User:KrishtynH/sandbox: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Latest revision as of 14:35, 6 June 2022

Anthropology in Central & Eastern Europe

Central and Eastern Europe includes the countries of Austria, Croatia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, and Hungary among many others. Anthropological study is active in many places Europe through research centers, academic societies, and universities on a range of topics. One of the biggest problems facing anthropologists in Central and Eastern Europe is the need to define themselves as a discipline separate from any other.

Central Europe

Anthropology in central European countries has its roots in Germany. The establishment of anthropology within central Europe has been a slow process that involved first understanding what the discipline was and then determining how it fit within each country's individual ideals.

Austria

Austrian anthropology has close ties to Germany and is generally intertwined with German-speaking countries.^[1]^[2] As such, the history of anthropology in Austria is foggy until the marked institutionalization of the discipline. The Anthropological Society in Vienna (ASV) was the first anthropological institution in Austria. It was established on February 13, 1870 and is a non-profit organization.^[3]^[1] The “new anthropology” approach was the ASV’s foundation and Bernd Weiler’s term for anthropology that existed post-publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species.^[1] Anthropology within academia was postponed until 1919 when the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography was created at the University of Vienna.^[1] The institute was divided into two later, making the Anthropological Institute and Institute for Ethnology.^[4] In 2005, the Anthropological Institute became the Department of Anthropology and is the only anthropology department that exists within the country.^[4]^[1]

A notable anthropologist is Richard Thurnwald who was an Austrian-born German anthropologist and sociologist.^[5] He was multilingual in Arabic, Turkish, Serbian, and Russian and a professor at universities in the United States and Germany during the early 1900s^[5]^[6] Thurnwald was also the editor of various journals, including the one he originated, called Journal of Popular Psychology and Sociology, which was later renamed Sociologus.^[5] His wife continued publishing the journal despite his death in 1954.^[6] His work included the study of kinship, social structure, superstratification, feudalism, kingship, cities, and states, and western colonial expansion.^[5]

Another important figure was Pater Wilhelm Schmidt who was a German-born ordained Roman Catholic priest, anthropologist, and linguist.^[7] Anthropos is a journal he created in 1906 and the Anthropos Institute is an institution he founded in 1931.^[7]^[8] He relocated both to Switzerland in 1938 due to his distaste for Hitler's ideals.^[8] He was a professor at the Universities of Vienna and Freiburg, had published extensively, and his research topics included family, religion, language, and culture.^[7]

Karl Franzens University of Graz’s humanities department includes the Institute for Cultural Anthropology and European Ethnology which offers bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees in Anthropology.^[9] The key topics of research the institution is involved in include “city, governmentality, limit and difference, mobilities, visual culture, material culture, museum, religiousness, and science research as well as subject-oriented methodologies.” ^[10]^[9]

Weltmuseum Wien is an ethnographic museum located in Vienna that serves to display cultural diversity.^[11] Weltmuseum Wien, translated ‘World Museum Vienna’, opened in 1928 and houses worldwide artifacts, not including Europe, from as early as the 1500s.^[11] The museum’s previous title was the Museum of Ethnology and it recently reopened after closing for renovations in 2014.^[11]

Croatia

Croatian anthropology started with a focus more on natural and medical topics because it wasn’t embraced as a human-centered scientific discipline.^[13] In 1973, various European anthropologists met for the first time to discuss the making of a European Association for Anthropology.^[14] It wasn’t until the fourth meeting in Zagreb, on October 7, 1976, that the board members established the European Anthropological Association.^[14] The initial meeting triggered a chain reaction development of anthropology within Croatia because, meanwhile, in 1974, the Croatian Physicians Assembly established the section for biological anthropology.^[13] Soon after, the Croatian Anthropological Society was created in 1977 along with its journal, titled Collegium Antropologicum.^[13] Finally, in 1992, the Institute for Anthropological Research was established at the University of Zagreb.^[15]

Slovenia

Anthropology in Slovenia has been greatly influenced by surrounding nations due to the country's small size.^[16] There was a shift in language after World War II that caused German language to be controversial so English began being taught to children which later resulted in students being more interested in an ethnographic college curriculum.^[16] The University of Ljubljana started offering anthropology courses in 1933 which were taught by Božo Škerlj as the first college professor to teach the subject in Slovenia.^[16] Later, he created a chair in anthropology at the University of Ljubljana in 1946 that was eventually placed within the biology department; but, within a few years of his death in 1961, the subject became questioned which resulted in its being terminated.^[16] However, social anthropology was already part of the sociology curriculum which was established earlier in the 1960s.^[16] It wasn't until the 1990s that this branch of anthropology became an official program offered to graduate students.^[16]

Božo Škerlj was an Austrian-born anthropologist who studied physical anthropology in Prague.^[16] He was initially interested in German physical anthropology but, at the time of World War II, decided to focus on cultural anthropology instead.^[16] His work reflected a combination of the two topics.^[16]

Another important figure in Slovene anthropology is Niko Županić who was born in 1876.^[16]^[17] He was the creator of the Slovene Ethnographic Museum, which opened in 1923, and the museum’s corresponding journal, Etnolog, that began in 1926.^[16] His educational background was in physical anthropology, archaeology, and history and, in 1940, he became a professor for the ethnology and ethnography department at the University of Ljubljana.^[16] Niko Županić died on September 11, 1961.^[17]

The Slovene Anthropological Society has been active since its founding in 1992 and arranges an international science conference every three years called Škerlj's days.^[18] The society's journal is named Anthropological Notebooks.^[18] The articles inside are preferred to be unique to the journal and they're published in English language.^[19]

Switzerland

The discipline of anthropology in Switzerland, like Austria, is closely tied to Germany and German-speaking countries in general.^[2] Swiss anthropology originated with studying folklore, also known as volkskunde, and ethnology, or völkerkunde.^[16] Between 1912 and 1916, ethnographic museums held seminars in ethnology and folklore and were the beginning of anthropology being taught in Switzerland.^[16]

Johann Jakob Bachofen, born in 1815, was a professor at the University of Basel, criminal court judge, member of city legislative council, and an anthropological writer.^[20] He came from a wealthy family and was well educated in law, Philology, history and ancient history.^[20] A popular, influential publication of his, titled Das Mutterrecht, explored past societies with the idea that matriarchy came before patriarchy.^[20] Initially it was rejected but was later printed in 1861.^[20] Bachofen published many works but none were accepted until well after his death in 1887.^[20]

Eastern Europe

Anthropology in Eastern Europe varies in is roots, but many of the different anthropolgies share a common interest in folklore and human populations. Eastern European anthropologists, official and non official, tend to focus on studying local issues and staying out of international affairs. The anthropological trend in Eastern Europe is a turn toward the social sciences and anthropology after separation from the Soviet Union.

Belarus

The first Belarus postgraduate training program with anthropology was in February 1965 and was at the Institute of Art, Ethnography and Folklore of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR.^[21]

After separating from the Soviet Union, Belarus went through a period of state development that lasted from about 1990 to 1994. During this time, the focus was on nation-building. This required both an institutional and ideological change from the time when Belarus was under Soviet rule. A policy of “Belarusisation” was implemented in order to bring back culture and language that was understood to be native to Belarus.^[22] In 1971, anthropological research focused on the characteristics of populations within Belarus, looking at perceived internal “others”. In the 1980s, anthropologists were looking at the genetic structure of human populations based on demographics and environment, along with a study of Belarus’s child population. Belarusian anthropologists also looked outside of Belarus through the Research Institute and Museum of Anthropology from Moscow State University in order to study the Chukchi, Eskimos, Kazakhs, and Khakas peoples.^[21]

One important figure in Belarusian anthropology was L.I. Tegako, who is cited as being one of its founders in the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus.^[21] She began research on ethnic health issues in the 1960s, which is one of the first instances of an official sort of anthropology in Belarus. Her teacher was V.P. Alekseev of Russia. From her research, she concluded that “Belarusians manage to stay within variations which are typical for Caucasian race.” Tegako took part in much of the work in the 1980s on both the genetic structure of human populations and the child studies. She also led twenty expeditions outside of Belarus.^[21]

