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m WP:CHECKWIKI error fixes (ISBN syntax fix), replaced: ISBN: → ISBN using AWB (9510)
moved the human anatomy part out of zoology part and gave it a title: it appears to be describing advantage of felted tissue
 
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{{Short description|Biological term}}
'''Felted''' is a term variously applied to hairy or otherwise filamentous material that is densely packed or tangled, forming [[felt]] or felt-like structures. Apart from fibres in felted fabric manufactured by humans, the term "felted" may apply to the condition of hair such as in the pathological condition known as [[Plica neuropathica|felted hair]], or it may apply to the tangled threads of the tissue of certain fungi, to matted fibres in animal connective tissue, or to the felted outer coat of certain plants. To say that something is felted need not imply that any processes of matting, condensing and pressing fibres have been applied as in the processes for artificial production of felt fabric. Depending on the nature of the felted material, it might rely purely on the scaly or barbed texture of the matted fibres to prevent unraveling, but commonly it will include clayey or sticky materials for its structural integrity, or for increased density.
{{For|the fabric|Felt}}
{{Technical|date=December 2022}}
{{Page numbers needed|date=December 2022}}


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[[File:Carder bee - felted nesting materia IMG 0273s.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|Felted plant fibre from nest of a carder bee]]
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==Zoological use of the term==
A '''felted''' material is a hairy or [[Wikt:filamentous|filamentous]] (hairy-like) fibre that is densely packed or tangled, forming [[felt]] or felt-like structures.
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Examples of the description of animal tissues as "felted" include classes of [[connective tissue]] such as the [[dermis]] which the classic [[Gray's Anatomy]] describes as: "felted connective tissue, with a varying amount of elastic fibers and numerous bloodvessels, lymphatics, and nerves." Also, in describing the external coat or ''[[Tunica externa (vessels)|tunica adventitia]]'' of an artery, Gray says: "...consists mainly of fine and closely felted bundles of white connective tissue..."<ref name= "GraysAn">Gray, Henry. Anatomy of the Human Body. 20th ed. Revised by Lewis, Warren H. 1918. May be downloaded from http://archive.org/details/anatomyofhumanbo1918gray</ref> In such classes of connective tissue the felted structure is very important; it is versatile in resisting tearing by distributing localised [[Stress (mechanics)|stresses]] and it imparts strength together with [[Shock (mechanics)|shock]] absorption and [[Elastic modulus|elasticity]] in two or three dimensions at once, irrespective of the shape of the tissue.<ref>Vogel, Steven. Cats' Paws and Catapults. Chapter 5. Penguin 1999. ISBN 0-14-027733-1</ref> In other words, suitable types of felting can yield controllable [[isotropy]] or [[anisotropy]] in the behaviour of a structure.<ref name= "GordStruc">Gordon, J. E. Structures, or Why Things Don't Fall Down. Publisher: Da Capo 2003. ISBN 978-0306812835</ref>


==Advantages of felted tissue==
[[File:Haare-kutikula.png|thumb|left|Drawing of cuticular surfaces of hairs of dog, cat, and human (left to right). The surface texture affects the felting behaviour of the various hair types]]
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The [[dermis]] is described in [[Gray's Anatomy]] as "felted connective tissue, with a varying amount of elastic fibers and numerous blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves."<ref name= "GraysAn"/>{{Page needed|date=December 2022|reason=Quotation must have a detailed citation directly next to it.}} When describing the external coat of an artery (the ''[[Tunica externa (vessels)|tunica adventitia]]''), Gray said that it "...consists mainly of fine and closely felted bundles of white connective tissue..."<ref name= "GraysAn">{{Cite book | last = Gray | first = Henry | author-link = Henry Gray | date = 1918 | title = Anatomy of the Human Body | url = https://archive.org/details/anatomyofhumanbo1918gray | edition = 20th | others = Revised by [[Warren Harmon Lewis|Warren H. Lewis]] | publisher = Lea & Febiger | location = Philadelphia | language = en | access-date = 27 December 2022 | via = [[Internet Archive]] }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=December 2022|reason=Quotation must have a detailed citation directly next to it.}} In such classes of [[connective tissue]] the felted structure helps with resistance to tearing by distributing localised [[Stress (mechanics)|stresses]], and it imparts [[Shock (mechanics)|shock]] absorption and [[Elastic modulus|elasticity]] in two or three dimensions at once regardless of the shape of the tissue.<ref name="Vogel">{{Cite book | last = Vogel | first = Steven | author-link = Steven Vogel | date = 2000 | chapter = Chapter 5: The Stiff and the Soft | title = Cats' Paws And Catapults: Mechanical Worlds Of Nature And People | publisher = Penguin | isbn = 978-0140277333 | language = en }}</ref> In other words, certain types of felting can yield{{Vague|date=December 2022}} controllable [[isotropy]] or [[anisotropy]] in the behaviour of a structure.<ref name= "GordStruc">{{Cite book | last = Gordon | first = J. E. | author-link = J. E. Gordon | date = 2003 | title = Structures, Or Why Things Don't Fall Down | publisher = Da Capo | isbn = 978-0306812835 | language = en }}</ref>
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[[File:Down Awn and guard hairs of cat 2012 11 13 9203r.JPG|thumb|Down (woolly) hair, awn hair and guard hair of domestic cat (left to right).]]
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[[File:Carder bee - felted nesting materia IMG 0273s.JPG|thumb|left|Felted plant fibre from nest of a Southern African carder bee]]


