tai tribes as early as the 7th or 8th century B.C., it wasn't until the 14th or 15th centuries that a re-invigorated Theravada Buddhism supplanted earlier animist, Hindu, or Mahayana Buddhist loyalties.<ref>Saveda, A. (1994). Laos: a country study. [Replaces 1971 version.]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/laos/</ref><ref>Charles, I. (2007). Buddhism, power and political order. New York: Routledge.</ref> This would have also seen introduction of the Dasaratha Jataka, an ancient Buddhist crystallisation of the story.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). p. 54.</ref> By the 18th century, the manuscripts are completely adapted to Lao culture and Theravada Buddhist religion.<ref>p. 18.</ref> |
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Laos is approximately 60% [[Theravada Buddhist]], which roughly falls along [[ethnic]] lines with the majority of practitioners being [[Lao people|Lao Loum]]. The remainder is largely [[animist]], following their unique ethnic traditions and practices. Even among the [[Lao people|Lao Loum]] there is a high degree of [[syncretism]] with most Lao acknowledging the traditional [[animist]] traditions known collectively as ''[[Satsana Phi|satsana phi]]''. Other religions are in the minority including [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]] and represent a combined total of less than 2% of the population. |
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==Religious significance== |
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===Buddhism=== |
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[[Theravada Buddhism]] is central to Lao cultural identity. The national symbol of Laos is the [[That Luang]] [[stupa]], a [[stupa]] with a pyramidal base capped by the representation of a closed lotus blossom which was built to protect relics of the [[Buddha]]. The shrine has been rebuilt several times since being created in the thirteenth century by the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]], with the largest expansions by [[Setthathirath|King Setthathirath]] in the 1500s as part of a nationwide building campaign. |
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Lao culture has always been oral and visual, and oral tales were often codified into elaborate dance-dramas by the royal courts. Great influence in dance came from Khmer, Thai, and even Javanese culture, with a slight native flair. In ''khône'' and ''lakhone'' dance-dramas, the symbolism, costumes, and story are also more attuned to and influenced by Hindu, Khmer, Thai, and Javanese traditions. |
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Traditionally in Laos males would become novice monks at some point in their lives, giving them the opportunity to gain both an education and religious [[Buddhist merit|merit]]. Laos also has a somewhat unique belief among Buddhist countries that [[Buddhist merit|merit]] (''boun'') is transferrable among people, thus a son or daughter may make [[Buddhist merit|merit]] for a parent by temporarily entering a monastery. Lay persons are expected to feed and care for the monks of their local community, with the morning processions of monks (''tak bat'') who walk to collect offerings. Monks renounce material possessions and labor, thus the community and the monastery (''[[wat]]'') are bound in a mutually reinforcing relationship. |
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Some versions explicitly announce that it is a Jataka tale, while others are generally assumed to be so. Phra Lak and Phra Ram are the epitome of moral leadership, ethics, selflessness, and living true to dharma. Pha Ram is associated with a previous life of Siddartha Gautama, while his cousin Hapmanasouane (Ravanna) is often compared to Buddha's cousin ''[[Devadatta|Phra Thevathat]]'' or Buddha's final impasse to enlightenment, ''Phra Man''. The parallels include their religious knowledge and generally moral superiority but also their ruin by greed and desire.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). Many rāmāyaṇas: the diversity of a narrative tradition in south asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.</ref> Hampanasouane as [[Mara (demon)|Mara]], the personification of worldly desires who tried to tempt the Buddha during meditation, can be seen in both their searches for lust, power, and material gain. The cosmology and some elements are taken from the [[Tripiṭaka|Tripitaka]], such as the greater role of Indra vis-à-vis Shiva, and Indra asking riddles of religion and Buddhist thought to a young Hapmanasouane.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). pp. 62-73</ref> Although important, religiously, it is subordinate to the greater and more chronologically recent Jataka tales of Phra Vet and the annals of the lifetime of Siddhartha Gautama.<ref>Holt, J. (2009). Spirits of the place: Buddhism and Lao religious culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 267.</ref> |
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[[File:Golden_Pi_Ban_at_Wat_Kham_Chanot.JPG|thumb|250px|Traditional spirit house]] |
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===Animism=== |
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[[Animist]] traditions are also very strong in Laos with the belief in traditional spirits being a common cultural tie among the [[Lao people|Lao Loum]], [[Lao Theung]] and [[Lao Sung]] although such beliefs are strictly organized according to local traditions. |
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Animistic elements are not as apparent in the ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', but it is noteworthy to point out that the scenery takes place along the Mekong River. She is a great goddess and ancestral spirit that is as sacred and quintessentially 'theirs' as the [[Ganges]] is to India and a personification of water, bounty, and life. It was also the [[Phaya Naga|King of the Nagas]] that suggested Phra Ram's father move the capital from Maha Thani Si Pan Phao (modern-day [[Nong Khai]], Thailand) across the bank to Chantaboury Sri Sattanak (modern-day [[Vientiane]]).<ref name=":0">Tinh, V. T. (1971). Phra lak phra Ram: a previous life of the buddha [Published on-line 2003.]. (Adapted from text of Vat Kang Tha.), Retrieved from http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/index.htm</ref> Like most animistic elements, the [[Nāga]] is seen in both Buddhist and Hindu-influenced contexts, but worship of nagas predates Indian influence in the region, and are common in folktales of Laos and Isan. A unique version of the ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', the ''Khwai Thoraphi'' focuses very much on Sankhip and Palichane's fight with the water buffalo. It was often read at temple, probably in Buddhism's attempt to replace Lao spirit propitiation ceremonies that involved water buffalo sacrifice.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006) pp. 237-8.</ref> |
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Collectively the Lao belief in spirits is referred to as [[Satsana Phi]]. Phi are the spirits of buildings or territories, natural places, or phenomena; they are also ancestral spirits that protect people, or can also include malevolent spirits. The phi which are guardian deities of places, or towns are celebrated at festivals with communal gatherings and offerings of food. Many Lao will have a [[spirit house]] on or near their property which is an important folk custom used to ensure balance with the natural and supernatural world. |
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==Influence on culture and art== |
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Phi were believed to influence natural phenomena including human illness and so appealing to the phi became an important part of Lao identity and religious health over the millennia. [[Astrology]] was a vital part to understanding the natural and spiritual worlds and became an important cultural means to enforce social [[taboos]] and customs. |
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[[File:Lao New Year, dancers.jpg|thumb|A dancer wearing a demon mask from Phra Lak Phra Ram]] |
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The importance of ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'' to Lao culture can be seen in how ubiquitous it is. It is a mainstay of dance and drama, song, painting, sculpture, religious texts, and manuscripts. It is also seen in the more common arts, such as classical [[morlam]], folklore, and village dances.<ref>p. 231.</ref> Scenes from court dancers were performed on Lao New Year celebrations, and other Buddhist holidays. The texts are commonly read during sermons. And the tales themselves have been deeply interwoven into local folklore, myth, and legend. Sculpture, lacquerware, carvings, and paintings adorn temples and palaces. The chapters have been intricately crafted into song and dance and accompanying music. Through the Buddhist elements, Lao beliefs of morality and karma are re-affirmed. The first half of Lao versions also establish the mythology for the creation of the Lao polities, land features, and waterways, and it serves as a transmission of culture. |
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==Characters== |
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Traditionally the [[Lao people|Lao Loum]] also believed that ancient mythical serpents known as ''ngueak'' inhabited major waterways, carving out the surrounding countryside and protecting key points along rivers or other bodies of water. The earliest name for the [[Mekong River]] was ''Nam Nyai Ngu Luang'' or "Great River of the Giant Serpent." ''Ngueak'', and the [[nāga]] which have been “tamed” by [[Buddhism]], were believed to bring rains, or change shape, and [[nāga]] in particular were believed to be protection spirits which inhabited the cities of [[Vientiane]] and [[Luang Prabang]] in [[Lan Xang]]. [[Nāga]] have endured as common motifs not only in myth and legend, but also on Lao temples, and silk weavings. Overtime the [[Nāga|nāga]] became a potent symbol of the [[Kingdom of Lan Xang]]. |
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===Main characters=== |
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==Customs== |
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[[Rama|''Phra Ram'']] (<big>ພຣະຣາມ</big>, pʰrāʔ ráːm) |
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Lao social structures are comparatively simpler than in neighboring [[Cambodia]] or [[Thailand]], which is a logical outgrowth considering the ethnic diversity of Laos. [[Lao Theung]] and [[Lao Sung]] groups were outside the traditional class structures, but together made up a large portion of the population. |
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* Son of [[Dasharatha|Thattaratha]], brother of Phra Lak, husband of Nang Sida. |
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[[Lakshaman|''Phra Lak'']] (<big>ພຣະລັກ</big>, pʰrāʔ lāk) |
