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[[File:Chao Anouvong.jpg|thumbnail|right|King [[Anouvong]], [[Kingdom of Vientiane]]]]
[[File:20171113 Theatre of the Royal Palace, Luang Prabang 2433 DxO.jpg|thumb|Scene from ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', the Lao form of the Indian ''[[Ramayana]]''. Several versions of the story were recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts between the 15th and early 19th centuries.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). ''Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia.'' (pp. 54–73). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.</ref>]]
The '''Laotian Rebellion of 1826-1828''' (also known as Chao Anouvong’s Rebellion) was an attempt by King [[Anouvong]] (Chaiya Sethathirath V) of the [[Kingdom of Vientiane]] to end the suzerainty of [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siam]], and reconstitute the former kingdom of [[Lan Xang]]. In January of 1827 [[Lao People|Lao]] forces from the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Vientiane|Vientiane]] and [[Kingdom of Champasak|Champasak]] moved south and west across the [[Khorat Plateau]], moving as far south as [[Saraburi]] which was three days march from the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] capitol of [[Bangkok]]. The [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] mounted a counter attack, rolling back the [[Lao People|Lao]] forces. The [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] continued north to destroy the city of [[Vientiane]]. Ultimately the rebellion failed, which led to the capture and death of King [[Anouvong]], the destruction of the city of [[Vientiane]], a massive resettlement of [[Lao People|Lao]] people, and direct [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] administration of the former territories of the [[Kingdom of Vientiane]]. The rebellion was a watershed moment for the history of [[Southeast Asia]], further weakening the [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms, perpetuating conflict between [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siam]] and [[Vietnam]] and ultimately facilitating [[French people|French]] involvement in [[French Indochina|Indochina]] during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The legacy of the Laotian rebellion is controversial. In [[Thailand]] it is viewed as the most ruthless and daring rebellion to be suppressed, and has given rise to the folk heroes like [[Thao Suranari]]. In [[Laos]], King [[Anouvong]] is revered as a national hero who died in pursuit of a war of independence, although ultimately he would risk and lose both his life and kingdom.
''''''Phra Lak Phra Ram'''''' (<big>ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ</big>, pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national [[Epic poetry|epic]] of the [[Lao people]], and is the Lao adaptation of the [[Dasaratha Jataka]], a story narrating one of the previous life of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] as a [[Bodhisattva|Bodhisatta]] named Rama''.''<ref name=":0" /> It was brought to [[Laos]] and other [[Southeast Asia]] by propagation of [[Buddhism]]. The story reached Laos much later than [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]] (Siam) and thus was affected by local adaptation.<ref>{{cite web|website=Phralak Phralam|url=http://phralakphralam.com/phralak_phralam_en/le-phralak-phralam/les-personnages/|title=The characters &#124; Phralak Phralam}}</ref>
=== Background ===
In 1707 the [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdom of [[Lan Xang]] was partitioned into the rival kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Vientiane|Vientiane]], [[Kingdom of Luang Prabang|Luang Prabang]] and later [[Kingdom of Champasak|Champasak]] (1713) as a result of a succession dispute. The [[Kingdom of Vientiane]] was the strongest of the three, with [[Kingdom of Vientiane|Vientiane]] extending influence across the [[Khorat Plateau]] (now part of modern [[Thailand]]) and conflicting with the [[Kingdom of Luang Prabang]] for control of the [[Xieng Khouang Province|Xieng Khouang Plateau]] (on the boarder of modern [[Vietnam]]).
Throughout the 1760s and 1770s the neighboring kingdoms of [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siam]] and [[Burma]] competed for alliances with the [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms, to offset the bitter rivalry and history of warfare between the two powers. For [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siam]] and [[Burma]], alliance with the [[Lao People|Lao]] strengthened their own position vis-à-vis their rival by adding to their own forces and denying them to their enemy. As a result, the use of competing alliances would further militarize the conflict between the northerly [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Luang Prabang|Luang Prabang]] and [[Kingdom of Vientiane|Vientiane]]. Between the two major [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms if an alliance with one was sought by either [[Burma]] or [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siam]], the other would tend to support the remaining side. The network of alliances shifted with the political and military landscape throughout the latter half of the eighteenth century.
==== The First [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] Invasion of Vientiane ====
In Siam, General Taksin would emerge and consolidate enough power to resist Burmese invasion and captured the kingdom of Lanna in 1775. In November of 1778 the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] moved to capture Vientiane, based on the pretext of the kingdom’s previous alliances with Burma. The [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] conducted a pincer attack against the [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms. General Chakri took a force of 20,000 overland toward Vientiane; a separate force of 10,000 under General Surasi came up toward Vientiane from the south taking Champasak, Nakhon Phanom, and Nongkhai. The forces combined and besieged Vientiane for four months, finally with additional assistance from the kingdom of Luang Prabang the siege was broken and Vientiane was captured. Vientiane, was the largest most populous of the [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms, and had been the capital of the former kingdom of Lan Xang since 1560. The city was looted but spared destruction, the Emerald Buddha and several other important Buddha images were taken to Siam, the royal family and a large number of families were also captured and forcibly moved to Saraburi northeast to the ruins of Ayutthaya. In 1779, the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] left the lands of the kingdoms of Vientiane and Champasak under temporary military rule, and the kingdom of Luang Prabang accepted [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] suzerainty.
=== Causes of the [[Lao People|Lao]] Rebellion ===
The sources of unrest which precipitated the [[Lao People|Lao]]tian Rebellion can be attributed to changing political identities and population transfers, seizure of international trade which further isolated the [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms, loss of national prestige and cultural icons during the wars with Siam in the 1770s, massive transcription and corvee labor projects, and most importantly the policy of Rama III to implement forced tattooing of the ethnic [[Lao People|Lao]] population on the Khorat Plateau.
====Population Transfers and Divided Nobility====
In the aftermath of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] and Burmese wars of the 1760s and 1770s, Siam began to take increasing administrative control over the ethnic [[Lao People|Lao]] on the Khorat Plateau. By the late eighteenth century the traditional political and military models were changing and nationalism was on the rise.
The traditional relationship among the kingdoms of Southeast Asia is best understood using the Mandala political model. Within the Mandala model wars are waged to control population centers for corvee labor and international trade. Legitimacy comes from Buddhist religious authority, transferred through acts of religious merit (sponsoring the sangha and the construction of temples) and possession of Buddhist palladium images (like the Emerald Buddha). Vassal kings were given a relatively high degree of autonomy, provided that they made an annual tribute of gold and silver (traditionally modeled into trees), provide tax and tax in-kind, raise support armies in time of war, and provided corvee labor for state projects. Vassals retained their power to raise additional tax, discipline their own vassals, inflict capital punishment, and appoint their own officials.