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==Zoology<span class="anchor" id="Zoological use of the term"></span>==
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Other examples of felted material in animal structures include fibrous structures coating the [[integument]] of some insects. Usually such a felted coating is not living tissue, but consists of waxy fibres and is not particularly strong, but serves as protection from either excessive desiccation or moisture. It is particularly common in some families of the [[Hemiptera]]. In some species it occurs only as an outer coat of the immature insect, but in others, such as many of the [[Coccoidea]], including the "Australian bug", ''[[Icerya purchasi]]'' and [[cochineal]], ''Dactylopius'' species, it is secreted throughout the life of the insect and serves largely to protect the eggs rather than the insect.<ref name= "isbn1-86872-713-0">{{cite book |author=Alan Weaving; Mike Picker; Griffiths, Charles Llewellyn |title=Field Guide to Insects of South Africa |publisher=New Holland Publishers, Ltd |location= |year=2003 |pages= |isbn=1-86872-713-0 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> In other species, such as many of the "woolly aphids", the [[Eriosomatinae]], the most spectacular fluff is borne on the adult insect itself.<ref>Costa, James T. The Other Insect Societies. Chapter 9. Publisher: Belknap Press 2006. ISBN 978-0674021631</ref>
{{See also|Nest}}


===Mammals===
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The distinction between felted and other fibrous materials is not always sharp. For example, although truly felted hair on healthy mammals is unusual, many animals, especially in seasonally cold or wet climates or environments, often have a so-called undercoat of [[Coat (animal)|down hair]] plus [[awn hair]] that usually lies hidden beneath the outer coat of guard hairs,<ref>Robinson, Roy. Genetics for Cat Breeders. Pergamon 1977. ISBN 0-08-021209-3</ref> and may form a mat of lightly felted wool. Such down hairs as a rule are crimped into a finely woolly texture and contain waxy, water-repellent [[lanolin]]; in a mass they serve to retain insulating air and exclude water. In many species that live in seasonally frigid zones the winter down hair is shed in clumps during springtime. This is exploited in species such as the muskox; herders collect the wool for commercial purposes without any need for shearing.<ref>Feldhamer, George A. Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology. Publisher: The Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 978-0801886959</ref>
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[[File:Down Awn and guard hairs of cat 2012 11 13 9203r.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|Down (woolly) hair, awn hair and guard hair of domestic cat (left to right).]]
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Although truly felted hair on healthy mammals is unusual, many animals, especially in seasonally cold or wet climates or environments, have a so-called undercoat of [[Coat (animal)|down hair]] plus [[awn hair]] that usually lies hidden beneath the outer coat of guard hairs<ref name="Robinson">{{Cite book | last = Robinson | first = Roy | date = 1977 | title = Genetics for Cat Breeders | publisher = Pergamon | isbn = 0-08-021209-3 | language = en }}</ref> and may form a mat of lightly felted wool. Such down hairs as a rule are crimped into a finely woolly texture and contain waxy, water-repellent [[lanolin]]. In a mass they serve to retain insulating air and exclude water. In many species that live in seasonally frigid zones the winter down hair is shed in clumps during springtime. Herders can collect the wool for commercial purposes without the need for shearing.<ref name="Feldhamer">{{Cite book | last = Feldhamer | first = George A. | title = Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology | date = 7 September 2007 | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University | isbn = 978-0801886959 | language = en }}</ref>