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* Son of [[Dasharatha|Thattaratha]], brother of Phra Ram. |
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[[Sita|''Nang Sida'']] (<big>ນາງສີດາ</big>, náːŋ sǐː daː) |
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* Daughter of Thôtsakane and Nang Chanta, incarnation of Nang Souxada. |
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[[Ravana|''Thôtsakane'']] or ''Hapmanasouane'' (<big>ທົດສະກັນ</big>, tʰōt sáʔ kan; <big>ຮາບມະນາສວນ</big>, hȃːp māʔ naː sŭaːn) |
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* Soun of Viloun Ha, incarnation of Thao Loun Lo. |
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===Heavenly characters=== |
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Traditionally the king was at the apex of [[secular]] and religious authority, as both the head of the [[sangha]] and his [[saksit]] power in [[animist]] beliefs. The remainder of the population was headed by a class of [[nobility]] and then the general population. There were no strong [[Caste|caste rules]] as appeared in [[Thailand]] with ''sakdi na'' or [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] based cultures. Apart from the social structure was the [[Theravada]] clergy, which were due respect regardless of class. The fact the most males became monks at some point in their lives provided a route for social mobility and exposure to formal education. |
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*[[Indra|''Phra In'']] (<big>ພຣະອິນ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔìn) |
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Since the [[King of Laos]] was deposed in 1975, there were early attempts to downplay the importance of the monarchy and replace or alter many religious traditions and holidays. In recent years there has been renewed interest in the monarchy but from a nationalistic perspective, in a similar model to [[China]] since the 1990s. The [[socialist]] revolution theoretically put an end to the class distinctions in Laos, but in reality simply transferred traditional structures onto a different set of elite. The Lao [[sangha]] has also recovered their traditional role and status in much of Lao society. |
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** Chief of the gods, mentor of Thao Loun Lo. |
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*[[Shiva|''Phra Isouane'']] or ''Tapboramèsouane'' (<big>ພຣະອີສວນ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔiː sŭaːn; <big>ຕັບບໍຣະເມສວນ</big>, táp bɔː rāʔ méː sŭaːn) |
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** A god who falls to the earth and is the first ruler of Inthapatha Maha Nakhone. |
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*[[Brahma|''Phra Phrôm'']] or ''Phrômmachak'' (<big>ພຣະພຣົມ</big>, pʰrāʔ pʰróm; <big>ພຣົມມະຈັກ</big>, pʰróm mā tɕák) |
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** Prince of Muong Thoay, father of several lesser wives of Phra Lak and Phra Ram. |
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*[[Shachi|''Nang Souxada'']] (<big>ນາງສຸດຊາດາ</big>, sút sáː daː) |
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** Wife of Indra who is defiled by Hapmanasouane and vows to seek vengeance in her next life as Nang Sida. |
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*[[Surya|''Phra Athit'']] (<big>ພຣະອາທິດ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔàːtʰīt) |
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** The sun god, has affair with Nang Khaysi who bears the sons Sanghkip and Palichane. |
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*[[Garuda|''Phagna Khrout'']] (<big>ພະຍາຄຸດ</big>, pʰāʔ ɲáː kʰūt) |
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** Garuda replaces [[Jatayu]]. |
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*[[Uchchaihshravas|''Manikap'']] (<big>ມະນີກາບ</big>, māʔ níː kȁːp) |
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**The [[Pegasus]]-like [[vahana]], or deity mount, of Indra. |
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*[[Nagaraja|''Phagna Nak'']] (<big>ພະຍານາກ</big>, pʰāʔ ɲáː nȃːk) |
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** King of the Nagas, protector and deity founder of Chao Si Sattanak. |
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===Monkeys=== |
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[[File:Baci ceremony.jpg|thumb|250px|Baci Soukhuan]] |
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Lao social status places an emphasis on respect for elders; religious images and clergy; family and village authority; and the Buddhist concept of ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|dharma]]'' which emphasizes personal moral duty. [[Buddhist]] principles encourage stoic indifference and quiet reserve in dealing with disagreements. However, [[Lao people]] also have a strong concept of ''muan'' or “happy contentment” which encourages actions to not be taken too seriously or too quickly. |
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Divine parentage makes these monkeys special. The more formal term for this class of humanoid simians is ''vanone'' (<big>ວານອນ</big>, váː nɔ́ːn). Because of this the male ones take the noble title ''Thao'' (<big>ທ້າວ</big>, tʰȃːo). |
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The family unit is the basis of much social interaction, as such it is common for Lao to refer to each other using familiar [[Kinship|cognates]] such as “sister, brother, aunt or uncle” without an actual family tie to that person. Friendship falls between two categories, ''moo linh'' “play friends” are acquaintances and ''moo tai'' “die friends” who are considered as family. It is not uncommon or even considered rude for ''moo tai'' to show up unannounced for an extended stay, or to share personal possessions. Personal face-to-face contact is considered the most polite, and Western notions of invitations, letters and emails are viewed as foreign. |
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*[[Hanuman|''Hanoumane'']] or ''Hounlamane'' (<big>ຫະນຸມານ</big>, háʔ nū máːn; <big>ຫຸນລະມານ</big>, hŭn lāʔ máːn) |
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**Son of Pha Ram and Nang Phéngsi, aids in the search for Nang Sida and the battle with Hampanasouane. |
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*[[Sugriva|''Sangkhip'']] (<big>ສັງຄີບ</big>, săŋ kʰȋːp) |
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** Switches the role of Valmiki's [[Vali (Ramayana)|Vali]], son from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Palichane. |
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*[[Vali (Ramayana)|''Palichane'']] (<big>ພະລີຈັນ</big>, pʰāʔ líː tɕan) |
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** Switches the role of Valmiki's [[Sugriva]], sone from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Sangkhip. |
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*''Nang Phéngsi'' (ນາງແພງສີ, náːŋ pʰɛ́ːŋ sǐː) |
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==Versions== |
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Traditional Lao are conservative about their appearance and personal space. Lao people are also generally sensitive about physical contact. The head is considered as sacred, whereas the left hand and feet are ritually unclean. In keeping with social status it is expected that younger people slightly bow or keep their heads lower than elders or clergy. Except among a parent child relationship it is considered condescending to touch a Lao person’s head. Pointing with the hands or fingers is also insulting especially during a disagreement. Positioning of feet is highly important. Feet should never be pointed toward a [[Buddha]] image, member of the clergy, or elders. Shoes should always be removed when entering a temple or a Lao home or will give serious offence. |
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===Textual=== |
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The typical Lao greeting is the ''nop'' which is similar to the [[Wai (thai)|wai]] in [[Thailand]] or the ''satu'' in [[Cambodia]], and is based on the Indic [[Añjali Mudrā]]. In a ''nop'' the hands are clasped together upright in a prayerful position, with fingertips below the nose and a slight downward gaze. The ''nop'' is often accompanied with the greeting "Sabaidee" or “good health (to you)” and is considered the polite address for members of higher social status. |
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Due to the fragile nature of organic matter in hot, humid weather, most of these texts have been mostly lost or destroyed. Nevertheless, several texts have been uncovered at Vat Phra Kèo in Vientiane, Vat Kang Tha in Ban Bo Ô, Ban Naxone Tay, Ban Hom, and Vat Nong Bon, in Laos; Roi Et in Thailand, now housed in Bangkok; and a manuscript of the Vientiane version in Phnom Penh. Of these, only Ban Hom and Ban Naxone Tay have complete versions preserved.<ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp. 6-7.</ref> |
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Only two modern printed editions exist. The most noted is Sachchidanda Sahai's version, mostly based on the Vat Phra Kèo version. It was printed in 1973 by the patronage of the Indian Embassy in Vientiane.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 231</ref> Vietnamese scholar Vo Thu Tinh also published a 1972 version adapted from the manuscript of Vat Kang Tha, and is depicted at Vat Oup Muong in Vientiane. This version has been criticised for being too simplified.<ref>Giteau Madeleine. Note sur des sculptures sur bois de Luang Prabang représentant des scènes du Rāmāyaṇa. In: Arts asiatiques. Tome 45, 1990. pp. 67-75.</ref><ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp.7.</ref> |
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Special social attention is paid to monks and religious items. Touching a [[Buddha]] image or [[animist]] shrine is always offensive. Lao people will generally ''nop'' and kneel when approached by passing monks. In respect for the monastic vows, it is considered an offence for women to touch a monk, his robes, or to hand anything to a monk directly. In many instances a male friend or family member will be used as an intermediary or lacking that a plate or some other item will be used and then placed on the ground for the monk to use. However, compassion is the guiding principle in such interactions and the exception is up to the monk to determine. |
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===Sister texts=== |
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Lao social etiquette is extremely complex, and much of it may go unnoticed by a non-Lao. In the past it was not uncommon for rule books (''dtumla'') which thoroughly explained social interactions, timing, and which activities which should be undertaken at key times to be used. |
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In addition to the Phra Lak Phra Ram, other similar stories are known from Laos. |