The destruction of Ayutthaya in 1767 cleared the traditional nobility in Siam and allowed for men like General Taksin and Chakri (Rama I) to rise to power. The years of warfare created a huge need in Siam for labor and resources. The capture of the [[Lao People|Lao]] lands gave Siam needed access to labor and materials, the Khorat Plateau was more easily accessible to Siam and provided area for expansion. However, the Khorat was traditionally part of the [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms, with a number of important cities and centers of power like Nong Bua Lamphu which was the traditional stronghold held by the crown princes of Vientiane. Beginning in the 1780s [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] monarchs would reward their regional governors for military service, increases in population or productivity with new titles and cities to administer. The result was to divide, and parcel the Khorat region under a new group of nobility at the expense of areas which were traditionally controlled by the [[Lao People|Lao]] nobility in Vientiane. In 1778, only Nakhon Ratchasima was a tributary of Siam, yet by the end of the reign of Rama I, Sisaket, Ubon, Roi Et, Yasothon, Khon Khaen, and Kalasin paid tribute directly to Bangkok. According to Thai records, by 1826 (less than fifty years) the number of towns and cities on the Khorat had grown from 13 to 35 made possible by [[Lao People|Lao]] population transfers for corvee labor.


==Introduction==
====Symbols and Identity====
Waves- sinhalese- differences to Khmer, Thai, Lan Na
[[File:Le Vat Phra Keo (Vientiane) (4346161606).jpg|thumbnail|Haw Phra Kaew, Vientiane. Former Royal Temple of the Emerald Buddha.]]
==Adaption==
For the [[Lao People|Lao]] the loss of the Emerald Buddha in 1779 became a symbol for the captivity of the [[Lao People|Lao]] themselves. Important Buddha images serve as protective symbols for the kingdoms of Southeast Asia. King Settharirath, one of the greatest kings of Lan Xang brought the Emerald Buddha from the Kingdom of Lanna in 1548, and was taken as a protective image for the [[Lao People|Lao]] monarchy and the city of Vientiane. In the 1770s the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] were needed royal regalia to reinforce legitimacy along traditional cultural lines, as the Burmese had destroyed Ayutthaya and thoroughly looted the palaces and court. When Vientiane fell in 1779, the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] left much of the city but thoroughly looted the temples and palaces for anything of religious significance or cultural value which could be used to reinforce the new [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] nobility. The loss of religious iconography ironically crystalized the [[Lao People|Lao]] identity further, and created a strong undercurrent of anti-[[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] resentment.
unique lao
==Textual Characteristics==
===Genre===
===Form===
AAB Khun Ay; Nitsay
==Structure==
2 parts
==Characters==
==Synopsis==
==Themes==
==Influence==


When [[Anouvong]] came to power he ordered the carving a replacement Emerald Buddha, not only in Vientiane but in Srichiangmai on the Khorat, Xieng Khouang, and later in Champasak. [[Anouvong]] also rebuilt and greatly enhanced the Haw Pra Kaew in Vientiane, which was the royal temple that had originally housed the Emerald Buddha. By drawing continued attention to the loss of the Emerald Buddha to Siam, the religious symbols and acts which [[Anouvong]] encouraged had clear political overtones.


====The Mekong and the Seizure of International Trade====
In 1812 a succession dispute in Cambodia provided a pretext for the regional rivalries of Siam and Vietnam. When the Vietnamese arrived with an army to support their candidate the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] withdrew, the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] army spread out placing the Khorat Plateau at their back and in 1814 took the Dangrek Mountains, along with the Cambodian provinces of Mlou-Prey, Tonle Repou and Strung Treng. As a result Siam expanded its territory, but created a wedge blocking [[Lao People|Lao]] trade with Cambodia and Vietnam. The [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] intended to divert international trade toward Bangkok overland via the Khorat Plateau, where heavy customs duties were in place. With the Mekong effectively blocked, Bangkok grew further in importance as the major port for European and international traders who were en route to Singapore and China.


==Names==
====Transcription, Corvee Labor, and Forced Tattooing====
Between 1779 and 1826 the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] and Burmese were in almost perennial conflict (see Burmese-[[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] Wars). Siam sought trade in weapons from the Europeans, and relied upon heavy transcription from the [[Lao People|Lao]] and Malay areas in the south to strengthen the state. It was during the campaigns against the Burmese near Chiang Mai that Prince [[Anouvong]] gained military distinction as a vassal to Siam, and a successful military commander.


''Phra Lak Phra Ram'' is named after two principal characters, the brothers ''Phra Lak'', or [[Lakshaman]], and ''Phra Ram'', or [[Rama]]. Since ''Phra Ram'' is considered the hero, it is believed the altered name was chosen for euphony. Veteran dance performers of Luang Prabang, however, say that ''Phra Lak'' comes first in deference to his voluntary assistance of ''Phra Ram,'' whose actions were obligatory to his kingship.<ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009). Re-designing the role of phalak and pharam in modern Lao Ramayana. Wacana Seni Journal of Art Discourse, 8, p 3-4.</ref> Since it is considered a Jataka tale, it is referred to as ''Phra Ram Xadôk'' (<big>ພຣະຣາມຊາດົກ</big>, pʰrāʔ ráːm sáː dók). It was also called ''Rammakien'' (<big>ຣາມມະກຽນ</big>, Ráːm māʔ kian), but this the name for this other regional varieties in the ''Ramayana'' in general.
In addition to transcription, corvee labor was required by the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]]. [[Lao People|Lao]] laborers were transported to Bangkok for the digging of canals, the construction of a dam at Ang Thong in 1813, and the construction of several forts along the Chao Phraya. Also from 1810-1860 Siam began the intense cultivation of sugarcane in response to growing European trade. The sugar plantations were labor intensive and in response Siam required corvee laborers among the Chinese, Khmer, [[Lao People|Lao]] and various hill tribe peoples within their domains.