Lidiya Ivanovana is also an important character in Belarusian anthropology. She obtained her PhD in Russia in 1990 with a dissertation that looked at populations in Belarus. Her work was the first to take a multi-dimensional approach involving different types of materials from several different populations within Belarus. Ivanovana is attributed as having contributed many of the anthropological methods used in Belarus.^[21]

Bulgaria

Anthropology appeared in an official status in Bulgaria in late 1989 due to the fall of the communist regime and is thought to be a product of democratization of society. The first departments to include something like anthropology were departments of ethnology, which were concerned with ethnography and folklore, and were worked in to the departments of philology or history. Anthropology itself was introduced at New Bulgarian University (NBU) as a priority, but they had to combine with a discipline recognized by the state, which like in many other cases, was the department of sociology with the degree being a sociology one. It wasn’t until around 2004 that anthropology got its own department with its own degree in Bulgaria.^[23]

One of Bulgarian anthropology’s main focuses at first was to carve out their own niche as a discipline, especially considering that Bulgarian anthropologists come from a variety of backgrounds. They were also left with ideas from the socialist period and the fall of communism. There was also focus on the changing social conditions from the period of transition after the fall of communism. There was push for democratization in Bulgaria, and anthropology became something of a symbol for that change.^[23] Despite this, there was still polarization on methods and ideology within the new discipline based on debates about Soviet versus Western styles of education, which were understood to be ideological opposites. The shift was eventually toward Western ideas. Bulgarian anthropologists tend to focus on research within their own borders, but also research in Balkans. Despite the branching out of Bulgaria, there are a limited number of field-research sites, a limited number of subjects, and a limited number of methods taken advantage of by Bulgarian anthropologists. Much attention is paid to community formation, complex societies, power, polity, statehood, nationalism, myth, ritual, religion, marriage, kinship, ethnicity, nation-hood, magic, medicine, and multiculturality.^[23]

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic takes a constructivist approach to anthropology (closely connected to ethnology), which they take a positivist approach to.^[24] Ethnology is taken to be trying to get at objective truth, where anthropology is getting at social constructs and beliefs. Despite this split between ideas of ethnology and anthropology in the Czech Republic, anthropology is not yet a fully established discipline. After the split from communism in 1989, there was a turn to socio-cultural anthropology in the way of ideology, but it was inconsistent. Some academics saw it as the same thing as ethnology, while others thought of it as a different research field with different methods and traditions, which resulted in the difficulty of establishing anthropology as a discipline. Many argue for there being a real epistemological difference between the two approaches.^[24]

Hungary

Hungarian anthropology is a defined discipline with its own departments and methods, though there is still overlap between anthropology and other related departments, like history and sociology.^[25] Hungarian anthropology places a premium on verifying sociological and anthropological results with scientific data.^[26]

In 1963, the Ethnographic Research Group, which was attached to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences was founded. It was led by Gyula Ortutay and had twenty-two participating members. The research focused on Hungarian folklore, but the group also looked at peasant economy, social institutions, and Siberian tribal society. If a senior member had an interest outside of Hungary, then that was also a permissible research topic.^[26] Cultural Anthropological departments were established at the University of Budapest in 1990 and the University of Miskolc in 1993.^[27]

There are many places to publish anthropological works within Hungary. The majority of the work is published in languages other than Hungarian and appear mostly in European periodicals. Many of the works do not appear in American anthropological journals due to a gap in how things are understood between the two anthropological fields. Many Hungarian anthropologists believe that the methods and problems that they need to consider are within their own borders or within their own region. They tend to stay out of international problems and direct their funding toward internal concerns.^[26]

Bela C. Maday points out that communication is not a strong suit for Hungarian anthropologists, which makes communicating ideas with core anthropologists, like those from the U.S. or Western Europe, difficult, but there has been much dispute on this point.^[26]

Russia

The beginnings of anthropology in Russia can be traced back to the establishment of the Russian Academy of Sciences under Peter the Great in 1725.^[28] Following the Academy of Sciences, many museums were also created with the impetus for studying culture, including the Ethnographic Bureau of the Russian Geographical Society in the mid-19^th century.^[28] The 1840s also saw the creation of physical anthropology and archaeology as sub-disciplines of anthropology.^[28] In 1864 the first university department for anthropology in Russia was created at Moscow University.^[28] The first specialized journal for Russian anthropology, (trans.) The Ethnographic Review (Etnograficheskoe obozrenie), was created in 1889.^[28] As Russia did not have state-supplemented funding in the 19^th century, much of the financial support came from aristocrats such as Count Aleksey Uvarov and Prince V. N. Tenishev.^[28]

In the early 20^th century, St. Petersburg and Moscow would be centers for the development of anthropology—focused on ethnology and ethnography—with the formation of the Department of Ethnology in Leningrad (1928), Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (1924), the publication of the journal Ethnography (1926), the Anuchin Institute of Anthropology at the University of Moscow (1922), etc. Anthropology in Russia was also influenced by Western anthropological perspectives, such as Franz Boas.

Following the Communist Party takeover, Russia began to favor ethnology over anthropology. Ethnology was the study of different ethnic groups within the state, which supported the push for homogenization and national unification of the Russian state. Marxist theory replaced Western anthropological theory, and various university departments were closed as Russia experienced an ideological reconstruction.^[28] In the mid-20^th century, with undercurrents of the Cold War, social and cultural anthropology were rejected from ethnographic study, but ethnography was re-institutionalized and strengthened in universities and institutions across Russia.^[28]

In the latter half of the 20^th century, Russian ethnography to other parts of the world in which Soviet influence was strong, such as Eastern Europe. The Perestroika in 1985 led to another bout of reconstruction for anthropology, and Russian science in general. Institutes were renamed and reconfigured to match this new trend. Social anthropology also began to make a comeback, leading to identity problems for social anthropology as a discipline in a country with such a strong ethnographic tradition that had excluded it for years.^[28]

The 1990s, a time of great social and political change for Russia with the end of the USSR, were a time for critical introspective views on the recent past.^[28] With this, Russian anthropology turned towards more contemporary interests, where it still is today. Even with these contemporary interests, Russian anthropology still finds itself heavily influenced by the ethnology of its past and attempting to reconcile what it means to be a “social” anthropologist in this environment.^[28]

This is a user sandbox of KrishtynH. You can use it for testing or practicing edits.
This is not the sandbox where you should draft your assigned article for a dashboard.wikiedu.org course.
To find the right sandbox for your assignment, visit your Dashboard course page and follow the Sandbox Draft link for your assigned article in the My Articles section.