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*Phrômmachak |
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===Baci Soukhuan=== |
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- In a version of the [[Tai Lue people|Tai Lu]] people preserved in [[Louang Phrabang]], Sita is born as [[Indra]]'s wife Sujata, who is raped by Ravana and reborn as Ravana's daughter On Hi Slap. |
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The [[baci]] is the national folk ritual of Laos and the [[Lao people|Lao Loum]]. The [[animist]] ceremony is part of [[Satsana Phi|satsana phi]], and is used for all major social and life events. The Lao believe the soul has 32 components which can become imbalanced. The [[baci]] reinforces the soul and the community, and involves all the gathered into making prayers and well-wishes symbolized by silk or cotton threads which are tied around the wrists. |
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*Kuay Toraphi |
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==Literature== |
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*Langka Noy |
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{{See|Literature of Laos}} |
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[[File:LuangPrabang VatMay2 tango7174.jpg|thumb|300px|Luang Prabang, Wat Mai, gilded wood bas relief scenes from the ''Prince Vessantara Jataka''.]] |
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Laos takes most of its [[Literature of Laos|traditional literature]] from sixteenth and seventeenth century [[Lan Xang]]. The most notable [[genre]] is the epic poetry of which several masterpieces have survived despite Laos’ tropical climate and history of conflict and warfare. |
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==See also== |
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The ''Sin Xay'' follows the mythological tale of a king and his kidnapped sister by the Lord of the [[Yaksha|Nyak]]. The ''Thao Hung Thao Cheuang'' recounts the struggles of the [[Khmu people|Khmmu]] and indigenous peoples of Laos at the time of the [[Tai peoples|Tai]] migrations as told by their mythical king, and is one of the most important works of literature in [[Southeast Asia]] for its depiction of life among its indigenous societies. Other notable works of Lao epic poetry include the rain legends of the Toad King (''Phya Khankhaak'') which are retold during the annual [[Rocket Festival]], and the story of ''Phadaeng Nang Ai'' which is an epic love poem set across multiple reincarnations. |
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*[[Literature of Laos]] |
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*[[Ramayana]] |
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*[[Ramakien]] |
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*[[Reamker]] |
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*[[Hikayat Seri Rama]] |
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*[[Thens]] |
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==References== |
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The Lao also have a number of origin legends including the ''Nithan Khun Borom'' (Story of [[Khun Borom]]) which recounts the creation of the world, and the ''Nithan Khun Lo'' which tells how the descendants of [[Khun Borom]] settled the lands of mainland [[Southeast Asia]]. |
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{{Reflist}} |
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Reflecting Laos’ [[Theravada Buddhist]] heritage a number of religious and morality stories are among the most popular in Laos. The national epic of Laos is the ''[[Phra Lak Phra Lam]]'' and retells the Lao version of the [[Ramayana]] as a previous life of the [[Buddha]]. Also, the ''Vessantara'' [[Jataka]] is generally considered one of the greatest masterpieces of Lao literature. The story recalls the past life of a compassionate prince, Vessantara, who gives away everything he owns, including his children, thereby displaying the virtue of perfect charity. |
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==External links== |
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Laos has a strong tradition of [[folklore]]. Ghost stories, place legends, stories of [[Nāga|naga]] and trickster tales of ''Xieng Mieng'' are quite popular and are the dominate forms of oral tradition. |
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* {{in lang|en|fr}} [http://www.phralakphralam.com Royal theatre of Luang Prabang] |
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* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/page01.htm Phra Lak Phra Lam - A Previous Life of the Buddha] |
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* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/characters.htm Characters of the Phra Lak Phra Lam] |
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{{HinduMythology}} |
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==Art== |
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{{Ramayana}} |
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Laos has experienced several major wars and occupations since the eighteenth century. Laos holds distinction as the most heavily bombed country in world, as a result of the wars against the [[communist]] revolutions in [[Laos Civil War|Laos]], [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] and [[Khmer Rouge|Cambodia]] during the 1960s and 1970s. Years of economic isolation have also taken a toll. The international trade in antiquities has also taken a toll on Laos’ artistic heritage due to persistent poverty. As a consequence much of the traditional art and architecture in Laos has been pillaged, sold, destroyed or suffered significant damage over the past three centuries. |
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{{National epic poems}} |
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[[:Category:Laotian literature]] |
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The first attempts at preservation outside the local ''[[wat]]'' occurred with both [[French people|French]] academics working in the early 1900s for the [[École française d'Extrême-Orient|École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO)]], and [[Phetsarath Ratanavongsa|Prince Phetsarath]] in the 1950s as part of the early [[Lao Issara|nationalist movement]]. International [[non-governmental organizations]] geared toward cultural preservation have been allowed to operate since the early 1990s, but are normally connected to a particular ministry or government organization so their activities can be monitored. Most of Laos’ cultural heritage is stored or protected in monasteries throughout the country. Museums are few, with the [[Haw Phra Kaew]] in [[Vientiane]], and the [[Royal Palace, Luang Prabang|Royal Palace Museum]] in [[Luang Prabang]] housing much of the remaining Lao art and cultural items of significance. |
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[[:Category:Works based on the Ramayana]] |
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[[File:Sueapat.jpg|thumb|250px|Lao princess wearing gold embroidery]] |
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[[:Category:Epics]] |
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===Weaving=== |
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Weaving is the dominate form of artistic cultural expression in Laos, it is common across all ethnicities and is the most widely recognized cultural export abroad. Lao mothers will often pass their weaving skills on to their daughters as a sign of eligibility for marriage. Patterns, techniques and colors vary according to region or ethnic group. |
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Women traditionally raise the silk worms on a constant diet of mulberry leaves, the silk is woven on hand looms in the north or (less commonly) on foot looms in the south. Each region and ethnic group has their own traditional weaving techniques. In the south weaving is characterized by intricate patterns of elephants, temples, [[Khmer people|khmer]] influenced designs and features intricate beadwork. The northeast is known for using raw silk and cotton, and tye-dying raw silk known as ''matmii'' or [[ikat]]. Central Laos runs along the [[Mekong River]] and is known for natural [[indigo]] dyes and diamond patterns which symbolize the protective scales of the mythical [[Nāga|naga]]. In the former royal city of [[Luang Prabang]] embroidery using delicate gold and silver threads is also preserved. The art was passed from mother to daughter and both patterns and pieces would be embellished with each passing generation. |
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===Sculpture=== |
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[[Buddhist]] [[motifs]] dominate Lao decorative art forms. Sculpture is among the most prominent form of traditional Lao art. Sculptures of the [[Buddha]] were traditionally cast in bronze, silver, gold or ''thong'' which is a gold and silver alloy. Wooden [[Buddha]] images were made by individuals seeking [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] are common at the local village level. The sculptures follow conventional forms and [[mudras]] found throughout [[Theravada]] [[Southeast Asia]], with two forms being almost uniquely Lao in origin. The most common form is the standing Buddha in a “calling for rain” [[mudra]], with hands at his side in a downward position, and a symmetrical flowing robe on both sides. Another less common Lao [[mudra]] is again standing, with hands crossed in front at the wrists in a “contemplation” [[mudra]]. These images have their origins in the sixteenth century, and are further characterized by longer facial features, and thinner more [[aquiline noses]]. |
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The most culturally and religiously significant sculpture in Laos today is the [[Phra Bang]] a gold statue from which the city of [[Luang Phrabang|Luang Pra Bang]] takes its name. According to legend the [[Phra Bang]] was cast in [[Ceylon]], transferred to the [[Khmer Empire]] and then came north to [[Lan Xang]] at the request of [[Fa Ngum|Fa Ngum’s]] [[Khmer people|Khmer]] queen. Other historically significant Buddha images include the colossal bronze [[Buddha]] images found in Wat Ong Teu and [[Wat Manorom]]. Smaller images are also found at the [[Haw Phra Kaew]], and [[Wat Sisaket]] in [[Vientiane]] or in the many temples like Wat Visoun in [[Luang Prabang]]. These Buddha images were produced in Laos and show many of the hallmarks of traditional craftsmanship. |