==Introduction to Laos==
With the accession of Rama III years of corvee labor and transcription were brought to breaking point with a policy of forced tattooing of the [[Lao People|Lao]] population. The tattoos were used by [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] governors on the Khorat to ensure an accurate census for corvee labor and taxation, each ethnic [[Lao People|Lao]] male was branded on the wrist with their census number and village name. The [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] tattooing campaign spread across the Khorat region with the economic and political aim to more directly administer the [[Lao People|Lao]] population. Both tribute and taxes were calculated based on the adult male population registered by tattooing. Politically the move also reduced the [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms and governors on the Khorat to the level of [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] provinces, reducing the power and wealth of the vassal [[Lao People|Lao]] nobility. As a result of the tattooing practices both the [[Lao People|Lao]] nobility and general population became more unified, as did the ethnic minorities who had also been forced into Khorat with population transfers.


Lao legends attribute to the introduction of the ''Phra Ram Xadôk'' via the first king of [[Lan Xang]], Chao [[Fa Ngoum]], who arrived with his soldiers, artists, dancers, concubines, poets from musicians from [[Angkor]] who would have been familiar with the Reamker. Yet Indic civilizations knew of what is now Yunnan in China, as "Gandhara" no later than the second century B.C.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 247.</ref> [[Hindu culture]], language and religion spread into that part of the world incident to the [[Satavahanas#Cultural achievements|cultural achievements of the Sahavahana]]s (230 BC–AD 220.) Though definitive dates cannot be established for the [[Peopling_of_Laos#Gradual_Tai_inland_migration_from_China|gradual Tai inland migration from China]], transmission of the epic likely occurred much sooner than the traditional date. Tai tribes definitely settled on the fringes of highly Indianized kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer culture, adopting much of Indic learning and knowledge. As those kingdoms receded, the Lao came to venerate the earlier Hindu temples, often decorated in [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]] motifs, such as at [[Vat Phou]] in [[Champasak Province|Champassak]].
===The Reign of King [[Anouvong]]===
[[File:Le sanctuaire du Vat Sisaket (Vientiane) (4342112152).jpg|thumbnail|Wat Sisaket, Vientiane. Completed by King [[[[Anouvong]]]] in 1824.]]
In 1779 with the fall of Vientiane, the sons and daughter of King Siribunyasan were taken as hostage to Bangkok, along with several thousand [[Lao People|Lao]] families who were resettled in Saraburi to the north of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] capital. King Siribunyasan had three sons who were to succeed him as king of Vientiane, Nanthasen, Inthavong, and [[Anouvong]].


Earlier versions remained somewhat similar to other versions, but by the 18th century, the versions are completely localised. Although Theravada Buddhism was known to the Mekong River Tai tribes as early as the 7th or 8th century B.C., it wasn't until the 14th or 15th centuries that a re-invigorated Theravada Buddhism supplanted earlier animist, Hindu, or Mahayana Buddhist loyalties.<ref>Saveda, A. (1994). Laos: a country study. [Replaces 1971 version.]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/laos/</ref><ref>Charles, I. (2007). Buddhism, power and political order. New York: Routledge.</ref> This would have also seen introduction of the Dasaratha Jataka, an ancient Buddhist crystallisation of the story.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). p. 54.</ref> By the 18th century, the manuscripts are completely adapted to Lao culture and Theravada Buddhist religion.<ref>p. 18.</ref>
On the death of Siribunyasan in 1781, Siam allowed the eldest son Nathasen to return to Vientiane as king and was further permitted to take the Pra Bang, a gold Buddha statue which had been brought from Angkor by the Fa Ngum the first king of Lan Xang and had been taken to Siam in 1779. In 1791 Nanthasan convinced Rama I that the King Anourouth of Luang Prabang was secretly meeting with the Burmese and plotting a rebellion against Siam. Nathasan was permitted to attack Luang Prabang, and took the city in 1792. The Luang Prabang royal family was sent to Bangkok as prisoners for the next four years. Two years later Nanthasan himself was accused of plotting rebellion against Siam with the [[Lao People|Lao]] governor of Nakhon Phanom, for making diplomatic overtures with Vietnam, and was arrested by Siam (and possibly executed) in 1794.


==Religious significance==
In 1795 Inthavong was installed as king of Vientiane, and his brother [[Anouvong]] assumed the traditional post of vice-king (Oupahat). In 1797 and 1802 Burma sent several armies toward Siam, Inthavong as a vassal sent several [[Lao People|Lao]] armies, under the command of his brother [[Anouvong]] to aid in the defense. During the defense [[Anouvong]] gained notoriety for his conspicuous bravery and he went on to win major victories for Siam in the Sipsong Chau Tai.


Lao culture has always been oral and visual, and oral tales were often codified into elaborate dance-dramas by the royal courts. Great influence in dance came from Khmer, Thai, and even Javanese culture, with a slight native flair. In ''khône'' and ''lakhone'' dance-dramas, the symbolism, costumes, and story are also more attuned to and influenced by Hindu, Khmer, Thai, and Javanese traditions.
In 1804 [[Anouvong]] succeeded his brother Inthavong as king of Vientiane. By 1813 [[Anouvong]] began a series of religious and symbolic actions which remain highly controversial. [[Anouvong]] called a great Buddhist council of the sangha, only the third in [[Lao People|Lao]] history, where it was determined a new Emerald Buddha would be carved. [[Anouvong]] ordered the repair of the Haw Phra Kaew and ordered several additional temples dedicated to the Emerald Buddha be built throughout his kingdom. He also ordered the construction of a major bridge across the Mekong. In 1819 he rushed to suppress a rebellion in Champasak, which had been led by a charismatic monk. [[Anouvong]]’s son Nyo led an army south from Vientiane and suppressed the uprising, in response Rama II appointed Nyo as king of Champasak. [[Anouvong]] had thus succeeded in uniting two of the three [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms. Also in 1819 [[Anouvong]] ordered the construction of Wat Sisaket, which was completed in 1824. The temple was a major statement of religious authority, and was intentionally oriented so that when [[Anouvong]]’s vassals came to pledge annual allegiance they physically have to turn their backs toward Bangkok.