Get Help

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Ranzmaier, Irene (2011). "The Anthropological Society in Vienna and the Academic Establishment of Anthropology in Austria, 1870-1930". Histories of Anthropology Annual. 7 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1353/haa.2011.0007. S2CID 144828281.
^ ^a ^b Karstedt, Lars (2002). "The History and Status of Linguistic Anthropology in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland". Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 12 (1): 72–87. doi:10.1525/jlin.2002.12.1.72.
^ "History and goals of the anthropological society". Geschichte. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
^ ^a ^b "History". www.anthropology.at. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Richard Thurnwald". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
^ ^a ^b "SP Richard Thurnwald". www.germananthropology.com. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^ ^a ^b ^c The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (September 26, 2011). "Wilhelm Schmidt". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 16, 2017. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
^ ^a ^b "ANTHROPOS - Anthropos Institute". www.anthropos.eu (in German). Retrieved 2017-11-16.
^ ^a ^b "Studieren - Institut für Kulturanthropologie und Europäische Ethnologie". kulturanthropologie.uni-graz.at (in German). Retrieved 14 November 2017.
^ "Forschen - Institut für Kulturanthropologie und Europäische Ethnologie". kulturanthropologie.uni-graz.at (in German). Retrieved 14 November 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c Wien, Weltmuseum (14 November 2017). "Weltmuseum Wien: About us". www.weltmuseumwien.at. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
^ Konecki, Mario Konecki, Mladen. "About University". www.unizg.hr. Retrieved 2017-12-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c "Croatian Anthropological Society". Croatian Anthropological Society. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^ ^a ^b "European Anthropological Association". eaa.elte.hu. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^ "HISTORY OF THE INSTITUTE | Institute for Anthropological Research". www.inantro.hr. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Educational histories of European social anthropology. Dracklé, Dorle., Edgar, Iain R., Schippers, Thomas K., 1954-. New York: Berghahn Books. 2003. pp. 116, 140. ISBN 1571819053. OCLC 50204263.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^ ^a ^b umetnosti, Slovenska akademija znanosti in. "Županič, Niko (1876–1961) - Slovenska biografija". www.slovenska-biografija.si (in Sinhala). Retrieved 2017-11-17.
^ ^a ^b "Slovene Anthropological Society - Culture of Slovenia". www.culture.si. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^ "Društvo antropologov Slovenije". www.drustvo-antropologov.si. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Peter., Davies (2010). Myth, Matriarchy and Modernity : Johann Jakob Bachofen in German Culture. 1860-1945. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 7, 8, 9, 11. ISBN 9783110227093. OCLC 645093022.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Hurbo, Tatyana (2016). "The Contribution of L.I. Tegako to Anthropology of Belarus". Journal of the Anthropological Society of Serbia. 51: 81–87.
^ Bekus, Nelly (2014). "Ethnic Identity in Post-Soviet Belarus: Ethnolinguistic Survival as an Argument in the Political Struggle". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 35 (1): 43–58. doi:10.1080/01434632.2013.845197. S2CID 145134460.
^ ^a ^b ^c Elchinova, Magdalena (2010). Bošković, Aleksandar (ed.). Other People's Anthropologies: Ethnographic Practice on the Margins. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 70–81. ISBN 9781845457020.
^ ^a ^b Jakoubek, Marek (2016). "Anthropology in Eastern Europe Between Positivism and Constructivism: A Case from the Czech Republic". Anthropological Notebooks. 22 (3). Slovene Anthropological Society: 25–45.
^ Keen, Mike; Mucha, Janusz (2004). "Sociology in Central and Eastern Europe in the 1990s: A Decade of Reconstruction". European Societies. 6 (2): 123–147. doi:10.1080/14616690410001690736. S2CID 145298512.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bokonyi, Sandor; Hofer, Tamas; Kiszely, Istvan; Szepe, Gyorgy; Maday, Bela (February 1970). "On Hungarian Anthropology". Current Anthropology. 11 (1): 61–65. doi:10.1086/201095. S2CID 144177362 – via JSTOR.
^ Three social science disciplines in Central and Eastern Europe : handbook on economics, political science and sociology, 1989-2001. Kaase, Max., Sparschuh, Vera., Wenninger, Agnieszka., Gesellschaft Sozialwissenschaftlicher Infrastruktureinrichtungen., Collegium Budapest. Berlin: Social Science Information Centre (IZ). 2002. ISBN 3820601392. OCLC 63116730.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Kuznetsov, Anatoly M. (2008). Other people's anthropologies : ethnographic practice on the margins. Boskovik, Aleksandar., European Association of Social Anthropologists. Conference (2004 : Vienna, Austria) (1st ed.). New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 20–41. ISBN 9781845453985. OCLC 156834464.

[:2-1] Ranzmaier, Irene (2011). "The Anthropological Society in Vienna and the Academic Establishment of Anthropology in Austria, 1870-1930". Histories of Anthropology Annual. 7 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1353/haa.2011.0007. S2CID 144828281.

[:12-2] Karstedt, Lars (2002). "The History and Status of Linguistic Anthropology in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland". Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 12 (1): 72–87. doi:10.1525/jlin.2002.12.1.72.

[3] "History and goals of the anthropological society". Geschichte. Retrieved 15 November 2017.

[:4-4] "History". www.anthropology.at. Retrieved 15 November 2017.

[:3-5] "Richard Thurnwald". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Retrieved 16 November 2017.

[:14-6] "SP Richard Thurnwald". www.germananthropology.com. Retrieved 2017-12-04.

[:6-7] The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (September 26, 2011). "Wilhelm Schmidt". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 16, 2017. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)

[:7-8] "ANTHROPOS - Anthropos Institute". www.anthropos.eu (in German). Retrieved 2017-11-16.

[:8-9] "Studieren - Institut für Kulturanthropologie und Europäische Ethnologie". kulturanthropologie.uni-graz.at (in German). Retrieved 14 November 2017.

[10] "Forschen - Institut für Kulturanthropologie und Europäische Ethnologie". kulturanthropologie.uni-graz.at (in German). Retrieved 14 November 2017.

[:5-11] Wien, Weltmuseum (14 November 2017). "Weltmuseum Wien: About us". www.weltmuseumwien.at. Retrieved 14 November 2017.

[12] Konecki, Mario Konecki, Mladen. "About University". www.unizg.hr. Retrieved 2017-12-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[:17-13] "Croatian Anthropological Society". Croatian Anthropological Society. Retrieved 2017-12-04.

[:16-14] "European Anthropological Association". eaa.elte.hu. Retrieved 2017-12-04.

[15] "HISTORY OF THE INSTITUTE | Institute for Anthropological Research". www.inantro.hr. Retrieved 2017-12-04.

[:9-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Educational histories of European social anthropology. Dracklé, Dorle., Edgar, Iain R., Schippers, Thomas K., 1954-. New York: Berghahn Books. 2003. pp. 116, 140. ISBN 1571819053. OCLC 50204263.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

[:13-17] umetnosti, Slovenska akademija znanosti in. "Županič, Niko (1876–1961) - Slovenska biografija". www.slovenska-biografija.si (in Sinhala). Retrieved 2017-11-17.

[:15-18] "Slovene Anthropological Society - Culture of Slovenia". www.culture.si. Retrieved 2017-12-04.

[19] "Društvo antropologov Slovenije". www.drustvo-antropologov.si. Retrieved 2017-12-04.

[:11-20] Peter., Davies (2010). Myth, Matriarchy and Modernity : Johann Jakob Bachofen in German Culture. 1860-1945. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 7, 8, 9, 11. ISBN 9783110227093. OCLC 645093022.

[:0-21] Hurbo, Tatyana (2016). "The Contribution of L.I. Tegako to Anthropology of Belarus". Journal of the Anthropological Society of Serbia. 51: 81–87.

[22] Bekus, Nelly (2014). "Ethnic Identity in Post-Soviet Belarus: Ethnolinguistic Survival as an Argument in the Political Struggle". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 35 (1): 43–58. doi:10.1080/01434632.2013.845197. S2CID 145134460.

[:1-23] Elchinova, Magdalena (2010). Bošković, Aleksandar (ed.). Other People's Anthropologies: Ethnographic Practice on the Margins. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 70–81. ISBN 9781845457020.

[:18-24] Jakoubek, Marek (2016). "Anthropology in Eastern Europe Between Positivism and Constructivism: A Case from the Czech Republic". Anthropological Notebooks. 22 (3). Slovene Anthropological Society: 25–45.

[25] Keen, Mike; Mucha, Janusz (2004). "Sociology in Central and Eastern Europe in the 1990s: A Decade of Reconstruction". European Societies. 6 (2): 123–147. doi:10.1080/14616690410001690736. S2CID 145298512.

[:10-26] Bokonyi, Sandor; Hofer, Tamas; Kiszely, Istvan; Szepe, Gyorgy; Maday, Bela (February 1970). "On Hungarian Anthropology". Current Anthropology. 11 (1): 61–65. doi:10.1086/201095. S2CID 144177362 – via JSTOR.