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A number of significant Buddha images to Lao history have been lost or taken during the conflicts of the nineteenth and twentieth century. The most significant is the “Emerald Buddha,” or [[Emerald Buddha|Phra Kaew]], which resides at the [[Grand Palace]] in [[Bangkok]] as the [[Palladium (protective image)|palladium]] of [[Thailand]]. Similarly the ''Phra Phutta Butsavarat'', or “Crystal Buddha,” was the [[Palladium (protective image)|palladium]] of the [[Kingdom of Champasak]] and was taken to [[Bangkok]] in the nineteenth century. Several other important images which originated in the [[Kingdom of Lanna|Kingdom of Lan Na]] were taken to Laos by [[Setthathirath|King Setthathirath]] (who was briefly King of [[Lan Na]]) in the sixteenth century. These images were crafted for each of his daughters from solid gold, and include the ''Phra Sae Kham'' (housed at Wat Pho Chai in [[Nong Khai]], [[Thailand]]), ''Phra Seum'' (housed at Wat Patum Wanaram, in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]]), and the ''Phra Souk''. These images were taken by the Thai armies in the nineteenth century to [[Isan]] and were ultimately bound for [[Bangkok]]. Ironically the ''Phra Souk'' or “Lucky Buddha,” sank in the [[Mekong River|Mekong]] during the storm which occurred when the three images were being moved by the Thais, the legend is depicted in murals at the Wat Pho Chai. In [[Amnat Charoen Province]], [[Thailand]] the ''Phra Lao Thep Nimit'' is another fine example of Lao sculpture which now resides in [[Thailand]]. Other sets of royal [[Buddha]] images were lost entirely during the era of [[French colonialism]]. Many were sold or taken as souvenirs, a number of royal images were lost in 1910 when the French gunboat the ''La Grandiere'' sank on the [[Mekong River|Mekong]] en route to a [[Paris]] exhibition. |
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[[File:Buddha Statues - Wat Xieng Thong - Luang Prabang - Laos.JPG|thumb|250px|Lao sculpted wood Buddhas posed "calling for rain"]] |
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===Woodworking=== |
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Laos has a history of sophisticated craftsmanship in wood. Traditionally used in temples, many homes and government buildings have some richly carved elements today. Richly carved furniture, elephant [[Howdah|howdahs]], river barges, and funerary carts can also be found among the private collections of the elite or the Royal collections at the [[Royal Palace, Luang Prabang|Palace Museum]] in [[Luang Prabang]]. |
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The first detailed European accounts of exploration to Laos in the sixteenth century described in detail the delicate bas reliefs which were found on the temples and palaces. Among the most outstanding examples of the craft are found along the temple frieze of [[Wat Mai]], and the royal funerary chapel at [[Wat Xieng Thong]] in [[Luang Prabang]]. |
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[[Folk art|Folk]] carvings are also quite popular with [[votive]] [[Buddha]] images being the most common form, and [[animist]] totems being found throughout the areas of the [[Lao Theung]] and [[Lao Sung]]. |
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===Handicrafts=== |
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Lao metalwork in gold and silver is experiencing a resurgence from its high point in seventeenth century [[Lan Xang]]. Silver work is especially prized and popular among ethnic minorities including the [[Hmong people|Hmong]] and [[Yao people|Yao]], and can be found as popular elements of traditional dress among married women. |
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Laos produces a number of handicrafts which use [[bamboo]] and other forms of basketry. Traditionally Lao use intricately woven bamboo mats in homes and temples, although much of the art form has been lost due to the availability and durability of plastic substitutes. Basketry is quite common and is traditionally seen in various forms of domestic kitchen equipment, or even in the house where bamboo thatching is still commonly used. |
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Mulberry leaves which are not used for silk worm production are frequently used for the production of ''saa'' paper. ''Saa'' paper is a traditional art form which has been incorporated into a number of crafts for the tourist industry around [[Luang Prabang]]. |
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==Architecture== |
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[[File:Wat Xieng Thong (Luang Prabang, Laos).JPG|thumb|250px|Wat Xieng Thong, Luang Prabang]] |
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Laos has a 21% urban concentration, with the largest city being capital of [[Vientiane]] (est. 500,000 population). The rate of urbanization is growing in Laos but is considerably lower than any of the bordering countries of [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]] or [[Cambodia]]. Most of the Lao population is [[agrarian]]. |
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The ancient capital of [[Lan Xang]], which is today’s capital of [[Vientiane]], was thoroughly destroyed as a consequence of the [[Anouvong's rebellion|Annouvong Rebellion]] of the 1820s. As part of [[French Indochina]], the ancient capital was rebuilt as a conscious political statement to both the [[Lao people|Lao]] and [[Thai people|Thai]] of [[Western culture|Western]] power and legitimacy. French building programs extended to [[Luang Prabang]], [[Savannaket|Savannahket]], [[Xieng Khuang]] and [[Pakse]] as well and many [[French colonial]] era buildings can still be found in Lao cities throughout the country. |
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Most Lao people live in rural villages clustered around a temple ([[wat]]). Traditional Lao homes (''heuan'') are simple, often constructed entirely from woven [[bamboo]] thatching or wood, with few rooms. Homes were built on piers or stilts to provide ventilation and protection, and the practice became an important cultural distinction. According to legend, the first peace agreement between [[Fa Ngum]] and the [[Dai Viet]] established that Lao lands began where the rivers and streams feed the [[Mekong River|Mekong]] and the people live in houses built on stilts. Many modern homes reflect [[Western culture|Western]], [[Thai culture|Thai]], [[Chinese culture|Chinese]], and [[Vietnamese culture|Vietnamese]] influence. The use of concrete, [[stucco]], brick and tile is common with constructions since the 1940s. |
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[[File:Pha That Luang, Vientiane, Laos.jpg|thumb|250px|That Luang, Vientiane]] |
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===Religious Architecture=== |
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As a devout [[Buddhist]] country, [[stupas]] and [[Wat|temples]] are the most culturally significant buildings in Laos. Lao architecture experienced a [[Golden Age]] during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when many buildings of cultural significance were sponsored by Kings [[Visunarat|Visoun]], [[Photisarath]], and [[Setthathirath]]. The most significant buildings include the national symbol of [[That Luang]] an important [[stupa]] for [[Buddhist pilgrimage]], the [[Haw Phra Kaew]] which formerly housed the [[Emerald Buddha]], [[Wat Sisaket]] which was built by [[Anouvong|King Annouvong]] in the [[Bangkok]] style and was spared destruction in the 1820s, and [[Wat Xieng Thong]] which was built in 1560 when the capital of [[Lan Xang]] was moved to [[Vientiane]]. |
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There are three distinct types of [[Wat|temple]] construction in Laos depending on the region and the age of the temple. The [[Luang Prabang]] style of temple is best exemplified by [[Wat Xieng Thong]], which shows a low sweeping tiered roof. The [[Vientiane]] style of temple is characterized by an open [[veranda]] and overhanging tiered roof which have symbolic meaning as levels of [[Buddhist cosmology]], and are crowned by elaborately carved [[Nāga|naga]] at the peak of each roof level. Lastly the [[Xieng Khouang]] style is the rarest, due to the extent of fighting which took place in the region during the [[Laos Civil War|Lao Civil War]]. [[Xieng Khouang]] style temples are similar to those in [[Luang Prabang]] but were often wider and built upon a raised platform with less ornamentation than the other styles. |
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Lao [[stupas]] also have a distinct character, with [[That Luang]] being the most recognizable example, but would also include the [[That Phanom]] in [[Isan]], [[Thailand]], [[That Dam]] in [[Vientiane]], and [[That Sikhottabong]] (''That Ing Hang'') in [[Thakhek]]. Lao [[stupas]] are characterized by a pyramidal base with an upward sloping spire which is elongated to represent a closed lotus blossom. The [[stupas]] are significant [[Buddhist]] sites of pilgrimage and are customarily built over important religious relics. |
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===World Heritage Sites=== |
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[[File:Muang Khoun - Laos - 01.JPG|thumb|250px|Ruined temple, Xieng Khouang]] |
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Laos holds two [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]], and two tentative sites for their cultural and historic importance. |
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[[Wat Phu]] is a [[Chenla Kingdom|proto-Khmer]] site located in [[Champassak Province]], which is more than 1,000 years old. The temple was built around a mountain with a natural formation reminiscent of a [[Shiva lingam]]. The [[Khmer people|Khmer]] built two cities on the banks of the [[Mekong River|Mekong]] and used the site (approximately 10 km) to create an earthly representation of the [[Hindu]] [[Mt. Meru]] using both natural and human construction. The site was abandoned as a [[Hindu]] place of worship, but over the centuries has become a site of [[Buddhist pilgrimage]]. |
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The old city of [[Luang Prabang]] is also a recognized [[World Heritage Site]]. [[Luang Prabang]] is the most heavily visited city in Laos, and was chosen for both its architectural and artistic heritage in fusing traditional Lao and [[French colonial]] architecture. There are more than 30 active temples in Luang Prabang, and was the seat of the [[Kingdom of Lan Xang]] from 1353-1560 and the [[Kingdom of Luang Prabang]] from 1707-1946. |
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The [[stupa]] [[That Luang]] and the [[Plain of Jars]] in [[Xieng Khouang]] were both nominated for [[UNESCO]] status in 1992. [[That Luang]] was nominated for its religious significance as a site of [[Buddhist pilgrimage]] and the [[Plain of Jars]] for its importance as a major archaeological site of [[Iron Age]] culture in [[Southeast Asia]]. |
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==Music and Performance Arts== |
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{{See|Music of Laos}} |
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[[File:Lao New Year, dancers.jpg|thumb|250px|Lao actors wearing ''Khon'' Masks]] |