Some versions explicitly announce that it is a Jataka tale, while others are generally assumed to be so. Phra Lak and Phra Ram are the epitome of moral leadership, ethics, selflessness, and living true to dharma. Pha Ram is associated with a previous life of Siddartha Gautama, while his cousin Hapmanasouane (Ravanna) is often compared to Buddha's cousin ''[[Devadatta|Phra Thevathat]]'' or Buddha's final impasse to enlightenment, ''Phra Man''. The parallels include their religious knowledge and generally moral superiority but also their ruin by greed and desire.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). Many rāmāyaṇas: the diversity of a narrative tradition in south asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.</ref> Hampanasouane as [[Mara (demon)|Mara]], the personification of worldly desires who tried to tempt the Buddha during meditation, can be seen in both their searches for lust, power, and material gain. The cosmology and some elements are taken from the [[Tripiṭaka|Tripitaka]], such as the greater role of Indra vis-à-vis Shiva, and Indra asking riddles of religion and Buddhist thought to a young Hapmanasouane.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). pp. 62-73</ref> Although important, religiously, it is subordinate to the greater and more chronologically recent Jataka tales of Phra Vet and the annals of the lifetime of Siddhartha Gautama.<ref>Holt, J. (2009). Spirits of the place: Buddhism and Lao religious culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 267.</ref>
====The Funeral of Rama II====
In 1824 Rama II the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] king had died, and it was unclear who would be the chosen successor. The two claimants were Prince Mongkut, who was the son of Queen Sri Suriyendra, and his elder half-brother Prince Jessadabodindra (Rama III) who was the son of a court concubine. The succession crises was avoided when Prince Mongkut entered the Buddhist sangha as a monk. The potential succession dispute lead to the military being on high alert, and the British who had recently begun the First Anglo-Burmese War, were closely monitoring the situation.


Animistic elements are not as apparent in the ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', but it is noteworthy to point out that the scenery takes place along the Mekong River. She is a great goddess and ancestral spirit that is as sacred and quintessentially 'theirs' as the [[Ganges]] is to India and a personification of water, bounty, and life. It was also the [[Phaya Naga|King of the Nagas]] that suggested Phra Ram's father move the capital from Maha Thani Si Pan Phao (modern-day [[Nong Khai]], Thailand) across the bank to Chantaboury Sri Sattanak (modern-day [[Vientiane]]).<ref name=":0">Tinh, V. T. (1971). Phra lak phra Ram: a previous life of the buddha [Published on-line 2003.]. (Adapted from text of Vat Kang Tha.), Retrieved from http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/index.htm</ref> Like most animistic elements, the [[Nāga]] is seen in both Buddhist and Hindu-influenced contexts, but worship of nagas predates Indian influence in the region, and are common in folktales of Laos and Isan. A unique version of the ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', the ''Khwai Thoraphi'' focuses very much on Sankhip and Palichane's fight with the water buffalo. It was often read at temple, probably in Buddhism's attempt to replace Lao spirit propitiation ceremonies that involved water buffalo sacrifice.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006) pp. 237-8.</ref>
Against these events the vassal kings of Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasak made their way to Bangkok for the formal funeral ceremonies held a year later in 1825 according to royal custom. Rama III by that time had begun implementing the census and forced tattooing policies throughout the Khorat region. During the funerary period [[Anouvong]]’s retinue and one of his sons was impressed into several corvee labor projects, including the digging of canals, felling of sugar palms, harvesting of bamboo, and the construction of the Phra Samut Chedi. During one of the projects it appears that [[Anouvong]]’s son was mocked and possibly beaten by the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]]. [[Anouvong]] was furious and cut short the traditional obeisance to the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] court.


==Influence on culture and art==
The next events are controversial, because it is unclear if [[Anouvong]] decided during his stay to rebel or if he had been planning to rebel for some years and was awaiting an adequate pretext. [[Anouvong]] demanded the return of the Emerald Buddha, the return of his sister who had been taken forty-five years earlier in 1779, and the return of the families living in Saraburi who had been forcibly relocated. Thai historians have asserted that [[Anouvong]] rebelled due to personal slight, when he was denied each of these requests and told he could return with one dancer from his original retinue. However, the widespread intensity of the [[Lao People|Lao]] rebellion suggests the motivations for the rebellion were more complex.
[[File:Lao New Year, dancers.jpg|thumb|A dancer wearing a demon mask from Phra Lak Phra Ram]]
The importance of ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'' to Lao culture can be seen in how ubiquitous it is. It is a mainstay of dance and drama, song, painting, sculpture, religious texts, and manuscripts. It is also seen in the more common arts, such as classical [[morlam]], folklore, and village dances.<ref>p. 231.</ref> Scenes from court dancers were performed on Lao New Year celebrations, and other Buddhist holidays. The texts are commonly read during sermons. And the tales themselves have been deeply interwoven into local folklore, myth, and legend. Sculpture, lacquerware, carvings, and paintings adorn temples and palaces. The chapters have been intricately crafted into song and dance and accompanying music. Through the Buddhist elements, Lao beliefs of morality and karma are re-affirmed. The first half of Lao versions also establish the mythology for the creation of the Lao polities, land features, and waterways, and it serves as a transmission of culture.


===Rebellion===
==Characters==
[[File:Yasothon General Singh 24.JPG|thumbnail|Shrine to General Bodindecha, Thailand]]
In 1826 [[Anouvong]] was actively making military preparations for rebellion. The [[Lao People|Lao]] strategy involved three key points: first was to respond to the immediate crisis caused by the popular unrest with forced tattooing, second was to repatriate the ethnic [[Lao People|Lao]] on the Khorat Plateau to Vientiane conducting a scorched Earth policy to slow the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] pursuit, and finally to seek a diplomatic victory by receiving support from the Vietnamese, Chinese or British.


===Main characters===
[[Anouvong]] may have believed that the balance of power in Southeast Asia was tipping away from Siam. The factionalism at the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] court, the presence of the British in Burma, the growing influence of Vietnam in the Cambodian provinces, and the regional dissatisfaction in the [[Lao People|Lao]] areas suggested that [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] power was waning. However, by 1827 the British had arrived to finalize the Burney Treaty between Siam and Britain, and the presence of the British fleet may have raised false hopes for [[Anouvong]] that an invasion was imminent. The most serious miscalculation that [[Anouvong]] made was in the disparity of military power between Siam and the [[Lao People|Lao]]. From at least 1822 the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] had purchased large quantities of firearms and munitions from the British that had been used during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe.