[27] Three social science disciplines in Central and Eastern Europe : handbook on economics, political science and sociology, 1989-2001. Kaase, Max., Sparschuh, Vera., Wenninger, Agnieszka., Gesellschaft Sozialwissenschaftlicher Infrastruktureinrichtungen., Collegium Budapest. Berlin: Social Science Information Centre (IZ). 2002. ISBN 3820601392. OCLC 63116730.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

[:02-28] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Kuznetsov, Anatoly M. (2008). Other people's anthropologies : ethnographic practice on the margins. Boskovik, Aleksandar., European Association of Social Anthropologists. Conference (2004 : Vienna, Austria) (1st ed.). New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 20–41. ISBN 9781845453985. OCLC 156834464.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= Central & Eastern Europe =
+== Anthropology in Central & Eastern Europe ==
+[[File:Central and Eastern Europe Map.png|left|thumb|Map of Central and Eastern Europe|468x468px]]
-In this article, central and eastern Europe includes the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Russia, Slovakia, Turkey, Ukraine, Austria, Bosnia, Croatia, Poland, Serbia, Slovenia, and Switzerland. Anthropological study is active in Europe through research centers, societies, and universities on a range of topics.
+Central and Eastern Europe includes the countries of Austria, Croatia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, and Hungary among many others. Anthropological study is active in many places Europe through research centers, academic societies, and universities on a range of topics. One of the biggest problems facing anthropologists in Central and Eastern Europe is the need to define themselves as a discipline separate from any other.
-(more to be added)
 == Central Europe ==
+Anthropology in central European countries has its roots in [[Germany|Germany.]] The establishment of anthropology within central Europe has been a slow process that involved first understanding what the discipline was and then determining how it fit within each country's individual ideals.
-Intro
 === Austria ===
+[[File:Wilhelm Schmidt SVD.jpg|thumb|216x216px|<b>Pater Wilhelm Schmidt</b><p><small>February 16, 1868 -</small> </p><p><small>February 10, 1954</small></p>
-Austrian [[anthropology]] has close ties to [[Germany]] and is generally intertwined with German-speaking countries.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Karstedt|first=Lars|date=2002|title=The History and Status of Linguistic Anthropology in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland|url=|journal=Journal of Linguistic Anthropology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=72-87|via=}}</ref> As such, the history of anthropology in Austria is foggy until the marked institutionalization of the discipline. The Anthropological Society in Vienna (ASV) was the first anthropological institution in [[Austria]]. It was established on February 13, 1870 and is a non-profit organization.<ref>{{cite web|title=History and goals of the anthropological society|url=http://ag-wien.org/ueber-die-ag/geschichte|website=Geschichte|accessdate=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Ranzmaier|first1=Irene|date=2011|title=The Anthropological Society in Vienna and the Academic Establishment of Anthropology in Austria, 1870-1930|url=|journal=Histories of Anthropology Annual|volume=7|issue=1|page=|pages=1-22|accessdate=14 November 2017|via=}}</ref> The “new anthropology” approach was the ASV’s foundation and Bernd Weiler’s term for anthropology that existed post-publication of [[Charles Darwin]]’s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.<ref name=":2" /> Anthropology within academia was postponed until 1919 when the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography was created at the [[University of Vienna]].<ref name=":2" /> The institute was divided into two later, making the Anthropological Institute and Institute for Ethnology.<ref name=":4" /> In 2005, the Anthropological Institute became the Department of Anthropology and is the only anthropology department that exists within the country.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|title=History|url=https://www.anthropology.at/history/|website=www.anthropology.at|accessdate=15 November 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" />
+]]
+[[Austria|Austrian]] anthropology has close ties to Germany and is generally intertwined with German-speaking countries.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Karstedt|first=Lars|date=2002|title=The History and Status of Linguistic Anthropology in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland|url=|journal=Journal of Linguistic Anthropology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=72–87|doi=10.1525/jlin.2002.12.1.72 }}</ref> As such, the history of anthropology in Austria is foggy until the marked institutionalization of the discipline. The Anthropological Society in Vienna (ASV) was the first anthropological institution in [[Austria]]. It was established on February 13, 1870 and is a non-profit organization.<ref>{{cite web|title=History and goals of the anthropological society|url=http://ag-wien.org/ueber-die-ag/geschichte|website=Geschichte|accessdate=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Ranzmaier|first1=Irene|date=2011|title=The Anthropological Society in Vienna and the Academic Establishment of Anthropology in Austria, 1870-1930|url=|journal=Histories of Anthropology Annual|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–22|doi=10.1353/haa.2011.0007 |s2cid=144828281 }}</ref> The “new anthropology” approach was the ASV’s foundation and Bernd Weiler’s term for anthropology that existed post-publication of [[Charles Darwin]]’s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.<ref name=":2" /> Anthropology within academia was postponed until 1919 when the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography was created at the [[University of Vienna]].<ref name=":2" /> The institute was divided into two later, making the Anthropological Institute and Institute for Ethnology.<ref name=":4" /> In 2005, the Anthropological Institute became the Department of Anthropology and is the only anthropology department that exists within the country.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|title=History|url=https://www.anthropology.at/history/|website=www.anthropology.at|accessdate=15 November 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" />
-A notable anthropologist is [[Richard Thurnwald]] (September 18, 1869 - January 19-1954) who was an Austrian-born German anthropologist and sociologist.<ref name=":3" /> He was a professor at universities in the [[United States]] and Germany<ref name=":3" /> He was also the editor of various journals, including the one he originated, called Journal of Popular Psychology and Sociology, which was later renamed [[Sociologus]].<ref name=":3" /> His work includes the study of kinship, social structure, superstratification, [[feudalism]], kingship, cities, and states, and western colonial expansion.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|title=Richard Thurnwald|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Thurnwald|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.|accessdate=16 November 2017|language=en}}</ref>
-Another important figure was Pater [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]] (February 16, 1868 - February 10, 1954) who was a German-born ordained [[Roman Catholic priest]], anthropologist, and linguist.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wilhelm-Schmidt|title=Wilhelm Schmidt|last=The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica|first=|date=September 26, 2011|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=November 16, 2017}}</ref> Anthropos is a journal he created in 1906 and the Anthropos Institute is an institution he founded in 1931.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://www.anthropos.eu/anthropos/institute/index.php|title=ANTHROPOS - Anthropos Institute|website=www.anthropos.eu|language=de|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref> He relocated both to [[Switzerland]] in 1938 due to his distaste for [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s ideals.<ref name=":7" /> He was a professor at the Universities of [[University of Vienna|Vienna]] and [[University of Freiburg|Freiburg]], had published extensively, and his research topics included family, religion, language, and culture.<ref name=":6" />
+A notable anthropologist is [[Richard Thurnwald]] who was an Austrian-born German anthropologist and sociologist.<ref name=":3" /> He was multilingual in Arabic, Turkish, Serbian, and Russian and a professor at universities in the [[United States]] and Germany during the early 1900s<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=http://www.germananthropology.com/short-portrait/richard-thurnwald/302|title=SP Richard Thurnwald|website=www.germananthropology.com|language=en|access-date=2017-12-04}}</ref> Thurnwald was also the editor of various journals, including the one he originated, called Journal of Popular Psychology and Sociology, which was later renamed [[Sociologus]].<ref name=":3" /> His wife continued publishing the journal despite his death in 1954.<ref name=":14" /> His work included the study of kinship, social structure, superstratification, [[feudalism]], kingship, cities, and states, and western colonial expansion.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|title=Richard Thurnwald|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Thurnwald|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.|accessdate=16 November 2017|language=en}}</ref>[[File:Hofburg 23.JPG|thumb|'''Weltmuseum Wien'''