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The national music of Laos is the ''[[Morlam|lam]]'', where a singer (songs by expert singers are ''[[mor lam]]'') uses improvised poetry set to quick [[tempo]] music around themes of love, difficulty, and poverty using turns of phrases and subtle humor. [[Morlam|Lam]] is highly regional, and many listeners can determine the setting and themes in the first few lines. |
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A popular form of [[Morlam|lam]] is basically a battle-of-the-sexes between an expert male and expert female singer to entertain the audience and trip the opposing singer up using humor, [[innuendo]] or stylistic flair. Lam can also be used in story telling as a sung form of folk poetry, and forms the oral tradition predating the national epics in [[Literature of Laos|literature]]. ''Lam'' used in [[animist]] traditions creates a type of chant which is used during ceremonies like the [[baci]]. |
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[[File:Laos_reciting_a_love_story_accompanied_by_the_clapping_of_the_hands_of_the_rest_and_the_sound_of_the_Laospipe.gif|thumb|250px|Traditional ''mor lam'']] |
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The most integral instrument for [[Lao music]] is the ''[[khaen]]'' a free-reed mouth organ made of bamboo. Variations on the [[khaen]] are found among most ethnic groups in Laos. Laos also uses a number of classical court instruments which show strong influence from [[Chinese instruments|China]], [[Cambodian instruments|Cambodia]] and [[Thai instruments|Thailand]]. The ensembles include flutes, [[Zither|zithers]], [[gongs]], drums, fiddles, [[lutes]], [[cymbals]] and [[xylophones]]. Modern ''[[mor lam]]'' also includes electric guitars, synthesizers and electric keyboards. |
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===Theater=== |
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All traditional theater in Laos is essentially musical in nature. Court music and performances known as ''[[khon]]'' and ''lakhon'' feature the most elaborate costuming and dance. [[Khon]] and ''lakhon'' originated from the [[Khmer classical dance|Khmer]] court and spread throughout the region, beginning in Laos during the [[Lan Xang]] era. Typical performances included [[jataka tales]], with the performances of the [[Pra Lak Pra Lam]] during [[Lao New Year]] in [[Luang Prabang]] being the most recognizable today. |
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During the nineteenth century influence from [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]] spurred the creation of ''[[lam luang]]'' or Lao [[opera]]. [[Lam luang]] is a more theatrical version of [[Mor lam|lam music]] complete with sets, costumes and orchestral accompaniment. In 1972 the [[Pathet Lao]] formed the Central Lao Opera, the first professional [[lam luang]] troupe in Laos. The performances center on social issues, traditional themes, and national propaganda. |
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[[File:Lao morlam musiciens.jpg|thumb|250px|Morlam performance-the men are playing the ''khene'' and wearing ''pha sarong'']] |
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===Dance=== |
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The national folk dance in Laos is the ''lam vong''. The ''lam vong'' begins with an individual using head and hand movements based on [[Buddhist]] [[mudras]], who is then joined by a partner, and then by other couples until a crowd forms with three interconnected and slowly turning circles. |
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Performance based dances from the royal courts are rare, with highly symbolic movements and steps by female dancers. In the 1980s many of the royal court dancers from [[Luang Prabang]] fled the [[Pathet Lao]] government to relocate in [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]. Other traditional performance dances include the "''fon [[Dha (sword)|dhab]]''" or “sword dance” which is a dance display of men’s [[martial arts]]. |
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There are a number of [[folk dances]] which are popular with [[Lao Theung]] and [[Lao Sung]] groups. The [[Hmong people|Hmong]] perform the "''fon bun kin chieng''" or [[Hmong people|Hmong]] “New Year dance;” the [[Khmu people|Khmu]] have a courtship dance known as the "''fon pao bang''"; the [[Red Tai|Red]] and [[Tai Dam people|Black Tai]] have a bamboo cane dance, and the [[Yao people|Yao]] are known for bell and drum dances. There are numerous regional and ethnic variations on all traditional dances in Laos. |
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[[File:The_Rocket_poster.jpg|thumb|250px|Movie Poster for ''The Rocket'']] |
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==Film== |
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Laos has little film or media industry. Television, film, radio and internet media from neighboring [[Thailand]] is wide spread and is a source of political and cultural tension. Prior to the 1950s in Laos only documentary [[French people|French]] photographs and rarer film footage existed. In the 1960s the [[Royal Lao Government]] produced the first feature films in Laos, ''Khukhak Peunkhaen'' “The True and Untrue Friend,” and ''Phaenedin Khong Hao'' “Our Land.” |
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During the 1970s and 1980s [[propaganda]] films were common and the Ministry of Culture took over all production. A number of [[American culture|American]] movies were set in Laos during this period, but not filmed there, and concentrated on the [[Vietnam War]] era perspective. Among [[American culture|American]] documentaries about Laos the ''Nerakhoon'' or “The Betrayal,” is widely known and follows a family that fled Laos in the 1970s and follows their post-[[Vietnam War]] story in the [[United States]]. |
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In 2007 the full-length feature movie ''Sabaidee Luang Prabang'' “Good Morning Luang Prabang” was released by [[Thai people|Thai]] director Sakchai Deenan about a [[Thai people|Thai]] photographer who falls in love with a Lao tour guide. Also in 2007, the [[Australian]] documentary [[Bomb Harvest]] was released to critical acclaim. The documentary follows the [[Mines Advisory Group]] and Lao National Unexploded Ordnance Programme in their efforts to clear the country of unexploded bombs from the wars of the twentieth century. The film portrays in graphic detail the difficulties of bomb removal in Laos, including the dangers faced by the poor population who dig the scrap metal for resale. |
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[[Australian]] filmmaker Kim Mordount's first feature film was made in Laos and features a Laotian cast speaking their native language. Entitled [[The Rocket]], the film appeared at the 2013 [[Melbourne International Film Festival]] (MIFF) and won three awards at the [[Berlin International Film Festival]]: Best First Feature, the [[Amnesty International]] Film Prize and the Crystal Bear for Best Film in the Generation K-plus program. |
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==Traditional clothing== |
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[[File:Traditional dance during Baci ceremeony in Lao.jpg|thumb|250px|Lao Loum girls dancing in traditional ''sinh'']] |
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{{main|Xout lao}} |
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Traditional clothing serves as the key visual cue for establishing belonging among ethnic groups. The techniques, patterns and materials vary not only by region and ethnicity, but even by clan and family. |
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For the [[Lao people|Lao Loum]], traditional dress reflects [[Cambodian culture|Cambodian]], [[Thai culture|Thai]], [[French culture|French]] and [[Burmese culture|Burmese]] influence. Among men, the Lao traditionally wear a [[Khmer people|Khmer]] style billowed trouser or [[sampot]], a [[Mandarin collar]] jacket or Indochinese shirt, and a simple [[Pha biang|pha biang]] or checkered shawl which is similar to the [[Khmer people|Khmer]] [[krama]]. Among older generations and areas of the north it is also not uncommon to see men wearing a checkered or plaid ''pha-sarong'' which is similar to the [[Burmese people|Burmese]] [[lungi]]. For women, the traditional dress is a long skirt with a richly embroidered foot called a [[sinh]], a matching [[pha biang]] or shawl (longer shawls called ''hom'' are worn in colder areas), and is worn with a French inspired blouse. Men and women wear religious [[amulets]], and large amounts of gold and silver jewelry which is believed to ward off evil and is a conspicuous sign of wealth. Colors patterns and embroidery techniques distinguish both region and class. [[Lao people|Lao Loum]] use [[Lao silk|silk]] almost exclusively in many of their traditional designs. |
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Among [[Lao Theung]], cotton materials are widely used. [[Khmu people|Khmu]] women are known for simple cotton sarongs with horizontal stripes, and long sleeved black blouses. Among [[Katu people|Katu]] and [[Alak people|Alak]] there is a tradition of adding significant amounts of beadwork and silver coins. [[Lao Theung]] use silver and brass jewelry in large amounts both to ward off evil and signify status. |
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[[Lao Sung]] groups including the [[Hmong people|Hmong]], [[Yao people|Yao]] and [[Akha people|Akha]] are known for elaborate embroidery, extensive silver ornamentation, and intricate color based patterns. For example, [[Blue Hmong]] women wear pleated skirts with bands of red, white, and blue embroidery; and a black jacket with orange and yellow embroidery. [[Yao people|Yao]] women by contrast wear a long black jacket with red lapels, loose pants, and elaborately embroidered black turbans. Men typically wear black pants tied with an embroidered band, a French inspired Indochinese shirt, and a colorful headband. |
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=Cuisine= |
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[[File:LaoFood_StickyRicePapayaSalad.JPG|thumb|250px|Lao sticky rice and papaya salad]] |
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Lao cuisine reflects the ethnic diversity of the country and its surrounding neighbors. Laos has strong regional variations even among common dishes, with [[glutinous rice]] (sticky rice) being the staple of most meals. |
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A common Lao meal would consist of a richly spiced minced fish or chicken salad or [[larb]], served with [[sticky rice]]; a [[Jeow bong|jaew]] or paste made of chili peppers for dipping; [[Tam mak hung|tam mak hung]] a fiery and sour fresh green papaya salad, a both based soup like ''kaeng no mai'' (bamboo soup); fresh herbs and vegetables served raw; tropical fruit as a dessert; and is served with the local beer or [[Lao-Lao|lao-lao]] rice liquor. |