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The ground-dwelling mice species of the genus ''[[Mus (genus)|Mus]]'' in parts of Africa build spherical nests of assorted fibres in burrows or under large flat objects.{{cn|date=December 2022}} Rabbits, in particular ''[[Sylvilagus]]'' species, use their own fur as a major component of their nesting material.<ref name="LongCA">{{Cite book | last = Long | first = Charles A. | date = 2008 | title = The Wild Mammals of Wisconsin (Faunistica) | publisher = Pensoft Publishers | isbn = 978-9546423139 | language = en }}</ref> The [[least weasel]] (''Mustela nivalis''), a predatory mammal, collects fur from its prey or occupies prey nests already lined; the fur forms a felted nest lining.<ref name="HartleyHTJ">{{Cite book | last = Jackson | first = Hartley H. T. | date = 1961 | title = Mammals of Wisconsin | publisher = University of Wisconsin | isbn = 978-0299021504 | language = en }}</ref>
===Felting activities of animals===
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Many species of animals actively employ felting behaviour in preparing shelters for themselves or their young. It is not always possible to tell when such felting is purely incidental, but many species show behaviour patterns clearly adapted to the production of felted material suited to shelter and protection. The linings of nests of small rodents and small carnivores are common examples; some mice for example, such as ground-dwelling ''Mus'' species in parts of Africa build spherical nests of assorted fibres in burrows or under large flat objects. Some, such as various species of rabbit, in particular ''[[Sylvilagus]]'' species, use their own fur as a major component of their nesting material.<ref name="LongCA">Long, Charles A. The Wild Mammals of Wisconsin (Faunistica). Pensoft Publishers 2008. ISBN 978-9546423139</ref> Small predatory mammals such the least weasel largely collect fur from their prey, or occupy prey nests ready lined; such fur commonly forms a felted nest lining.<ref name="HartleyHTJ">Jackson, Hartley H.T. et al. Mammals of Wisconsin. Publisher: University of Wisconsin 1961. ISBN 978-0299021504</ref>