+"World Museum Vienna"
+|left|210x210px]]Another important figure was Pater [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]] who was a German-born ordained [[Roman Catholic priest]], anthropologist, and linguist.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wilhelm-Schmidt|title=Wilhelm Schmidt|last=The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica|date=September 26, 2011|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=November 16, 2017}}</ref> Anthropos is a journal he created in 1906 and the Anthropos Institute is an institution he founded in 1931.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://www.anthropos.eu/anthropos/institute/index.php|title=ANTHROPOS - Anthropos Institute|website=www.anthropos.eu|language=de|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref> He relocated both to [[Switzerland]] in 1938 due to his distaste for [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s ideals.<ref name=":7" /> He was a professor at the Universities of [[University of Vienna|Vienna]] and [[University of Freiburg|Freiburg]], had published extensively, and his research topics included family, religion, language, and culture.<ref name=":6" />
 Karl Franzens [[University of Graz]]’s humanities department includes the Institute for Cultural Anthropology and European Ethnology which offers bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees in Anthropology.<ref name=":8" /> The key topics of research the institution is involved in include “city, governmentality, limit and difference, mobilities, visual culture, material culture, museum, religiousness, and science research as well as subject-oriented methodologies.” <ref>{{cite web|title=Forschen - Institut für Kulturanthropologie und Europäische Ethnologie|url=https://kulturanthropologie.uni-graz.at/de/forschen/|website=kulturanthropologie.uni-graz.at|accessdate=14 November 2017|language=de}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{cite web|title=Studieren - Institut für Kulturanthropologie und Europäische Ethnologie|url=https://kulturanthropologie.uni-graz.at/de/studieren/|website=kulturanthropologie.uni-graz.at|accessdate=14 November 2017|language=de}}</ref>
 [[Museum of Ethnology, Vienna|Weltmuseum Wien]] is an ethnographic museum located in [[Vienna]] that serves to display cultural diversity.<ref name=":5" /> Weltmuseum Wien, translated ‘World Museum Vienna’, opened in 1928 and houses worldwide artifacts, not including Europe, from as early as the 1500s.<ref name=":5" /> The museum’s previous title was the Museum of Ethnology and it recently reopened after closing for renovations in 2014.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|last1=Wien|first1=Weltmuseum|title=Weltmuseum Wien: About us|url=https://www.weltmuseumwien.at/en/about-us/#mission-amp-history|website=www.weltmuseumwien.at|accessdate=14 November 2017|language=en|date=14 November 2017}}</ref>
-=== Bosnia ===
-* History
-* Notable anthropologists
-* Institutions and organizations and their practices
-* Current status of the discipline
 === Croatia ===
+[[File:University of Zagreb.jpg|thumb|<big>University of Zagreb</big>  <small>est. 1669</small><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unizg.hr/homepage/about-university/|title=About University|last=Konecki|first=Mario Konecki, Mladen|website=www.unizg.hr|language=en|access-date=2017-12-05}}</ref>|208x208px]]
-* History
+[[Croatia|Croatian]] anthropology started with a focus more on natural and [[medical]] topics because it wasn’t embraced as a human-centered [[scientific discipline]].<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrvatsko-antropolosko-drustvo.hr/history|title=Croatian Anthropological Society|website=Croatian Anthropological Society|access-date=2017-12-04}}</ref> In 1973, various European anthropologists met for the first time to discuss the making of a European Association for Anthropology.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=http://eaa.elte.hu/aboutus_history.html|title=European Anthropological Association|website=eaa.elte.hu|access-date=2017-12-04}}</ref> It wasn’t until the fourth meeting in [[Zagreb]], on October 7, 1976, that the board members established the European Anthropological Association.<ref name=":16" /> The initial meeting triggered a chain reaction development of anthropology within Croatia because, meanwhile, in 1974, the Croatian Physicians Assembly established the section for [[biological anthropology]].<ref name=":17" /> Soon after, the Croatian Anthropological Society was created in 1977 along with its journal, titled ''Collegium Antropologicum''.<ref name=":17" /> Finally, in 1992, the Institute for Anthropological Research was established at the [[University of Zagreb]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inantro.hr/en/2017/01/09/history-of-the-institute/|title=HISTORY OF THE INSTITUTE {{!}} Institute for Anthropological Research|website=www.inantro.hr|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-12-04}}</ref>
-* Notable anthropologists
-* Institutions and organizations and their practices
-* Current status of the discipline
 === Slovenia ===
+Anthropology in [[Slovenia]] has been greatly influenced by surrounding nations due to the country's small size.<ref name=":9" /> There was a shift in language after [[World War II]] that caused German language to be controversial so [[English language|English]] began being taught to children which later resulted in students being more interested in an ethnographic college curriculum.<ref name=":9" /> The [[University of Ljubljana]] started offering anthropology courses in 1933 which were taught by [[Božo Škerlj]] as the first college professor to teach the subject in Slovenia.<ref name=":9" /> Later, he created a chair in anthropology at the University of Ljubljana in 1946 that was eventually placed within the [[biology]] department; but, within a few years of his [[death]] in 1961, the subject became questioned which resulted in its being terminated.<ref name=":9" /> However, [[social anthropology]] was already part of the [[sociology]] [[curriculum]] which was established earlier in the 1960s.<ref name=":9" /> It wasn't until the 1990s that this branch of anthropology became an official program offered to graduate students.<ref name=":9" />
-History
+[[File:Niko Zupanič 1921.jpg|thumb|178x178px|<big>Niko Županić</big><p><small>December 1, 1876 - September 11, 1961</small></p>
+]]
+[[Božo Škerlj]] was an Austrian-born anthropologist who studied [[physical anthropology]] in [[Prague]].<ref name=":9" /> He was initially interested in [[Germans|German]] physical anthropology but, at the time of [[World War II]], decided to focus on [[cultural anthropology]] instead.<ref name=":9" /> His work reflected a combination of the two topics.<ref name=":9" />
-An important figure in Slovene anthropology is Niko Županić (December 1, 1876 - September 11, 1961).<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/sbi915246/|title=Županič, Niko (1876–1961) - Slovenska biografija|last=umetnosti|first=Slovenska akademija znanosti in|website=www.slovenska-biografija.si|language=si|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref> He was the creator of the Slovene Ethnographic Museum, which opened in 1923, and the museum’s corresponding journal, ''Etnolog'', that began in 1926.<ref name=":9" /> His educational background was in [[physical anthropology]], [[archaeology]], and [[history]] and, in 1940, he became a professor for the ethnology and ethnography department at the [[University of Ljubljana]].<ref name=":9" />
+Another important figure in Slovene anthropology is Niko Županić who was born in 1876.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=http://www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/sbi915246/|title=Županič, Niko (1876–1961) - Slovenska biografija|last=umetnosti|first=Slovenska akademija znanosti in|website=www.slovenska-biografija.si|language=si|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref> He was the creator of the Slovene Ethnographic Museum, which opened in 1923, and the museum’s corresponding journal, ''Etnolog'', that began in 1926.<ref name=":9" /> His educational background was in [[physical anthropology]], [[archaeology]], and [[history]] and, in 1940, he became a professor for the ethnology and ethnography department at the [[University of Ljubljana]].<ref name=":9" /> Niko Županić died on September 11, 1961.<ref name=":13" />
+The Slovene Anthropological Society has been active since its founding in 1992 and arranges an international science conference every three years called [[Božo Škerlj|Škerlj]]'s days.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=https://www.culture.si/en/Slovene_Anthropological_Society|title=Slovene Anthropological Society - Culture of Slovenia|website=www.culture.si|language=en|access-date=2017-12-04}}</ref> The society's journal is named Anthropological Notebooks.<ref name=":15" /> The articles inside are preferred to be unique to the [[journal]] and they're published in [[English language]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.drustvo-antropologov.si/anthropological_notebooks_eng.html|title=Društvo antropologov Slovenije|website=www.drustvo-antropologov.si|access-date=2017-12-04}}</ref>