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[[File:Food vendors in Laos.jpg|thumb|250px|Lao vendors selling French bread or ''khao jii'']] |
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Lao cuisine is similar to [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], but with several notable differences. The Lao meal as a whole generally appeals to more extremes of sourness, bitterness, and spice than in [[Thai cuisine]]. Lao cooking uses copious amounts of ''mak phaet'' (chilies), ''[[Padaek|pa daek]]'' or fermented fresh water fish sauce, [[kaffir lime]] leaves, and [[galangal]] in greater amounts to add bolder flavors to most dishes. [[Glutinous rice]] is eaten almost exclusively in ethnically Lao areas. |
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The Lao also have a greater consumption of wild game and insects known commonly as “jungle food.” Freshly killed game is sometimes eaten raw in richly spiced dishes and is seen as a delicacy. Insects can be eaten in a variety of forms, with the more pungent types being used as spices or substitutes, such as common red [[fire ants]] for lemon-like sourness in southern soups. Smaller game is typically barbecued and sold at roadside stands. |
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[[Thai cuisine|Thai]] influence on Laos can be seen in many of the popular [[curry]] based dishes like ''khao-pun'' which is commonly eaten during festivals. [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]] dishes like [[pho]] and [[spring rolls]] are extremely popular throughout the country. Ethnic [[Yunnanese cuisine|Yunnanese Chinese]] food is common in [[Vientiane]], and is reflected in the fried dough dishes which are commonly sold as street snacks. An important side note is that often it is only in [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] or [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]] noodle restaurants when Lao will use chopsticks. For most rice based dishes the right hand and a spoon are the only eating implements. However, among the [[Hmong people|Hmong]] and [[Yao people|Yao]], who eat more varieties of long grain rice, eating with the hands is considered rude. |
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The years of [[French people|French]] colonialism have also given Laos a number of food items including the [[baguette]] or ''khao jii'', as well as omelets, [[Pâté|pâté]] and croissants. The French also introduced coffee cultivation, with the strong variety found in southern Laos near Ban Paxong as the most desired. The common Lao breakfast reflects [[French people|French]] influence and is a simple affair of strong coffee served hot or iced, and is taken with a [[baguette]] or other pastry which dipped in condensed milk. |
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==Sports== |
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[[File:New_Laos_National_Stadium.JPG|thumb|250px|The Lao National Stadium]] |
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[[Football (soccer)|Football]] is the most common international sport enjoyed in Laos, with play hosted at the Lao National Stadium in [[Vientiane]]. The [[Lao League]] was founded in 1995, and fields ten teams. The [[Lao Football Federation]] operates a national team within the Asia division of [[FIFA]]. |
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Traditional sports include [[kickboxing]] martial arts, which are known collectively as [[muay Lao]], are similar to the more popular [[muay Thai]] and their [[Khmer people|Khmer]] antecedents of [[bokator]] and [[pradal serey]]. |
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''Ka-taw'' or [[Sepak takraw|kick-volleyball]] is also a traditional Lao sport, where players use a rattan ball and advance play using their feet, need, chest and head. |
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The end of “Buddhist Lent” or ''Phansa'' is marked by boat races on the [[Mekong River]]. There are traditional races where villages will each sponsor a team, with a celebration at a designated host village. There are also sport races where rowing teams compete against each other in head-to-head races. |
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The increase of [[eco-tourism]], has marked Laos as a destination for [[extreme sports]]. Laos hosts over twenty national parks, with hiking, biking, whitewater rafting, canoeing, kayaking, caving, rappelling and zip-lining being increasingly common activities. |
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===International Competitions=== |
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The [[25th Southeast Asian Games]] were held at [[Vientiane]], in December 2009. |
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Laos first begin competing at the [[Olympics]] in [[Laos at the 1980 Summer Olympics|1980]], and has since sent athletes to compete in: [[Laos at the 1988 Summer Olympics|1988]], [[Laos at the 1992 Summer Olympics|1992]], [[Laos at the 1996 Summer Olympics|1996]], [[Laos at the 2000 Summer Olympics|2000]], [[Laos at the 2004 Summer Olympics|2004]], [[Laos at the 2008 Summer Olympics|2008]] and [[Laos at the 2012 Summer Olympics|2012]]. Laos has also sent paralympians since the [[Laos at the 2000 Summer Paralympics|2000 games]] in [[Sydney, Australia|Sydney]], [[Australia]]. Laos has competed in the [[marathon]], swimming, archery, and other track events. Laos has yet to win an [[Olympic medal|Olympic medal]]. |
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== Festivals and public holidays == |
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{{See|List of festivals in Laos|Public holidays in Laos}} |
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Lao festivals are traditionally based on the Lunar Calendar and vary each year on the exact date. The largest public festival is the four day celebration of [[Lao New Year]] or ''Pi Mai''. |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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! Date !! Holiday !! Lao !! Observance |
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| January 1st || [[New Year|International New Year]] || ວັນປີໃໝ່ສາກົນ || Western New Year- public holiday |
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|- |
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| January (late) || [[Chinese New Year]]/[[Tet holiday|Vietnamese Tet]] || || [[Chinese New Year]] and [[Tet holiday|Vietnamese Tet]]- celebrated with fireworks and traditional foods. |
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|- |
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| February || [[Boun Khun Khao|Boun Khoun Khao]] || || Marks the end of the rice harvest. Lao mark the occasion by forming a [[stupa]] of unhusked rice in the vicinity of the village temple. The rice is then blessed by the monks, and a communal meal is held in the evening. |
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|- |
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| February || Boun Makha Bousa || || [[Buddhist]] holiday marking three significant events which took place on the same day in different years. The events include Buddha’s sermon to a spontaneous gathering of arahats; Buddha’s sermon to monks establishing monastic life; Buddha’s prediction of his own death and parinirvana. Celebration is marked with solemn candle processions and [[votive offerings]]. |
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|- |
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| March || Boun Khao Jii || || Commemorates the selfless action of an old woman who offered a rice cake to [[Buddha]] because it was all she was able to give. The festival marks the importance of the lay community in [[Buddhism]]. In the morning during ''tak bat'', or alms giving, monks are offered specially prepared rice cakes as a reminder to them of the importance of the community. |
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|- |
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| March || Boun Phra Vetsandon || || Three day festival commemorating the memory of Prince Vessantara- the last incarnation of [[Buddha]] before [[Siddhartha Gautama]]. The Prince Vessantara [[Jataka]] exemplifies the virtue of perfect charity. Celebration is marked by solemn candle processions and rice-cake offerings. |
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|- |
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| April || Boun Pi Mai || ປີໃໝ່ || Celebrates the four day festival of [[Lao New Year]], and is similar to the [[Thai people|Thai]] three day festival of [[Songkran (Thailand)|Songkran]] (วันสงกรานต์ ). |
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* Day one- Sand [[stupas]] are made recalling the reverence of an Indian king to [[Buddha]]. [[Buddha]] images are washed clean. Lao people celebrate by throwing water on each other as an act to “wash away” any defilement or bad will from the past year. |
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* Day two- In [[Luang Prabang]] the [[tutelary spirits]] of ''Thao Gneu'' and ''Nya Ngam'' are honored and the Lao origin stories are recited. A procession (formerly led by the King that would carry auspicious [[Buddha]] images) begins and is followed by a beauty parade of girls representing traditional goddesses. The processions end at the local monasteries where short services are held. Similar but smaller festivities are also held throughout the country. |
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* Day three- Marks the first day of the New Year. Begins with an early morning procession of monks and alms giving or ''tak bat''. In Luang Prabang people mark the occasion by summiting the holy mountain of [[Phou si]]. In the afternoon music and plays are enacted. At the hottest time of day a parade begins, and the crowds erupt in water throwing and festivities. |
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* Day four-The most revered [[Buddha]] images and [[Phra Bang]] are taken in procession and put on temporary display. Celebrants will dress in their best traditional clothing and make [[votive offerings]] for good luck. The evening is marked by traditional dancing. |
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|- |
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| May || Visakha Bousa ([[Vesak]]) || || [[Buddhist]] [[Vesak|Vesak holiday]] marking the birth, enlightenment and death of [[Buddha]]. Celebrations include the ritual freeing of birds and small animals. |
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|- |
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| June || Boun Bang Fai || ບຸນບັ້ງໄຟ || Lao [[Rocket Festival|rocket festival]]. Originated as an [[animist]] holiday during the dry season to ensure the rains. Celebrations include fireworks and bawdy fertility symbolism. |
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|- |