===Birds===
[[File:Common eider nest.JPG|thumb|Common eider nest, with the eggs deep in the loosely-piled down.]]
[[File:Common eider nest.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|[[Common eider]] (''Somateria mollissima'') nest, with the eggs deep in the loosely piled down]]
Birds vary enormously in the nests they make and the materials they use. Among those that use fibres and fibrous materials such as grass for nesting, many tend to weave the nests, but even nests that initially are purely woven, such as those of weaver birds, later are lined with downy materials that largely become felted, both with each other and with the surrounding nest material. Similarly birds such as sparrows, that build large, twiggy nests, line them with downy material. Many kinds of birds however do little weaving in building their nests, but instead construct their nests mainly of fibrous and downy materials such as fine wool, moss, lichen, spiders' nests, tufts of cotton, [[Arachnoid (botany)|arachnoid]] fluff from plants, or bark scales, supported by twigs or the walls of burrows and the like, depending on the circumstances within which they nest. [[James Rennie]] remarked: "A circumstance also never neglected, is to bind the nest firmly into the forks of the bush where it is placed, by twining bands of moss, felted with wool, round all the contiguous branches, both below and at the sides. During the nesting season such birds commonly become such avid seekers of suitable materials that down feathers or tufts of wool may be used as bait for trapping them. Birds that concentrate heavily on felted nests include goldfinches (''[[Carduelis]]'' species) and related species. Hummingbirds tend to use a lot of spiderweb together with moss and similar material. Small warbler-like birds of many genera such as [[Prinia]] and [[Cisticola]] make their nests either heavily lined with, or entirely of felted material.<ref name="RennieNHB">Rennie, James. Natural history of birds : their architecture habits and faculties. Chapter VIII. New York : Harper 1845 May be downloaded from: http://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof00renn</ref><ref>Phil Hockey; Peter Ryan; Richard Dean. Roberts Birds of Southern Africa. Publisher: John Voelcker Bird Book Fund. 2005 ISBN 9780620340533</ref> Ground nesting birds often use felted material rather than woven; it usually suffices and some of the structures can be deceptively sophisticated. For example the [[common eider]], famous for the valuable down harvested from its abandoned nests, lays its eggs in very lightly felted bowls of its own down; simple though this seems, the thick, soft layer provides exceptional insulation.
Weaver birds of the family [[Ploceidae]] weave nests that are lined with downy materials that become felted, both with each other and with the surrounding nest material. Sparrows build twiggy nests and line them with downy material. Other birds{{which?|date=December 2022}} do little weaving in building their nests but instead construct their nests mainly of fibrous and downy materials such as fine wool, moss, lichen, spiders' nests, tufts of cotton, [[Arachnoid (botany)|arachnoid]] fluff, or bark scales, that are supported by twigs or the walls of burrows. Naturalist [[James Rennie (naturalist)|James Rennie]] remarked, "A circumstance also never neglected, is to bind the nest firmly into the forks of the bush where it is placed, by twining bands of moss, felted with wool, round all the contiguous branches, both below and at the sides."{{Citation needed|date=December 2022|reason=Quotation must have a citation directly next to it.}} {{Clarify span|date=December 2022|text=During the nesting season such birds commonly become such avid seekers of suitable materials that down feathers or tufts of wool may be used as bait for trapping them.|reason=Confusing sentence}} Goldfinches (''[[Carduelis]]'' species) make felted nests. [[Hummingbird]]s do the same with spider webs and moss. Small warbler-like birds of the genera ''[[Prinia]]'' and ''[[Cisticola]]'' make their nests either heavily lined with, or entirely of, felted material.<ref name="RennieNHB">{{Cite book | last = Rennie | first = James | author-link = James Rennie (naturalist) | date = 1845 | chapter = Chapter VIII | title = Natural History of Birds: Their Aarchitecture Habits and Faculties | location = New York | publisher = Harper | url = https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof00renn | language = en | via = [[Internet Archive]] }}</ref><ref name="HockeyRyanDean">{{Cite book | last1 = Hockey | first1 = Phil | author-link1 = Phil Hockey | last2 = Ryan | first2 = Peter | last3 = Dean | first3 = Richard | date = 2005 | title = Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa | publisher = John Voelcker Bird Book Fund | isbn = 9780620340533 | language = en }}</ref> Ground nesting birds often use felted material rather than woven. For example, the [[common eider]] (''Somateria mollissima''), famous for the valuable down harvested from its abandoned nests, lays its eggs in very lightly felted bowls of its own down for insulation.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}


===Invertebrates===
===Invertebrates===
[[File:Icerya purchasi 1.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|A cottony cushion scale (''[[Icerya purchasi]]'') female rests on her fibrous waxy protection for the eggs.]]
[[File:Phyllaphis fagi infestation.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Phyllaphis fagi]]'', Eriosomatinae, woolly beech aphid on a leaf.]]
[[File:Icerya purchasi 1.JPG|thumb|Australian bug female on her fibrous waxy protection for the eggs.]]
[[File:Cochenille z02.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|In [[cochineal]] females, the white waxy fibre does not cover the insect, but rather the eggs.]]
[[File:Cochenille z02.jpg|thumb|Cochineal females. Note that the white waxy fibre does not cover the insect, but rather the eggs.]]
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[[File:Ctenizidae Cork-lid Trapdoor spider dwelling IMG 4025s.JPG|thumb|left|Spider trapdoor of silk and clay]]
Various insects also create felted materials, generally forming part of the shelter for their young. [[Burying beetle]]s are known for stripping the fur or feathers from the carcasses that they prepare for their young, and using the material to line and reinforce the crypt that they dig.<ref name="Burtons">Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert. International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Publisher: Marshall Cavendish 2002. ISBN 978-0761472698</ref> it is however unclear whether this habit is anything more than incidental, and also how relatively important it is in the different species of the genus. As long ago as the 19th century at least, [[Jean-Henri Fabre]] demonstrated that the species that he investigated most certainly did not depend on feathered or hairy food items, being quite able to utilise reptiles and amphibians and fishes.<ref>Fabre, Jean-Henri. Tr. Teixeira de Mattos, Alexander. The glow-worm and other beetles Publisher: New York : Dodd, Mead and Company, 1919</ref> However, there is no doubt about the use of felted fibre by various species of bees, in particular, those members of the [[Megachilidae]] that are known as carder bees build their nests mainly of plant fibre collected from [[Arachnoid (botany)|arachnoid]] plants, though they also might add fibre from other sources, such as animal wool. The sheer amount of the material that they gather often is startling, bearing in mind that the species of bees are not at all large.<ref name= "JHFBB">Fabre, Jean-Henri; Translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos; The Bramble-bees and others; Pub: Dodd, Mead, New York, 1915. Download from: http://archive.org/details/bramblebeesother00fabr</ref>