-Institutions and organizations and their practices
-Current status of the discipline
 === Switzerland ===
+[[File:Johann Jacob Bachofen.jpg|thumb|171x171px|<big>J. J. Bachofen</big><p><small>December 22, 1815 -November 25, 1887</small></p>
-Swiss anthropology originated with studying [[folklore]], also known as [[volkskunde]], and ethnology, or völkerkunde.<ref name=":9" /> Between 1912 and 1916, ethnographic museums held seminars in [[ethnology]] and folklore and were the beginning of anthropology being taught in [[Switzerland]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50204263|title=Educational histories of European social anthropology|last=|first=|date=2003|publisher=Berghahn Books|others=Dracklé, Dorle., Edgar, Iain R., Schippers, Thomas K., 1954-|year=|isbn=1571819053|location=New York|pages=116,140|oclc=50204263}}</ref>  The [[anthropology]] in Switzerland, like Austria, is closely tied to [[Germany]] and German-speaking countries in general.<ref name=":12" />
+]]
+The discipline of [[anthropology]] in [[Switzerland]], like Austria, is closely tied to [[Germany]] and German-speaking countries in general.<ref name=":12" /> Swiss anthropology originated with studying [[folklore]], also known as [[volkskunde]], and ethnology, or völkerkunde.<ref name=":9" /> Between 1912 and 1916, ethnographic museums held seminars in [[ethnology]] and folklore and were the beginning of anthropology being taught in [[Switzerland]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50204263|title=Educational histories of European social anthropology|date=2003|publisher=Berghahn Books|others=Dracklé, Dorle., Edgar, Iain R., Schippers, Thomas K., 1954-|isbn=1571819053|location=New York|pages=116,140|oclc=50204263}}</ref>
-[[Johann Jakob Bachofen]] (December 22, 1815 - 1887) was a [[professor]] at the [[University of Basel]], criminal court judge, member of city legislative council, and anthropological writer.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/645093022|title=Myth, Matriarchy and Modernity : Johann Jakob Bachofen in German Culture. 1860-1945.|last=Peter.|first=Davies,|date=2010|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=|isbn=9783110227093|location=Berlin|pages=7,8,9,11|oclc=645093022}}</ref> He came from a wealthy family and was well educated in [[law]], [[Philology]], [[history]] and [[ancient history]].<ref name=":11" /> A popular, influential publication of his, titled [[Das Mutterrecht]], explored past [[societies]] with the idea that [[matriarchy]] came before [[patriarchy]].<ref name=":11" /> Initially it was rejected but was later printed in 1861.<ref name=":11" /> Bachofen published many works but none were accepted until after his death.<ref name=":11" />
-Institutions and organizations and their practices
-Current status of the discipline
+[[Johann Jakob Bachofen]], born in 1815, was a professor at the [[University of Basel]], criminal court judge, member of city legislative council, and an anthropological writer.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/645093022|title=Myth, Matriarchy and Modernity : Johann Jakob Bachofen in German Culture. 1860-1945.|last=Peter.|first=Davies|date=2010|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=9783110227093|location=Berlin|pages=7,8,9,11|oclc=645093022}}</ref> He came from a wealthy family and was well educated in [[law]], [[Philology]], [[history]] and [[ancient history]].<ref name=":11" /> A popular, influential publication of his, titled [[Das Mutterrecht]], explored past societies with the idea that [[matriarchy]] came before [[patriarchy]].<ref name=":11" /> Initially it was rejected but was later printed in 1861.<ref name=":11" /> Bachofen published many works but none were accepted until well after his death in 1887.<ref name=":11" />
 == Eastern Europe ==
+Anthropology in Eastern Europe varies in is roots, but many of the different anthropolgies share a common interest in folklore and human populations. Eastern European anthropologists, official and non official, tend to focus on studying local issues and staying out of international affairs. The anthropological trend in Eastern Europe is a turn toward the social sciences and anthropology after separation from the [[Soviet Union]].
-Intro
-=== [[Belarus]] ===
+=== Belarus ===
-The first postgraduate training program with anthropology was in February 1965 and was at the Institute of Art, Ethnography and Folklore of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Hurbo|first=Tatyana|date=2016|title=The Contribution of L.I. Tegako to Anthropology of Belarus|url=|journal=Journal of the Anthropological Society of Serbia|volume=51|pages=81-87|via=}}</ref>
+The first [[Belarus]] postgraduate training program with anthropology was in February 1965 and was at the Institute of Art, Ethnography and Folklore of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Hurbo|first=Tatyana|date=2016|title=The Contribution of L.I. Tegako to Anthropology of Belarus|url=|journal=Journal of the Anthropological Society of Serbia|volume=51|pages=81–87|via=}}</ref>
+[[File:SB - Kazakh woman on horse.jpg|thumb|350x350px|
+'''Kazakh woman on a horse'''
+]]
+After separating from the Soviet Union, Belarus went through a period of state development that lasted from about 1990 to 1994. During this time, the focus was on nation-building. This required both an institutional and ideological change from the time when Belarus was under Soviet rule. A policy of “[[Belarusization|Belarusisation]]” was implemented in order to bring back culture and language that was understood to be native to Belarus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bekus|first=Nelly|date=2014|title=Ethnic Identity in Post-Soviet Belarus: Ethnolinguistic Survival as an Argument in the Political Struggle|url=|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|volume=35|issue=1|pages=43–58|doi=10.1080/01434632.2013.845197 |s2cid=145134460 }}</ref> In 1971, anthropological research focused on the characteristics of populations within Belarus, looking at perceived internal “others”. In the 1980s, anthropologists were looking at the genetic structure of human populations based on demographics and environment, along with a study of Belarus’s child population. Belarusian anthropologists also looked outside of Belarus through the Research Institute and Museum of Anthropology from [[Moscow State University]] in order to study the [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]], [[Eskimo|Eskimos]], [[Kazakhs]], and [[Khakas people|Khakas]] peoples.<ref name=":0" />
+One important figure in Belarusian anthropology was L.I. Tegako, who is cited as being one of its founders in the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus.<ref name=":0" /> She began research on ethnic health issues in the 1960s, which is one of the first instances of an official sort of anthropology in Belarus. Her teacher was V.P. Alekseev of Russia. From her research, she concluded that “Belarusians manage to stay within variations which are typical for Caucasian race.” Tegako took part in much of the work in the 1980s on both the genetic structure of human populations and the child studies. She also led twenty expeditions outside of Belarus.<ref name=":0" />
-After separating from the Soviet Union, Belarus went through a period of state development that lasted from about 1990 to 1994. During this time, the focus was on nation-building. This required both an institutional and ideological change from the time when Belarus was under Soviet rule. A policy of “[[Belarusization|Belarusisation]]” was implemented in order to bring back culture and language that was understood to be native to Belarus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bekus|first=Nelly|date=2014|title=Ethnic Identity in Post-Soviet Belarus: Ethnolinguistic Survival as an Argument in the Political Struggle|url=|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|volume=35|issue=1|pages=43-58|via=}}</ref> In 1971, anthropological research focused on the characteristics of populations within Belarus, looking at perceived internal “others”. In the 1980s, anthropologists were looking at the genetic structure of human populations based on demographics and environment, along with a study of Belarus’s child population. Belarusian anthropologists also looked outside of Belarus through the Research Institute and Museum of Anthropology from Moscow State University in order to study the Chukchi, Eskimos, Kazakhs, and Khakas peoples.<ref name=":0" />
-One important figure in Belarusian anthropology was L.I. Tegako, who is cited as being one of its founders in the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. She began research on ethnic health issues in the 1960s, which is one of the first instances of an official sort of anthropology in Belarus. Her teacher was V.P. Alekseev of Russia. From her research, she concluded that “Belarusians manage to stay within variations which are typical for Caucasian race.” Tegako took part in much of the work in the 1980s on both the genetic structure of human populations and the child studies. She also led twenty expeditions outside of Belarus.<ref name=":0" />