[[Rama|''Phra Ram'']] (<big>ພຣະຣາມ</big>, pʰrāʔ ráːm)
In December 1826 the [[Lao People|Lao]] rebellion began with a force of 10,000 making its way toward Kalasin following the path of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] tattooing officials. A second larger force was led by [[Anouvong]] toward Nakhon Raxasima (Khorat City) in January and was able to take the city. From [[Anouvong]]’s army a smaller contingent was sent to Lomsak and Chainyaphum before making their way to Saraburi to escort the [[Lao People|Lao]] across [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] territory. A fourth army under [[Anouvong]]’s son Nyo the king of Champasak, was dispatched toward Ubon. All the armies moved under a web of misinformation and false dispatches that warned of impending attacks on Siam from neighboring powers.
* Son of [[Dasharatha|Thattaratha]], brother of Phra Lak, husband of Nang Sida.
[[Lakshaman|''Phra Lak'']] (<big>ພຣະລັກ</big>, pʰrāʔ lāk)
* Son of [[Dasharatha|Thattaratha]], brother of Phra Ram.
[[Sita|''Nang Sida'']] (<big>ນາງສີດາ</big>, náːŋ sǐː daː)
* Daughter of Thôtsakane and Nang Chanta, incarnation of Nang Souxada.
[[Ravana|''Thôtsakane'']] or ''Hapmanasouane'' (<big>ທົດສະກັນ</big>, tʰōt sáʔ kan; <big>ຮາບມະນາສວນ</big>, hȃːp māʔ naː sŭaːn)
* Soun of Viloun Ha, incarnation of Thao Loun Lo.


===Heavenly characters===
The [[Lao People|Lao]] armies planned retreats were slowed by the number of refugees which occupied the roads and passes. [[Lao People|Lao]] commanders delayed in order to search for the officials responsible for tattooing, and forced these officials to march north as prisoners. Among these seized officials [[Anouvong]] delayed for over a month searching out the governor of Khorat city, who had been a key figure in the tattooing and forced population transfers.
[[File:Yasothon Victory Wat Chedi 30.JPG|thumbnail|Victory Chedi, Wat Tung Sawang Chaiyaphum]]
Siam organized a massive counterstrike and dispatched two armies, one with the goal of taking Nakhon Raxasima (Khorat City) by way of Saraburi, the other was sent via the Pasak Valley toward Lomsak. The [[Lao People|Lao]] withdrew to Nong Bua Lamphu, the strongest [[Lao People|Lao]] fortress on the Khorat Plateau, and traditionally held by the crown prince of Vientiane. After a three day battle Nong Bua Lamphu fell, and the [[Lao People|Lao]] fell back to a second line of defense. The [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] numbers and arms were superior and the armies continued to march north toward Vientiane. Vientiane put up a defense for five days, [[Anouvong]] fled to east near the border with Vietnam, while the rearguard aided in the defense of the capital.


*[[Indra|''Phra In'']] (<big>ພຣະອິນ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔìn)
The [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] general Phraya [[Bodindecha]] (เจ้าพระยาบดินทรเดชา) took the city of Vientiane, he sacked the palaces, leveled the city’s defenses but otherwise left the monasteries and much of the city intact. With the sack of Vientiane the princedoms of Lanna (Chiang Mai, Lampang, Lamphun, Nan, and Phrae) and Luang Prabang pledged renewed allegiance to Siam, although Bodindecha noted that the six had “waited to see the turn of events, and their actions greatly depended on the outcome of the war.” For several months Bodindecha organized the deportation of the remaining [[Lao People|Lao]] and the confiscation of any arms and remaining munitions. Bodindecha placed the city in the hands of a small contingent of defenders and returned to the Khorat region.
** Chief of the gods, mentor of Thao Loun Lo.
*[[Shiva|''Phra Isouane'']] or ''Tapboramèsouane'' (<big>ພຣະອີສວນ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔiː sŭaːn; <big>ຕັບບໍຣະເມສວນ</big>, táp bɔː rāʔ méː sŭaːn)
** A god who falls to the earth and is the first ruler of Inthapatha Maha Nakhone.
*[[Brahma|''Phra Phrôm'']] or ''Phrômmachak'' (<big>ພຣະພຣົມ</big>, pʰrāʔ pʰróm; <big>ພຣົມມະຈັກ</big>, pʰróm mā tɕák)
** Prince of Muong Thoay, father of several lesser wives of Phra Lak and Phra Ram.
*[[Shachi|''Nang Souxada'']] (<big>ນາງສຸດຊາດາ</big>, sút sáː daː)
** Wife of Indra who is defiled by Hapmanasouane and vows to seek vengeance in her next life as Nang Sida.
*[[Surya|''Phra Athit'']] (<big>ພຣະອາທິດ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔàːtʰīt)
** The sun god, has affair with Nang Khaysi who bears the sons Sanghkip and Palichane.
*[[Garuda|''Phagna Khrout'']] (<big>ພະຍາຄຸດ</big>, pʰāʔ ɲáː kʰūt)
** Garuda replaces [[Jatayu]].
*[[Uchchaihshravas|''Manikap'']] (<big>ມະນີກາບ</big>, māʔ níː kȁːp)
**The [[Pegasus]]-like [[vahana]], or deity mount, of Indra.
*[[Nagaraja|''Phagna Nak'']] (<big>ພະຍານາກ</big>, pʰāʔ ɲáː nȃːk)
** King of the Nagas, protector and deity founder of Chao Si Sattanak.


===Monkeys===
[[Anouvong]] returned to Vientiane with 1000 soldiers and 100 Vietnamese observers, the small force was intended to negotiate a settlement with Siam. However, upon returning to the city of Vientiane [[Anouvong]] heard about a nine-spired chedi erected as a victory monument at Wat Tung Sawang Chaiyaphum (วัดทุ่งสว่างชัยภูมิ) in the town of Yasothon. The act enraged him; [[Anouvong]] crossed the Mekong, and attacked the roughly 300 defenders and leaving only 40 survivors. Bodindecha was ordered by Rama III to totally destroy the city of Vientiane, and to find and capture [[Anouvong]].