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The [[integument]] of some insects can be coated with a felted material. It is not usually living tissue but consists of waxy fibres that serve as protection from either excessive desiccation or moisture. It is common in some families of the [[Hemiptera]] (true bugs). In some species it occurs only as an outer coat of the immature insect, but in others, such as many of the [[Coccoidea]], including the cottony cushion scale ''[[Icerya purchasi]]'' and the [[cochineal]] of genus ''[[Dactylopius]]'', it is secreted throughout the life of the insect and serves largely to protect the eggs rather than the insect itself.<ref name= "WeavingPickerGriffiths">{{Cite book | last1 = Picker | first1 = Mike | last2 = Griffiths | first2 = Charles | last3= Weaving | first3 = Alan | date = 2003 | title = Field Guide to Insects of South Africa | publisher = New Holland Books | isbn = 978-1868727131 | language = en }}</ref> In other species, such as many of the woolly aphids of subfamily [[Eriosomatinae]], the most fluff is borne on the adult insect.<ref name="Costa">{{Cite book | last = Costa | first = James T. | date = 2006 | chapter = Chapter 9 | title = The Other Insect Societies | publisher = Belknap Press | isbn = 978-0674021631 | language = en }}</ref>
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Some invertebrates other than insects construct felted structures. Among those spiders are the most conspicuous. Many or most spider egg cases are partly or largely felted silk as well as woven or wound. The lids of various species of [[trapdoor spider]] burrows vary in their construction, but they are largely of earth and similar material reinforced with partly felted silk.


[[Burying beetle]]s of genus ''Nicrophorus'' are known for stripping the fur or feathers from the carcasses that they prepare for their young, then using the material to line and reinforce the crypt that they dig.<ref name="Burtons">{{Cite book | last1 = Burton | first1 = Maurice | author-link1 = Maurice Burton | last2 = Burton | first2 = Robert | date = 2002 | title = International Wildlife Encyclopedia | publisher = Marshall Cavendish | isbn = 978-0761472698 | language = en }}</ref> It is unclear if this habit is incidental or how important it is to the species. French naturalist and entomologist [[Jean-Henri Fabre]] demonstrated that the species he investigated did not depend on feathered or hairy food items and were capable of using reptiles, amphibians and fish.<ref name="Fabre1919">{{Cite book | last = Fabre | first = Jean-Henri | author-link = Jean-Henri Fabre | others = Translated by [[Alexander Teixeira de Mattos]] | title = The glow-worm and other beetles | url = https://archive.org/details/glowwormotherbee00fabr/ | publisher = Dodd, Mead and Company | location = New York | date = 1919 | language = en | via = [[Internet Archive]] }}</ref>
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==Botanical use of the term==
[[File:Oldenburgia grandis Emerging felted bud IMG 5837.JPG|thumb|left|''[[Oldenburgia grandis]]'' leaves are felted when emerging from the bud, but lose their covering as they mature]]
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[[File:Jardin des plantes Paris Cephalocereus senilis.JPG|thumb|left|''Cephalocereus senilis'', showing felted radial spines]]
[[File:Senecio haworthii Felted leaves 2012 07 19 7536.JPG|thumb|''[[Senecio haworthii]]'' has permanently felted leaves]]
In botanical terminology "felted" typically is defined in terms such as "matted with intertwined hairs".<ref name= "BotGloss">Jackson, Benjamin, Daydon; A Glossary of Botanic Terms with their Derivation and Accent; Published by Gerald Duckworth & Co. London, 4th ed 1928</ref> However, plants may be covered in several different ways, and several different terms have been coined to describe them. Not all textbooks use the same terms, or use them in the same way. The term "felted" is commonly used in describing any part of a plant covered with dense white fur, whether tangled or not. Part of the reason is the fact that plants themselves very so much that there seldom is much practical value to trying to be too precise; for example there is no clear boundary to separate terms such as "felt(ed)", "[[Arachnoid (botany)|arachnoid]]", "[[indumentum]]" and "[[tomentose]]" and usages vary.