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| July (late) || Khao Phansa || ພັນສາ || Solemn occasion marking the beginning of [[Buddhist]] “Lent” or [[Vassa]], where monks retreat for three months of meditation and strict religious observance. The occasion is marked by Lao boys joining the monastery for the next three months of the [[monsoon]] season. After ordinations, the day is marked morning alms ''tak bat'' and by the procession of the Lenten candle which will burn in the temple for the next three months. Holy water is poured out by attendees as a merit making way to honor ancestors. |
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|- |
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| August || Boun Hor Khao Padapdin || || Literally the “festival of rice cakes decorating the Earth,” is the Lao day for honoring the dead. During the day special rice cakes are made. At night, with no moon, people leave the offerings on temple grounds for the deceased. The next day people take similar offerings to the temples for the monks and offer prayers for their ancestors. |
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|- |
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| September || Boun Khao Salak || || The festival of “rice drawn in lots,” is another festival for honoring the dead. Lao people make offerings to monks, each with a slip of paper containing the name of a deceased relative. The monks will then pray for that individual upon taking the offering. |
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|- |
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| October (late) || Ork Phansa || || The holiday marks the end of Buddhist “Lent” and the rainy season. Monks are liberated to perform their normal community duties. It is celebrated with boat races and carnivals. In the evening people launch small, candlelit banana-leaf (''heua fai'') floats on the rivers, decorated with offerings of incense and small amounts of money to bring luck and prosperity. |
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|- |
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| October (late) || Boun Suang Heua || ບຸນຊ່ວງເຮືອ || The Lao river festival which coincides with the end of Buddhist “Lent.” The festival is marked by boat races throughout the country. In [[Vientiane]], [[Savannakhet]] and [[Champasak (town)|Champasak]] the races are held the second weekend in October. The [[Luang Prabang]] boat races are held later. A major market day precedes the races and festivities take place throughout the night on race day. |
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|- |
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| November || Nor Chia || || Hmong New Year, which is celebrated by [[Lao Sung]] groups. Includes traditional clothing, games, and food. “Dating games” are played where young women throw cloth balls to boys they prefer. Gambling and Ox fights are also traditional. |
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|- |
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| November || Lai Heua Fai || || The Lao festival of lights, similar to [[Diwali]] and [[Loy Krathong]]. People decorate the streets, homes, temples and boats with lights. Fireworks are also common. Small banana-leaf floats (''heua fai'') are released in the river which carry away defilements and negative feelings. Larger boats are decorated with lights as offerings to the dead, the [[Nāga|naga]], and any spirits (''phi'') which linger on the water. |
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|- |
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| November || Boun Kathin || || Takes place anytime during November between ''Ork Phansa'' and ''Boun That Luang''. The festival is a time when specific offerings are made to monks for their care throughout the year. The offerings make [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]], but also serve the practical purpose of providing monks from poor families with what they will need on entering the monastery. The ''kathin'' is the name of the loom on which a woman weaves a monk’s robes. Offerings include robes, a razor, sandals, an umbrella, and an alms bowl. The offerings are made to the monastery, where the abbot will disperse the items to monks according to need. |
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|- |
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| November || [[Pha That Luang Festival|Boun That Luang]] || || A three day festival honoring the [[That Luang]] [[stupa]], which is the most significant religious and national symbol in Laos and is believed to be built over relics of the Buddha. |
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* Day one- Boun [[Wat Si Muang]]- Honors the memory of the woman Sao Si who gave her life in the construction of [[Vientiane]], and whose grave marks the “city pillar” from which the city was built. In the evening people leave [[votive offerings]] of “money trees” which are folded offerings of bamboo and paper money. They then gather more votive offerings and join candle processions led by chanting monks. Fireworks are common throughout the night. |
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* Day two- During the day a fairgrounds of traditional crafts and foods is set up near [[That Luang]]. At night a massive parade takes place involving people dressed in traditional clothing from across all ethnic groups. The candlelit parade is accompanied by traditional music as it circumambulates the [[That Luang]] [[stupa]] three times. |
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* Day three- Concludes the [[Pha That Luang Festival|Boun That Luang]] with the largest ''tak bat'' alms giving procession in the country. People dressed in their finest traditional clothing carry offerings which are left at the foot of the [[That Luang]] [[stupa]]. The Supreme Patriarch of Lao Buddhism addresses the crowd, and an outdoor ceremony is held in the late morning. |
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|- |
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| December 2nd || Lao National Day || ວັນຊາດ || Celebrates the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1975. Marked with parades and dancing at That Luang temple. |
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|- |
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| December || Khmu New Year || || A [[Lao Theung]] New Year holiday. The festivities recall the legend of ''Thao Hung Thao Cheuang'' and the legendary feast at the [[Plain of Jars]]. |
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|} |
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== References == |
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{{reflist}} |
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== External links == |
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{{commons category|Culture of Laos}} |
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*[http://www.culturalprofiles.net/laos Laos Cultural Profile (Ministry of Information and Culture/Visiting Arts)] |
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{{Laos topics}} |
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{{Southeast Asia topic|Culture of}} |
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{{Culture of Asia}} |
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[[Category:Laotian culture| ]] |
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Latest revision as of 20:20, 13 November 2021
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'Phra Lak Phra Ram' (ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ, pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national epic of the Lao people, and is the Lao adaptation of the Dasaratha Jataka, a story narrating one of the previous life of Buddha as a Bodhisatta named Rama.[2] It was brought to Laos and other Southeast Asia by propagation of Buddhism. The story reached Laos much later than Cambodia and Thailand (Siam) and thus was affected by local adaptation.[3]
Introduction
[edit]Waves- sinhalese- differences to Khmer, Thai, Lan Na
Adaption
[edit]unique lao
Textual Characteristics
[edit]Genre
[edit]Form
[edit]AAB Khun Ay; Nitsay
Structure
[edit]2 parts
Characters
[edit]Synopsis
[edit]Themes
[edit]Influence
[edit]Names
[edit]Phra Lak Phra Ram is named after two principal characters, the brothers Phra Lak, or Lakshaman, and Phra Ram, or Rama. Since Phra Ram is considered the hero, it is believed the altered name was chosen for euphony. Veteran dance performers of Luang Prabang, however, say that Phra Lak comes first in deference to his voluntary assistance of Phra Ram, whose actions were obligatory to his kingship.[4] Since it is considered a Jataka tale, it is referred to as Phra Ram Xadôk (ພຣະຣາມຊາດົກ, pʰrāʔ ráːm sáː dók). It was also called Rammakien (ຣາມມະກຽນ, Ráːm māʔ kian), but this the name for this other regional varieties in the Ramayana in general.
Introduction to Laos
[edit]Lao legends attribute to the introduction of the Phra Ram Xadôk via the first king of Lan Xang, Chao Fa Ngoum, who arrived with his soldiers, artists, dancers, concubines, poets from musicians from Angkor who would have been familiar with the Reamker. Yet Indic civilizations knew of what is now Yunnan in China, as "Gandhara" no later than the second century B.C.[5] Hindu culture, language and religion spread into that part of the world incident to the cultural achievements of the Sahavahanas (230 BC–AD 220.) Though definitive dates cannot be established for the gradual Tai inland migration from China, transmission of the epic likely occurred much sooner than the traditional date. Tai tribes definitely settled on the fringes of highly Indianized kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer culture, adopting much of Indic learning and knowledge. As those kingdoms receded, the Lao came to venerate the earlier Hindu temples, often decorated in Ramayana and the Mahabharata motifs, such as at Vat Phou in Champassak.
Earlier versions remained somewhat similar to other versions, but by the 18th century, the versions are completely localised. Although Theravada Buddhism was known to the Mekong River Tai tribes as early as the 7th or 8th century B.C., it wasn't until the 14th or 15th centuries that a re-invigorated Theravada Buddhism supplanted earlier animist, Hindu, or Mahayana Buddhist loyalties.[6][7] This would have also seen introduction of the Dasaratha Jataka, an ancient Buddhist crystallisation of the story.[8] By the 18th century, the manuscripts are completely adapted to Lao culture and Theravada Buddhist religion.[9]
Religious significance
[edit]Lao culture has always been oral and visual, and oral tales were often codified into elaborate dance-dramas by the royal courts. Great influence in dance came from Khmer, Thai, and even Javanese culture, with a slight native flair. In khône and lakhone dance-dramas, the symbolism, costumes, and story are also more attuned to and influenced by Hindu, Khmer, Thai, and Javanese traditions.