Divine parentage makes these monkeys special. The more formal term for this class of humanoid simians is ''vanone'' (<big>ວານອນ</big>, váː nɔ́ːn). Because of this the male ones take the noble title ''Thao'' (<big>ທ້າວ</big>, tʰȃːo).
[[Anouvong]] was pursued to Xieng Khouang, where according to some accounts he was betrayed and handed over to the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]]. Once the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] had captured [[Anouvong]], he and his family were placed under heavy guard and marched to Bangkok. British observers recalled:
*[[Hanuman|''Hanoumane'']] or ''Hounlamane'' (<big>ຫະນຸມານ</big>, háʔ nū máːn; <big>ຫຸນລະມານ</big>, hŭn lāʔ máːn)
**Son of Pha Ram and Nang Phéngsi, aids in the search for Nang Sida and the battle with Hampanasouane.
*[[Sugriva|''Sangkhip'']] (<big>ສັງຄີບ</big>, săŋ kʰȋːp)
** Switches the role of Valmiki's [[Vali (Ramayana)|Vali]], son from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Palichane.
*[[Vali (Ramayana)|''Palichane'']] (<big>ພະລີຈັນ</big>, pʰāʔ líː tɕan)
** Switches the role of Valmiki's [[Sugriva]], sone from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Sangkhip.
*''Nang Phéngsi'' (ນາງແພງສີ, náːŋ pʰɛ́ːŋ sǐː)


==Versions==
{{quotation|[The king] was confined in a large iron cage exposed to a burning sun, and obliged to proclaim to everyone that the King of Siam was great and merciful, that he himself had committed a great error and deserved his present punishment. In this cage were placed with the prisoner, a large mortar to pound him in, a large boiler to boil him in, a hook to hang him by, and a sword to decapitate him; also a sharp-pointed spike for him to sit on. His children were sometimes put in along with him. He was a mild, respectable-looking, old grey-haired man, and did not live long to gratify his tormentors, death having put an end to his sufferings. His body was taken and hung in chains on the bank of the river, about two or three miles below Bangkok.}}


===Aftermath===
===Textual===
Due to the fragile nature of organic matter in hot, humid weather, most of these texts have been mostly lost or destroyed. Nevertheless, several texts have been uncovered at Vat Phra Kèo in Vientiane, Vat Kang Tha in Ban Bo Ô, Ban Naxone Tay, Ban Hom, and Vat Nong Bon, in Laos; Roi Et in Thailand, now housed in Bangkok; and a manuscript of the Vientiane version in Phnom Penh. Of these, only Ban Hom and Ban Naxone Tay have complete versions preserved.<ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp. 6-7.</ref>
The city of Vientiane was totally destroyed and the population was totally deported. The destruction of the city was so thorough that the first French explorers in the 1860s found only ruins where the capital had been. The remaining [[Lao People|Lao]] kingdoms in Champasak and Luang Prabang came under strict vassalage and arms limitations from Siam; the Khorat Plateau was permanently annexed by Siam. Regional rivals from Siam and Vietnam came into increasing conflict for control over inland trade and [[Lao People|Lao]] territories leading to the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]]-Vietnamese Wars of the 1830s. Vietnam annexed the [[Lao People|Lao]] principality of Xieng Khouang. Chinese rebels from the Taiping rebellion were able to force their way down the Mekong River in what ultimately became known as the Haw Wars of the 1860s, and the first French explorers navigating the Mekong used the political vacuum as pretext for the creation of French Indochina.


Only two modern printed editions exist. The most noted is Sachchidanda Sahai's version, mostly based on the Vat Phra Kèo version. It was printed in 1973 by the patronage of the Indian Embassy in Vientiane.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 231</ref> Vietnamese scholar Vo Thu Tinh also published a 1972 version adapted from the manuscript of Vat Kang Tha, and is depicted at Vat Oup Muong in Vientiane. This version has been criticised for being too simplified.<ref>Giteau Madeleine. Note sur des sculptures sur bois de Luang Prabang représentant des scènes du Rāmāyaṇa. In: Arts asiatiques. Tome 45, 1990. pp. 67-75.</ref><ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp.7.</ref>
===Legacy===
The most significant legacy of the [[Lao People|Lao]] Rebellion was the impact of forced population transfers throughout the region. Today as a consequence of warfare and transfers in the eighteenth and nineteenth century there are over 19 million ethnic [[Lao People|Lao]] living in the Isan (Khorat) region of Thailand, and only 6 million in [[Lao People|Lao]]s.
During the French colonial period, Vientiane was chosen and rebuilt as the colonial capital in a deliberate attempt win favor among the [[Lao People|Lao]] and to demonstrate French authority.


===Sister texts===
Several accounts of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]]-[[Lao People|Lao]] fighting are recorded by various historians and authorities, many in direct conflict with one another. In particular are accounts of legendary [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] heroines (Thao Suranaree or “Lady Mo,” and Khun Ying Boonleu). During the 1930s field Marshall Phibun promoted the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom|Siamese]] legends as part of a wider political and military campaign to unify all Tai peoples.
In addition to the Phra Lak Phra Ram, other similar stories are known from Laos.


*Phrômmachak
Similarly among the [[Lao People|Lao]] and [[Lao People|Lao]]-Isan the stories of [[Anouvong]] and the crown prince recall their legends. Since the 1990s the Pathet [[Lao People|Lao]] have re-appropriated the story of the [[Lao People|Lao]] Rebellion as a war of independence against cultural and political domination. In 2010 a large statue and surrounding gardens was dedicated to the [[Lao People|Lao]] king in Vientiane.
- In a version of the [[Tai Lue people|Tai Lu]] people preserved in [[Louang Phrabang]], Sita is born as [[Indra]]'s wife Sujata, who is raped by Ravana and reborn as Ravana's daughter On Hi Slap.

*Kuay Toraphi
*Langka Noy

==See also==
*[[Literature of Laos]]
*[[Ramayana]]
*[[Ramakien]]
*[[Reamker]]
*[[Hikayat Seri Rama]]
*[[Thens]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
*''Paths to Conflagration'' By Mayurī Ngaosīvat, Pheuiphanh Ngaosyvathn


==External links==
==External links==
* {{in lang|en|fr}} [http://www.phralakphralam.com Royal theatre of Luang Prabang]
*[http://www.culturalprofiles.net/[[Lao People|Lao]]s/Directories/[[Lao People|Lao]]s_Cultural_Profile/-1063.html [[Lao People|Lao]]s Cultural Profiles: Three kingdoms]
* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/page01.htm Phra Lak Phra Lam - A Previous Life of the Buddha]
{{ThaiCoups}}
* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/characters.htm Characters of the Phra Lak Phra Lam]
[[Category:Rebellions in Thailand]]