Carder bees of family [[Megachilidae]] build their nests using fibre collected from [[Arachnoid (botany)|arachnoid]] plants, and possibly fibre from other sources such as animal wool.<ref name= "JHFBB">{{Cite book | last = Fabre | first = Jean-Henri | author-link = Jean-Henri Fabre | others = Translated by [[Alexander Teixeira de Mattos]] | date = 1915 | title = The Bramble-bees and others | url = https://archive.org/details/bramblebeesother00fabr/ | publisher = Dodd, Mead and Company | location = New York | language = en | via = [[Internet Archive]] }}</ref>
In botany, as opposed to mycology, "felted" seldom refers to internal tissues, but rather to furriness on the outside of leaves or stems. The function of the covering is always protective, sometimes against grazing or browsing animals, sometimes against wind or windblown sand, sometimes against intense sunshine or ultraviolet, and sometimes against drought and desiccation. Two illustrative examples are: ''Oldenburgia grandis'', and ''Senecio haworthii''. The former is a tree that grows in moderately harsh circumstances, but with a reasonable amount of seasonal rain. Its leaves are large, being broad and typically about 30&nbsp;cm long. While growing to their full size they are vulnerable, so it is quite plausible that being felted protects them from browsers, ultraviolet, drought, and heat. Once their tissues have hardened and become rich in fibre and tannins, they can afford to lose their felt. In this respect they resemble many other plants whose leaves pass through vulnerable phases as they mature, though not all strategies are based on felt.


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[[File:Ctenizidae Cork-lid Trapdoor spider dwelling IMG 4025s.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|Spider trapdoor of silk and clay]]
''Senecio haworthii'' grows under far more dramatically arid conditions than ''Oldenburgia''; its native habitat also is hotter and with a higher irradiation intensity. The plant is fairly poisonous, so it is not much browsed, though some caterpillars will eat its succulent leaves. Accordingly its need for protection does not change much at any time of the year and some leaves will survive for several years, retaining their felting throughout.
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Spider egg cases are partly or largely felted silk. The lids of various species of [[List of trapdoor spiders|trapdoor spider]] burrows vary in their construction, but they are largely of earth and similar material reinforced with partly felted silk.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}


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==Botany<span class="anchor" id="Botanical use of the term"></span>==
In ''[[Cephalocereus senilis]]'' (old man cactus) radial spines grow into a tangled coating of spectacular white hair that conceal both the green tissue and the formidable sharp central spines beneath. It is only marginally felted, but forms a powerful simultaneous protection against intense radiation, wind, frost, and herbivores of various sizes.<ref>Mauseth, James D. Structure–Function Relationships in Highly Modified Shoots of Cactaceae. Annals of Botany 98: 901–926, 2006 doi:10.1093/aob/mcl133, available online at www.aob.oxfordjournals.org</ref> The woolly masses of fibres on such cacti have been used as stuffing for pillows and for similar applications.<ref>Powell, A. Michael, Weedin, James F. Cacti of the Trans-Pecos and Adjacent Areas. Publisher: Texas Tech University Press 2004. ISBN 978-0896725317</ref>
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[[File:Jardin des plantes Paris Cephalocereus senilis.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|''[[Cephalocereus senilis]]'' (old man cactus) showing felted radial spines]]