Some versions explicitly announce that it is a Jataka tale, while others are generally assumed to be so. Phra Lak and Phra Ram are the epitome of moral leadership, ethics, selflessness, and living true to dharma. Pha Ram is associated with a previous life of Siddartha Gautama, while his cousin Hapmanasouane (Ravanna) is often compared to Buddha's cousin Phra Thevathat or Buddha's final impasse to enlightenment, Phra Man. The parallels include their religious knowledge and generally moral superiority but also their ruin by greed and desire.[10] Hampanasouane as Mara, the personification of worldly desires who tried to tempt the Buddha during meditation, can be seen in both their searches for lust, power, and material gain. The cosmology and some elements are taken from the Tripitaka, such as the greater role of Indra vis-à-vis Shiva, and Indra asking riddles of religion and Buddhist thought to a young Hapmanasouane.[11] Although important, religiously, it is subordinate to the greater and more chronologically recent Jataka tales of Phra Vet and the annals of the lifetime of Siddhartha Gautama.[12]
Animistic elements are not as apparent in the Phra Lak Phra Ram, but it is noteworthy to point out that the scenery takes place along the Mekong River. She is a great goddess and ancestral spirit that is as sacred and quintessentially 'theirs' as the Ganges is to India and a personification of water, bounty, and life. It was also the King of the Nagas that suggested Phra Ram's father move the capital from Maha Thani Si Pan Phao (modern-day Nong Khai, Thailand) across the bank to Chantaboury Sri Sattanak (modern-day Vientiane).[2] Like most animistic elements, the Nāga is seen in both Buddhist and Hindu-influenced contexts, but worship of nagas predates Indian influence in the region, and are common in folktales of Laos and Isan. A unique version of the Phra Lak Phra Ram, the Khwai Thoraphi focuses very much on Sankhip and Palichane's fight with the water buffalo. It was often read at temple, probably in Buddhism's attempt to replace Lao spirit propitiation ceremonies that involved water buffalo sacrifice.[13]
Influence on culture and art
[edit]
The importance of Phra Lak Phra Ram to Lao culture can be seen in how ubiquitous it is. It is a mainstay of dance and drama, song, painting, sculpture, religious texts, and manuscripts. It is also seen in the more common arts, such as classical morlam, folklore, and village dances.[14] Scenes from court dancers were performed on Lao New Year celebrations, and other Buddhist holidays. The texts are commonly read during sermons. And the tales themselves have been deeply interwoven into local folklore, myth, and legend. Sculpture, lacquerware, carvings, and paintings adorn temples and palaces. The chapters have been intricately crafted into song and dance and accompanying music. Through the Buddhist elements, Lao beliefs of morality and karma are re-affirmed. The first half of Lao versions also establish the mythology for the creation of the Lao polities, land features, and waterways, and it serves as a transmission of culture.
Characters
[edit]Main characters
[edit]Phra Ram (ພຣະຣາມ, pʰrāʔ ráːm)
- Son of Thattaratha, brother of Phra Lak, husband of Nang Sida.
Phra Lak (ພຣະລັກ, pʰrāʔ lāk)
- Son of Thattaratha, brother of Phra Ram.
Nang Sida (ນາງສີດາ, náːŋ sǐː daː)
- Daughter of Thôtsakane and Nang Chanta, incarnation of Nang Souxada.
Thôtsakane or Hapmanasouane (ທົດສະກັນ, tʰōt sáʔ kan; ຮາບມະນາສວນ, hȃːp māʔ naː sŭaːn)
- Soun of Viloun Ha, incarnation of Thao Loun Lo.
Heavenly characters
[edit]- Phra In (ພຣະອິນ, pʰrāʔ ʔìn)
- Chief of the gods, mentor of Thao Loun Lo.
- Phra Isouane or Tapboramèsouane (ພຣະອີສວນ, pʰrāʔ ʔiː sŭaːn; ຕັບບໍຣະເມສວນ, táp bɔː rāʔ méː sŭaːn)
- A god who falls to the earth and is the first ruler of Inthapatha Maha Nakhone.
- Phra Phrôm or Phrômmachak (ພຣະພຣົມ, pʰrāʔ pʰróm; ພຣົມມະຈັກ, pʰróm mā tɕák)
- Prince of Muong Thoay, father of several lesser wives of Phra Lak and Phra Ram.
- Nang Souxada (ນາງສຸດຊາດາ, sút sáː daː)
- Wife of Indra who is defiled by Hapmanasouane and vows to seek vengeance in her next life as Nang Sida.
- Phra Athit (ພຣະອາທິດ, pʰrāʔ ʔàːtʰīt)
- The sun god, has affair with Nang Khaysi who bears the sons Sanghkip and Palichane.
- Phagna Khrout (ພະຍາຄຸດ, pʰāʔ ɲáː kʰūt)
- Garuda replaces Jatayu.
- Manikap (ມະນີກາບ, māʔ níː kȁːp)
- Phagna Nak (ພະຍານາກ, pʰāʔ ɲáː nȃːk)
- King of the Nagas, protector and deity founder of Chao Si Sattanak.
Monkeys
[edit]Divine parentage makes these monkeys special. The more formal term for this class of humanoid simians is vanone (ວານອນ, váː nɔ́ːn). Because of this the male ones take the noble title Thao (ທ້າວ, tʰȃːo).
- Hanoumane or Hounlamane (ຫະນຸມານ, háʔ nū máːn; ຫຸນລະມານ, hŭn lāʔ máːn)
- Son of Pha Ram and Nang Phéngsi, aids in the search for Nang Sida and the battle with Hampanasouane.
- Sangkhip (ສັງຄີບ, săŋ kʰȋːp)
- Switches the role of Valmiki's Vali, son from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Palichane.
- Palichane (ພະລີຈັນ, pʰāʔ líː tɕan)
- Switches the role of Valmiki's Sugriva, sone from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Sangkhip.
- Nang Phéngsi (ນາງແພງສີ, náːŋ pʰɛ́ːŋ sǐː)
Versions
[edit]Textual
[edit]Due to the fragile nature of organic matter in hot, humid weather, most of these texts have been mostly lost or destroyed. Nevertheless, several texts have been uncovered at Vat Phra Kèo in Vientiane, Vat Kang Tha in Ban Bo Ô, Ban Naxone Tay, Ban Hom, and Vat Nong Bon, in Laos; Roi Et in Thailand, now housed in Bangkok; and a manuscript of the Vientiane version in Phnom Penh. Of these, only Ban Hom and Ban Naxone Tay have complete versions preserved.[15]
Only two modern printed editions exist. The most noted is Sachchidanda Sahai's version, mostly based on the Vat Phra Kèo version. It was printed in 1973 by the patronage of the Indian Embassy in Vientiane.[16] Vietnamese scholar Vo Thu Tinh also published a 1972 version adapted from the manuscript of Vat Kang Tha, and is depicted at Vat Oup Muong in Vientiane. This version has been criticised for being too simplified.[17][18]
Sister texts
[edit]In addition to the Phra Lak Phra Ram, other similar stories are known from Laos.
- Phrômmachak
- In a version of the Tai Lu people preserved in Louang Phrabang, Sita is born as Indra's wife Sujata, who is raped by Ravana and reborn as Ravana's daughter On Hi Slap.
- Kuay Toraphi
- Langka Noy
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Richman, P. (1991). Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia. (pp. 54–73). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- ^ a b Tinh, V. T. (1971). Phra lak phra Ram: a previous life of the buddha [Published on-line 2003.]. (Adapted from text of Vat Kang Tha.), Retrieved from http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/index.htm
- ^ "The characters | Phralak Phralam". Phralak Phralam.
- ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009). Re-designing the role of phalak and pharam in modern Lao Ramayana. Wacana Seni Journal of Art Discourse, 8, p 3-4.
- ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 247.
- ^ Saveda, A. (1994). Laos: a country study. [Replaces 1971 version.]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/laos/
- ^ Charles, I. (2007). Buddhism, power and political order. New York: Routledge.
- ^ Richman, P. (1991). p. 54.
- ^ p. 18.
- ^ Richman, P. (1991). Many rāmāyaṇas: the diversity of a narrative tradition in south asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- ^ Richman, P. (1991). pp. 62-73
- ^ Holt, J. (2009). Spirits of the place: Buddhism and Lao religious culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 267.
- ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006) pp. 237-8.
- ^ p. 231.
- ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp. 6-7.
- ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 231
- ^ Giteau Madeleine. Note sur des sculptures sur bois de Luang Prabang représentant des scènes du Rāmāyaṇa. In: Arts asiatiques. Tome 45, 1990. pp. 67-75.
- ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp.7.
External links
[edit]- (in English and French) Royal theatre of Luang Prabang
- Phra Lak Phra Lam - A Previous Life of the Buddha
- Characters of the Phra Lak Phra Lam
Hindu deities and texts | ||
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Category:Laotian literature Category:Works based on the Ramayana Category:Epics