[[Category:Wars involving [[Lao People|Lao]]s]]
{{HinduMythology}}
[[Category:Wars involving Thailand]]
{{Ramayana}}
[[Category:Wars involving Vietnam]]
{{National epic poems}}
[[Category:1820s conflicts]]
[[Category:19th century in [[Lao People|Lao]]s]]
[[:Category:Laotian literature]]
[[Category:1826 in Siam]]
[[:Category:Works based on the Ramayana]]
[[Category:1826 in Vietnam]]
[[:Category:Epics]]
[[Category:1827 in Siam]]
[[Category:1827 in Vietnam]]
[[Category:1828 in Siam]]
[[Category:1828 in Vietnam]]

Latest revision as of 20:20, 13 November 2021

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Scene from Phra Lak Phra Ram, the Lao form of the Indian Ramayana. Several versions of the story were recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts between the 15th and early 19th centuries.[1]

'Phra Lak Phra Ram' (ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ, pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national epic of the Lao people, and is the Lao adaptation of the Dasaratha Jataka, a story narrating one of the previous life of Buddha as a Bodhisatta named Rama.[2] It was brought to Laos and other Southeast Asia by propagation of Buddhism. The story reached Laos much later than Cambodia and Thailand (Siam) and thus was affected by local adaptation.[3]


Introduction

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Waves- sinhalese- differences to Khmer, Thai, Lan Na

Adaption

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unique lao

Textual Characteristics

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Genre

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Form

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AAB Khun Ay; Nitsay

Structure

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2 parts

Characters

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Synopsis

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Themes

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Influence

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Names

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Phra Lak Phra Ram is named after two principal characters, the brothers Phra Lak, or Lakshaman, and Phra Ram, or Rama. Since Phra Ram is considered the hero, it is believed the altered name was chosen for euphony. Veteran dance performers of Luang Prabang, however, say that Phra Lak comes first in deference to his voluntary assistance of Phra Ram, whose actions were obligatory to his kingship.[4] Since it is considered a Jataka tale, it is referred to as Phra Ram Xadôk (ພຣະຣາມຊາດົກ, pʰrāʔ ráːm sáː dók). It was also called Rammakien (ຣາມມະກຽນ, Ráːm māʔ kian), but this the name for this other regional varieties in the Ramayana in general.

Introduction to Laos

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Lao legends attribute to the introduction of the Phra Ram Xadôk via the first king of Lan Xang, Chao Fa Ngoum, who arrived with his soldiers, artists, dancers, concubines, poets from musicians from Angkor who would have been familiar with the Reamker. Yet Indic civilizations knew of what is now Yunnan in China, as "Gandhara" no later than the second century B.C.[5] Hindu culture, language and religion spread into that part of the world incident to the cultural achievements of the Sahavahanas (230 BC–AD 220.) Though definitive dates cannot be established for the gradual Tai inland migration from China, transmission of the epic likely occurred much sooner than the traditional date. Tai tribes definitely settled on the fringes of highly Indianized kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer culture, adopting much of Indic learning and knowledge. As those kingdoms receded, the Lao came to venerate the earlier Hindu temples, often decorated in Ramayana and the Mahabharata motifs, such as at Vat Phou in Champassak.

Earlier versions remained somewhat similar to other versions, but by the 18th century, the versions are completely localised. Although Theravada Buddhism was known to the Mekong River Tai tribes as early as the 7th or 8th century B.C., it wasn't until the 14th or 15th centuries that a re-invigorated Theravada Buddhism supplanted earlier animist, Hindu, or Mahayana Buddhist loyalties.[6][7] This would have also seen introduction of the Dasaratha Jataka, an ancient Buddhist crystallisation of the story.[8] By the 18th century, the manuscripts are completely adapted to Lao culture and Theravada Buddhist religion.[9]

Religious significance

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Lao culture has always been oral and visual, and oral tales were often codified into elaborate dance-dramas by the royal courts. Great influence in dance came from Khmer, Thai, and even Javanese culture, with a slight native flair. In khône and lakhone dance-dramas, the symbolism, costumes, and story are also more attuned to and influenced by Hindu, Khmer, Thai, and Javanese traditions.

Some versions explicitly announce that it is a Jataka tale, while others are generally assumed to be so. Phra Lak and Phra Ram are the epitome of moral leadership, ethics, selflessness, and living true to dharma. Pha Ram is associated with a previous life of Siddartha Gautama, while his cousin Hapmanasouane (Ravanna) is often compared to Buddha's cousin Phra Thevathat or Buddha's final impasse to enlightenment, Phra Man. The parallels include their religious knowledge and generally moral superiority but also their ruin by greed and desire.[10] Hampanasouane as Mara, the personification of worldly desires who tried to tempt the Buddha during meditation, can be seen in both their searches for lust, power, and material gain. The cosmology and some elements are taken from the Tripitaka, such as the greater role of Indra vis-à-vis Shiva, and Indra asking riddles of religion and Buddhist thought to a young Hapmanasouane.[11] Although important, religiously, it is subordinate to the greater and more chronologically recent Jataka tales of Phra Vet and the annals of the lifetime of Siddhartha Gautama.[12]

Animistic elements are not as apparent in the Phra Lak Phra Ram, but it is noteworthy to point out that the scenery takes place along the Mekong River. She is a great goddess and ancestral spirit that is as sacred and quintessentially 'theirs' as the Ganges is to India and a personification of water, bounty, and life. It was also the King of the Nagas that suggested Phra Ram's father move the capital from Maha Thani Si Pan Phao (modern-day Nong Khai, Thailand) across the bank to Chantaboury Sri Sattanak (modern-day Vientiane).[2] Like most animistic elements, the Nāga is seen in both Buddhist and Hindu-influenced contexts, but worship of nagas predates Indian influence in the region, and are common in folktales of Laos and Isan. A unique version of the Phra Lak Phra Ram, the Khwai Thoraphi focuses very much on Sankhip and Palichane's fight with the water buffalo. It was often read at temple, probably in Buddhism's attempt to replace Lao spirit propitiation ceremonies that involved water buffalo sacrifice.[13]

Influence on culture and art

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A dancer wearing a demon mask from Phra Lak Phra Ram

The importance of Phra Lak Phra Ram to Lao culture can be seen in how ubiquitous it is. It is a mainstay of dance and drama, song, painting, sculpture, religious texts, and manuscripts. It is also seen in the more common arts, such as classical morlam, folklore, and village dances.[14] Scenes from court dancers were performed on Lao New Year celebrations, and other Buddhist holidays. The texts are commonly read during sermons. And the tales themselves have been deeply interwoven into local folklore, myth, and legend. Sculpture, lacquerware, carvings, and paintings adorn temples and palaces. The chapters have been intricately crafted into song and dance and accompanying music. Through the Buddhist elements, Lao beliefs of morality and karma are re-affirmed. The first half of Lao versions also establish the mythology for the creation of the Lao polities, land features, and waterways, and it serves as a transmission of culture.