In botany, ''felted'' is defined as "matted with intertwined hairs".<ref name= "BotGloss">{{Cite book | last = Jackson | first = Benjamin Daydon | author-link = Benjamin Daydon Jackson | date = 1928 | title = A Glossary of Botanic Terms with their Derivation and Accent | url = https://archive.org/details/glossaryofbotani1928jack | publisher = Gerald Duckworth & Co. | location = London | edition = 4th | language = en | access-date = 27 December 2022 | via = [[Biodiversity Heritage Library]] }}</ref> A felted covering is protective against grazing or browsing, wind, windblown sand, ultraviolet radiation, drought, and desiccation.{{Cn|date=December 2022}} An example is ''[[Cephalocereus senilis]]'' (old man cactus), which has radial spines that grow into a tangled coating of white hair, concealing the green tissue and the spines. The felt forms a protection against intense radiation, wind, frost, and herbivores.<ref name="Mauseth">{{Cite journal | last = Mauseth | first = James D. | author-link = James D. Mauseth | date = 2006 | title = Structure–Function Relationships in Highly Modified Shoots of Cactaceae | url = https://academic.oup.com/aob/article/98/5/901/197087 | journal = Annals of Botany | volume = 98 | issue = 5 | pages = 901–926 | doi = 10.1093/aob/mcl133 | pmid = 16820405 | pmc = 2803597 | doi-access = free | language = en }}</ref> The woolly masses of fibres on such cacti have been used as stuffing for pillows.<ref name="PowellWeedin">{{Cite book | last1 = Powell | first1 = A. Michael | last2 = Weedin | first2 = James F. | date = 2004 | title = Cacti of the Trans-Pecos and Adjacent Areas | publisher = Texas Tech University Press | isbn = 978-0896725317 | language = en }}</ref>
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==Mycological use of the term==

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[[File:Amanita muscaria G2.jpg|thumb|Amanita muscaria growing through the volva, the remnant felted tissue forming spots on the surface]]
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==Mycology<span class="anchor" id="Mycological use of the term"></span>==
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Most fungal tissue is filamentous; its very nature predisposes it to grow into tangles that lend themselves to felting. Whereas vascular plants seldom have cells that grow into forms that can form massive tangles, fungi hardly can form tissues at all except by tangling and felting their [[hypha]]l filaments. Practically every mass of mushroom tissue, including cords and membranes, is formed of [[Anastomosis|anastomosed]] and felted hyphae. The picturesque spots on the caps of ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'' consist of felted patches of remnant tissue from the [[Volva (mycology)|volva]].<ref name=">Moore, David. Robson, Geoffrey D. Trinci, Anthony P. J. 21st Century Guidebook to Fungi. Publisher: Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0521186957</ref>
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[[File:Amanita muscaria G2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|''Amanita muscaria'' growing through the volva, the remnant felted tissue forming spots on the surface]]
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Most fungal tissue is filamentous, predisposing it to grow into tangles that lend themselves to felting. {{Clarify span|text=Whereas vascular plants seldom have cells that grow into forms that can form massive tangles, fungi hardly can form tissues at all except by tangling and felting their [[hypha]]l filaments.|reason=This sentence is convoluted and hard to follow; simplify.|date=December 2022}} Most mushroom tissue, including cords and membranes, is formed of [[Anastomosis|anastomosed]] and felted hyphae. The spots on the caps of ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'' consist of felted patches of remnant tissue from the [[Volva (mycology)|volva]].<ref name="MooreRobsonTrinci">{{Cite book | last1 = Moore | first1 = David | last2 = Robson | first2 = Geoffrey D. | last3 = Trinci | first3 = Anthony P. J. | date = 2011 | title = 21st Century Guidebook to Fungi | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0521186957 | language = en }}</ref>


==References==
==References==
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[[Category:Human hair]]
[[Category:Insect morphology]]
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[[Category:Plant morphology]]

Latest revision as of 01:08, 31 December 2022

For the fabric, see Felt.
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Felted plant fibre from nest of a carder bee

A felted material is a hairy or filamentous (hairy-like) fibre that is densely packed or tangled, forming felt or felt-like structures.