 Lidiya Ivanovana is also an important character in Belarusian anthropology. She obtained her PhD in Russia in 1990 with a dissertation that looked at populations in Belarus. Her work was the first to take a multi-dimensional approach involving different types of materials from several different populations within Belarus. Ivanovana is attributed as having contributed many of the anthropological methods used in Belarus.<ref name=":0" />
-=== [[Bulgaria]] ===
+=== Bulgaria ===
+[[File:NBU blue.jpg|thumb|
-Anthropology appeared in an official status in Bulgaria in late 1989 due to the fall of the communist regime and is thought to be a product of democratization of society. The first departments to include something like anthropology were departments of ethnology, which were concerned with ethnography and folklore, and were worked in to the departments of [[philology]] or history. Anthropology itself was introduced at [[New Bulgarian University]] (NBU) as a priority, but they had to combine with a discipline recognized by the state, which like in many other cases, was the department of sociology with the degree being a sociology one. It wasn’t until around 2004 that anthropology got its own department with its own degree in Bulgaria.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Other People's Anthropologies: Ethnographic Practice on the Margins|last=Elchinova|first=Magdalena|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2010|isbn=9781845457020|editor-last=Bošković|editor-first=Aleksandar|location=New York|pages=70-81}}</ref>
+'''New Bulgarian University'''
+]]
+Anthropology appeared in an official status in [[Bulgaria]] in late 1989 due to the fall of the [[Communist Regime|communist regime]] and is thought to be a product of democratization of society. The first departments to include something like anthropology were departments of ethnology, which were concerned with ethnography and folklore, and were worked in to the departments of [[philology]] or history. Anthropology itself was introduced at [[New Bulgarian University]] (NBU) as a priority, but they had to combine with a discipline recognized by the state, which like in many other cases, was the department of sociology with the degree being a sociology one. It wasn’t until around 2004 that anthropology got its own department with its own degree in Bulgaria.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Other People's Anthropologies: Ethnographic Practice on the Margins|last=Elchinova|first=Magdalena|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2010|isbn=9781845457020|editor-last=Bošković|editor-first=Aleksandar|location=New York|pages=70–81}}</ref>
-One of Bulgarian anthropology’s main focuses at first was to carve out their own niche as a discipline, especially considering that Bulgarian anthropologists come from a variety of backgrounds. They were also left with ideas from the socialist period and the fall of communism. There was also focus on the changing social conditions from the period of transition after the fall of communism. There was push for democratization in Bulgaria, and anthropology became something of a symbol for that change. Despite this, there was still polarization on methods and ideology within the new discipline based on debates about Soviet versus Western styles of education, which were understood to be ideological opposites. The shift was eventually toward Western ideas. Bulgarian anthropologists tend to focus on research within their own borders, but also research in [[Balkans]]. Despite the branching out of Bulgaria, there are a limited number of field-research sites, a limited number of subjects, and a limited number of methods taken advantage of by Bulgarian anthropologists. Much attention is paid to community formation, complex societies, power, polity, statehood, nationalism, myth, ritual, religion, marriage, kinship, ethnicity, nation-hood, magic, medicine, and multiculturality.<ref name=":1" />
+One of Bulgarian anthropology’s main focuses at first was to carve out their own niche as a discipline, especially considering that Bulgarian anthropologists come from a variety of backgrounds. They were also left with ideas from the socialist period and the fall of communism. There was also focus on the changing social conditions from the period of transition after the fall of communism. There was push for democratization in Bulgaria, and anthropology became something of a symbol for that change.<ref name=":1" /> Despite this, there was still polarization on methods and ideology within the new discipline based on debates about Soviet versus Western styles of education, which were understood to be ideological opposites. The shift was eventually toward Western ideas. Bulgarian anthropologists tend to focus on research within their own borders, but also research in [[Balkans]]. Despite the branching out of Bulgaria, there are a limited number of field-research sites, a limited number of subjects, and a limited number of methods taken advantage of by Bulgarian anthropologists. Much attention is paid to community formation, complex societies, power, polity, statehood, nationalism, myth, ritual, religion, marriage, kinship, ethnicity, nation-hood, magic, medicine, and multiculturality.<ref name=":1" />
-=== [[Czech Republic]] ===
+=== Czech Republic ===
+[[File:LocationCzechRepublic.png|thumb|250x250px|
-The Czech Republic takes a constructivist approach to anthropology, which is closely connected to ethnology, which they take a positivist approach to. Ethnology is taken to be trying to get at objective truth, where anthropology is getting at social constructs and beliefs. Despite this split between ideas of ethnology and anthropology in the Czech Republic, anthropology is not yet a fully established discipline. After the split from communism in 1989, there was a turn to socio-cultural anthropology in the way of ideology, but it was inconsistent. Some academics saw it as the same thing as ethnology, while others thought of it as a different research field with different methods and traditions, which resulted in the difficulty of establishing anthropology as a discipline. Many argue for there being a real epistemological difference between the two approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jakoubek|first=Marek|date=2016|title=Anthropology in Eastern Europe Between Positivism and Constructivism: A Case from the Czech Republic|url=|journal=Anthropological Notebooks|publisher=Slovene Anthropological Society|volume=22|issue=3|pages=25-45|via=}}</ref>
+'''Location of Czech Republic on the map'''
+]]
+The [[Czech Republic]] takes a constructivist approach to anthropology (closely connected to ethnology), which they take a positivist approach to.<ref name=":18" /> Ethnology is taken to be trying to get at objective truth, where anthropology is getting at social constructs and beliefs. Despite this split between ideas of ethnology and anthropology in the Czech Republic, anthropology is not yet a fully established discipline. After the split from communism in 1989, there was a turn to socio-cultural anthropology in the way of ideology, but it was inconsistent. Some academics saw it as the same thing as ethnology, while others thought of it as a different research field with different methods and traditions, which resulted in the difficulty of establishing anthropology as a discipline. Many argue for there being a real epistemological difference between the two approaches.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Jakoubek|first=Marek|date=2016|title=Anthropology in Eastern Europe Between Positivism and Constructivism: A Case from the Czech Republic|url=|journal=Anthropological Notebooks|publisher=Slovene Anthropological Society|volume=22|issue=3|pages=25–45|via=}}</ref>
-=== [[Hungary]] ===
+=== Hungary ===
-Hungarian anthropology is a defined discipline with its own departments and methods, though there is still overlap between anthropology and other related departments, like history and sociology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Keen|first=Mike|last2=Mucha|first2=Janusz|date=|title=Sociology in Central and Eastern Europe in the 1990s: A Decade of Reconstruction|url=|journal=European Societies|volume=6|issue=2|pages=123-147}}</ref> Hungarian anthropology places a premium on verifying sociological and anthropological results with scientific data.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Bokonyi|first=Sandor|last2=Hofer|first2=Tamas|last3=Kiszely|first3=Istvan|last4=Szepe|first4=Gyorgy|last5=Maday|first5=Bela|date=February 1970|title=On Hungarian Anthropology|url=|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=11|issue=1|pages=61-65|via=JSTOR}}</ref>
+[[Hungary|Hungarian]] anthropology is a defined discipline with its own departments and methods, though there is still overlap between anthropology and other related departments, like history and sociology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keen|first1=Mike|last2=Mucha|first2=Janusz|title=Sociology in Central and Eastern Europe in the 1990s: A Decade of Reconstruction|url=|journal=European Societies|year=2004 |volume=6|issue=2|pages=123–147|doi=10.1080/14616690410001690736 |s2cid=145298512 }}</ref> Hungarian anthropology places a premium on verifying sociological and anthropological results with scientific data.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Bokonyi|first1=Sandor|last2=Hofer|first2=Tamas|last3=Kiszely|first3=Istvan|last4=Szepe|first4=Gyorgy|last5=Maday|first5=Bela|date=February 1970|title=On Hungarian Anthropology|url=|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=11|issue=1|pages=61–65|doi=10.1086/201095 |s2cid=144177362 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