Characters

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Main characters

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Phra Ram (ພຣະຣາມ, pʰrāʔ ráːm)

  • Son of Thattaratha, brother of Phra Lak, husband of Nang Sida.

Phra Lak (ພຣະລັກ, pʰrāʔ lāk)

Nang Sida (ນາງສີດາ, náːŋ sǐː daː)

  • Daughter of Thôtsakane and Nang Chanta, incarnation of Nang Souxada.

Thôtsakane or Hapmanasouane (ທົດສະກັນ, tʰōt sáʔ kan; ຮາບມະນາສວນ, hȃːp māʔ naː sŭaːn)

  • Soun of Viloun Ha, incarnation of Thao Loun Lo.

Heavenly characters

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  • Phra In (ພຣະອິນ, pʰrāʔ ʔìn)
    • Chief of the gods, mentor of Thao Loun Lo.
  • Phra Isouane or Tapboramèsouane (ພຣະອີສວນ, pʰrāʔ ʔiː sŭaːn; ຕັບບໍຣະເມສວນ, táp bɔː rāʔ méː sŭaːn)
    • A god who falls to the earth and is the first ruler of Inthapatha Maha Nakhone.
  • Phra Phrôm or Phrômmachak (ພຣະພຣົມ, pʰrāʔ pʰróm; ພຣົມມະຈັກ, pʰróm mā tɕák)
    • Prince of Muong Thoay, father of several lesser wives of Phra Lak and Phra Ram.
  • Nang Souxada (ນາງສຸດຊາດາ, sút sáː daː)
    • Wife of Indra who is defiled by Hapmanasouane and vows to seek vengeance in her next life as Nang Sida.
  • Phra Athit (ພຣະອາທິດ, pʰrāʔ ʔàːtʰīt)
    • The sun god, has affair with Nang Khaysi who bears the sons Sanghkip and Palichane.
  • Phagna Khrout (ພະຍາຄຸດ, pʰāʔ ɲáː kʰūt)
  • Manikap (ມະນີກາບ, māʔ níː kȁːp)
  • Phagna Nak (ພະຍານາກ, pʰāʔ ɲáː nȃːk)
    • King of the Nagas, protector and deity founder of Chao Si Sattanak.

Monkeys

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Divine parentage makes these monkeys special. The more formal term for this class of humanoid simians is vanone (ວານອນ, váː nɔ́ːn). Because of this the male ones take the noble title Thao (ທ້າວ, tʰȃːo).

  • Hanoumane or Hounlamane (ຫະນຸມານ, háʔ nū máːn; ຫຸນລະມານ, hŭn lāʔ máːn)
    • Son of Pha Ram and Nang Phéngsi, aids in the search for Nang Sida and the battle with Hampanasouane.
  • Sangkhip (ສັງຄີບ, săŋ kʰȋːp)
    • Switches the role of Valmiki's Vali, son from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Palichane.
  • Palichane (ພະລີຈັນ, pʰāʔ líː tɕan)
    • Switches the role of Valmiki's Sugriva, sone from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Sangkhip.
  • Nang Phéngsi (ນາງແພງສີ, náːŋ pʰɛ́ːŋ sǐː)

Versions

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Textual

[edit]

Due to the fragile nature of organic matter in hot, humid weather, most of these texts have been mostly lost or destroyed. Nevertheless, several texts have been uncovered at Vat Phra Kèo in Vientiane, Vat Kang Tha in Ban Bo Ô, Ban Naxone Tay, Ban Hom, and Vat Nong Bon, in Laos; Roi Et in Thailand, now housed in Bangkok; and a manuscript of the Vientiane version in Phnom Penh. Of these, only Ban Hom and Ban Naxone Tay have complete versions preserved.[15]

Only two modern printed editions exist. The most noted is Sachchidanda Sahai's version, mostly based on the Vat Phra Kèo version. It was printed in 1973 by the patronage of the Indian Embassy in Vientiane.[16] Vietnamese scholar Vo Thu Tinh also published a 1972 version adapted from the manuscript of Vat Kang Tha, and is depicted at Vat Oup Muong in Vientiane. This version has been criticised for being too simplified.[17][18]

Sister texts

[edit]

In addition to the Phra Lak Phra Ram, other similar stories are known from Laos.

  • Phrômmachak

- In a version of the Tai Lu people preserved in Louang Phrabang, Sita is born as Indra's wife Sujata, who is raped by Ravana and reborn as Ravana's daughter On Hi Slap.

  • Kuay Toraphi
  • Langka Noy

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Richman, P. (1991). Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia. (pp. 54–73). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  2. ^ a b Tinh, V. T. (1971). Phra lak phra Ram: a previous life of the buddha [Published on-line 2003.]. (Adapted from text of Vat Kang Tha.), Retrieved from http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/index.htm
  3. ^ "The characters | Phralak Phralam". Phralak Phralam.
  4. ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009). Re-designing the role of phalak and pharam in modern Lao Ramayana. Wacana Seni Journal of Art Discourse, 8, p 3-4.
  5. ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 247.
  6. ^ Saveda, A. (1994). Laos: a country study. [Replaces 1971 version.]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/laos/
  7. ^ Charles, I. (2007). Buddhism, power and political order. New York: Routledge.
  8. ^ Richman, P. (1991). p. 54.
  9. ^ p. 18.
  10. ^ Richman, P. (1991). Many rāmāyaṇas: the diversity of a narrative tradition in south asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  11. ^ Richman, P. (1991). pp. 62-73
  12. ^ Holt, J. (2009). Spirits of the place: Buddhism and Lao religious culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 267.
  13. ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006) pp. 237-8.
  14. ^ p. 231.
  15. ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp. 6-7.
  16. ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 231
  17. ^ Giteau Madeleine. Note sur des sculptures sur bois de Luang Prabang représentant des scènes du Rāmāyaṇa. In: Arts asiatiques. Tome 45, 1990. pp. 67-75.
  18. ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp.7.
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Category:Laotian literature Category:Works based on the Ramayana Category:Epics

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