+[[File:Ortutay Gyula (1910-1978) etnográfus.jpg|thumb|
+'''Gyula Ortutay'''
+March 1947 – 25 February 1950
+]]
 In 1963, the ''Ethnographic Research Group'', which was attached to the [[Hungarian Academy of Sciences]] was founded. It was led by [[Gyula Ortutay]] and had twenty-two participating members. The research focused on Hungarian folklore, but the group also looked at peasant economy, social institutions, and Siberian tribal society. If a senior member had an interest outside of Hungary, then that was also a permissible research topic.<ref name=":10" /> Cultural Anthropological departments were established at the [[University of Budapest]] in 1990 and the [[University of Miskolc]] in 1993.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63116730|title=Three social science disciplines in Central and Eastern Europe : handbook on economics, political science and sociology, 1989-2001|date=2002|publisher=Social Science Information Centre (IZ)|others=Kaase, Max., Sparschuh, Vera., Wenninger, Agnieszka., Gesellschaft Sozialwissenschaftlicher Infrastruktureinrichtungen., Collegium Budapest.|isbn=3820601392|location=Berlin|oclc=63116730}}</ref>
@@ Line 77: / Line 79: @@
 Bela C. Maday points out that communication is not a strong suit for Hungarian anthropologists, which makes communicating ideas with core anthropologists, like those from the U.S. or Western Europe, difficult, but there has been much dispute on this point.<ref name=":10" />
-=== “European” Russia ===
+=== Russia ===
+[[File:Russian Academy of Sciences SPB.jpg|thumb|
-* History
+'''[[Russian Academy of Sciences]]'''
-* Notable anthropologists
-* Institutions and organizations and their practices
+in Saint Petersburg
-* Current status of the discipline
+]]
+The beginnings of anthropology in [[Russia]] can be traced back to the establishment of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] under [[Peter the Great]] in 1725.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/156834464|title=Other people's anthropologies : ethnographic practice on the margins|last=Kuznetsov|first=Anatoly M.|date=2008|publisher=Berghahn Books|others=Boskovik, Aleksandar., European Association of Social Anthropologists. Conference (2004 : Vienna, Austria)|isbn=9781845453985|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=20–41|oclc=156834464}}</ref> Following the Academy of Sciences, many museums were also created with the impetus for studying culture, including the Ethnographic Bureau of the [[Russian Geographical Society]] in the mid-19<sup>th</sup> century.<ref name=":02" /> The 1840s also saw the creation of [[physical anthropology]] and [[archaeology]] as sub-disciplines of anthropology.<ref name=":02" /> In 1864 the first university department for anthropology in Russia was created at [[Moscow University]].<ref name=":02" /> The first specialized journal for Russian anthropology, (trans.) The Ethnographic Review ([http://journal.iea.ras.ru/en/index.htm Etnograficheskoe obozrenie]), was created in 1889.<ref name=":02" /> As Russia did not have state-supplemented funding in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, much of the financial support came from aristocrats such as Count [[Aleksey Uvarov]] and Prince V. N. Tenishev.<ref name=":02" />
+[[File:Kunstkamera_(Peter_the_Great_Museum_of_Anthropology_and_Ethnography)_in_Saint_Petersburg_3.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kunstkamera_(Peter_the_Great_Museum_of_Anthropology_and_Ethnography)_in_Saint_Petersburg_3.jpg|thumb|276x276px|'''Kunstkamera''' (Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography) in Saint Petersberg]]
+In the early 20<sup>th</sup> century, St. Petersburg and Moscow would be centers for the development of anthropology—focused on ethnology and ethnography—with the formation of the Department of Ethnology in Leningrad (1928), Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (1924), the publication of the journal ''Ethnography'' (1926), the Anuchin Institute of Anthropology at the University of Moscow (1922), etc. Anthropology in Russia was also influenced by Western anthropological perspectives, such as [[Franz Boas]].
+Following the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] takeover, Russia began to favor ethnology over anthropology. Ethnology was the study of different ethnic groups within the state, which supported the push for homogenization and national unification of the Russian state. [[Marxism|Marxist theory]] replaced Western anthropological theory, and various university departments were closed as Russia experienced an ideological reconstruction.<ref name=":02" /> In the mid-20<sup>th</sup> century, with undercurrents of the [[Cold War]], social and cultural anthropology were rejected from ethnographic study, but ethnography was re-institutionalized and strengthened in universities and institutions across Russia.<ref name=":02" />
-=== Slovakia ===
-* History
-* Notable anthropologists
-* Institutions and organizations and their practices
-* Current status of the discipline
+In the latter half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, Russian ethnography to other parts of the world in which Soviet influence was strong, such as [[Eastern Europe]]. The [[Perestroika]] in 1985 led to another bout of reconstruction for anthropology, and Russian science in general. Institutes were renamed and reconfigured to match this new trend. Social anthropology also began to make a comeback, leading to identity problems for social anthropology as a discipline in a country with such a strong ethnographic tradition that had excluded it for years.<ref name=":02" />
-=== Ukraine ===
-* History
-* Notable anthropologists
-* Institutions and organizations and their practices
-* Current status of the discipline
+The 1990s, a time of great social and political change for Russia with the end of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], were a time for critical introspective views on the recent past.<ref name=":02" /> With this, Russian anthropology turned towards more contemporary interests, where it still is today. Even with these contemporary interests, Russian anthropology still finds itself heavily influenced by the ethnology of its past and attempting to reconcile what it means to be a “social” anthropologist in this environment.<ref name=":02" />{{dashboard.wikiedu.org sandbox}}
-== Sources ==
-* "Cultural and Social Anthropology in Central and Eastern Europe" by Mihaly Sarkany
-* Ribeiro and Escobar on Siberia
-* ''American Anthropologist'' in world section
-* EASA
-* Annual Review of Anthropology by Thomas C. Wolfe
-* AAA under sections
-* “On Hungarian Anthropology” by Sandor Bokonyi
-* SEEHA (Austria)
-* “The Greeks and Anthropology” by Paul Cartledge
-* CAS (Croatia)
-* “Applied Anthropology in Europe” by Dan Podjed
-* “Anthropology of Eastern Europe” by Joel Halpern
-* “Siberia” by Piers Vitebsky
-* "Ethnographic Atlas XXXI: Peoples of Easternmost Europe by Dmitri Bondarenko
-* "Situating Identities: Enacting and Studying Europe at a Russian Elite University" by Martin Muller
-* "Culture all around? Contextualising anthropological expertise in European courtroom settings" by Larissa Vetter
-* "Rethinking Native Anthropology: Migration and Auto-Ethnography in the Post-Accession Europe" by Marta Kempny
-* "Peoples in Flux: Anthropology in and of Europe" by Kathryn Kozaitis
-* "Physical Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology in Europe: History, Current Trends and Challenges" by Márquez-Grant
-* "Global Perspectives" by Alan Maddox
-* "A Concept of Eurasia" by Chris Hann
-* "Theory from the East?" by Don Kalb
-* "'Humanities' (or 'The Unnatural Sciences')" by Michael Wood
-* "History and Anthropology. Special Issue: Politics and Performance in South-Eastern Europe" by Stelu Serban
-* "From Things to Signs: Changing Perspectives in the Study of Material Culture in Europe" by Thomas Schippers
-* "National Minorities in the Soviet Bloc after 1945: New Historical Research in Micro- and Regional Studies" by David Feest
-* "Sociology in Central and Eastern Europe in the 1990s: A Decade of Reconstruction" by Mike Keen
-* "Welcome to the New Europe" by Dominic Boyer
-* Society for the Anthropology of Europe (SAE)
-* "Anthropology and the 'imaginators' of future European universities" by Susan Wright
-* "Physical anthropology in Europe and beyond" by N. Marquez-Grant
-* "Micro, macro, agency: Historical Ethnography as Cultural Anthropology Practice" by Michaela Fenske
-* "Whither Anthropology without Nation-state? Interdisciplinarity, World Anthropologies and Commoditization of Knowledge" by Kacper Poblocki
-* "Current Views of European Anthropologists on Race" Influence of Educational and Ideological Background" by Katarzyna Kaszycka
-* "Talking Culture" by Verena Stolcke
-* "Cultures and Communities in the Anthropology of Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union" by Thomas Wolfe
-* "On Not Moving Well Enough" by Stef Jansen
-* "Anthropological Research on Contemporary Cultural Development: An Invitation to Lublin" by Krzysztof Jaroslaw Brozi
-* “Other People’s Anthropologies” by Aleksander Boskovic (Chapters 1, 5, & 9)
-{{dashboard.wikiedu.org sandbox}}