Advantages of felted tissue

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The dermis is described in Gray's Anatomy as "felted connective tissue, with a varying amount of elastic fibers and numerous blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves."[1][page needed] When describing the external coat of an artery (the tunica adventitia), Gray said that it "...consists mainly of fine and closely felted bundles of white connective tissue..."[1][page needed] In such classes of connective tissue the felted structure helps with resistance to tearing by distributing localised stresses, and it imparts shock absorption and elasticity in two or three dimensions at once regardless of the shape of the tissue.[2] In other words, certain types of felting can yield[vague] controllable isotropy or anisotropy in the behaviour of a structure.[3]

Zoology

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See also: Nest

Mammals

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Down (woolly) hair, awn hair and guard hair of domestic cat (left to right).

Although truly felted hair on healthy mammals is unusual, many animals, especially in seasonally cold or wet climates or environments, have a so-called undercoat of down hair plus awn hair that usually lies hidden beneath the outer coat of guard hairs[4] and may form a mat of lightly felted wool. Such down hairs as a rule are crimped into a finely woolly texture and contain waxy, water-repellent lanolin. In a mass they serve to retain insulating air and exclude water. In many species that live in seasonally frigid zones the winter down hair is shed in clumps during springtime. Herders can collect the wool for commercial purposes without the need for shearing.[5]

The ground-dwelling mice species of the genus Mus in parts of Africa build spherical nests of assorted fibres in burrows or under large flat objects.[citation needed] Rabbits, in particular Sylvilagus species, use their own fur as a major component of their nesting material.[6] The least weasel (Mustela nivalis), a predatory mammal, collects fur from its prey or occupies prey nests already lined; the fur forms a felted nest lining.[7]

Birds

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Common eider (Somateria mollissima) nest, with the eggs deep in the loosely piled down

Weaver birds of the family Ploceidae weave nests that are lined with downy materials that become felted, both with each other and with the surrounding nest material. Sparrows build twiggy nests and line them with downy material. Other birds[which?] do little weaving in building their nests but instead construct their nests mainly of fibrous and downy materials such as fine wool, moss, lichen, spiders' nests, tufts of cotton, arachnoid fluff, or bark scales, that are supported by twigs or the walls of burrows. Naturalist James Rennie remarked, "A circumstance also never neglected, is to bind the nest firmly into the forks of the bush where it is placed, by twining bands of moss, felted with wool, round all the contiguous branches, both below and at the sides."[citation needed] During the nesting season such birds commonly become such avid seekers of suitable materials that down feathers or tufts of wool may be used as bait for trapping them.[clarify] Goldfinches (Carduelis species) make felted nests. Hummingbirds do the same with spider webs and moss. Small warbler-like birds of the genera Prinia and Cisticola make their nests either heavily lined with, or entirely of, felted material.[8][9] Ground nesting birds often use felted material rather than woven. For example, the common eider (Somateria mollissima), famous for the valuable down harvested from its abandoned nests, lays its eggs in very lightly felted bowls of its own down for insulation.[citation needed]

Invertebrates

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A cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) female rests on her fibrous waxy protection for the eggs.
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In cochineal females, the white waxy fibre does not cover the insect, but rather the eggs.

The integument of some insects can be coated with a felted material. It is not usually living tissue but consists of waxy fibres that serve as protection from either excessive desiccation or moisture. It is common in some families of the Hemiptera (true bugs). In some species it occurs only as an outer coat of the immature insect, but in others, such as many of the Coccoidea, including the cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi and the cochineal of genus Dactylopius, it is secreted throughout the life of the insect and serves largely to protect the eggs rather than the insect itself.[10] In other species, such as many of the woolly aphids of subfamily Eriosomatinae, the most fluff is borne on the adult insect.[11]

Burying beetles of genus Nicrophorus are known for stripping the fur or feathers from the carcasses that they prepare for their young, then using the material to line and reinforce the crypt that they dig.[12] It is unclear if this habit is incidental or how important it is to the species. French naturalist and entomologist Jean-Henri Fabre demonstrated that the species he investigated did not depend on feathered or hairy food items and were capable of using reptiles, amphibians and fish.[13]

Carder bees of family Megachilidae build their nests using fibre collected from arachnoid plants, and possibly fibre from other sources such as animal wool.[14]

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Spider trapdoor of silk and clay

Spider egg cases are partly or largely felted silk. The lids of various species of trapdoor spider burrows vary in their construction, but they are largely of earth and similar material reinforced with partly felted silk.[citation needed]

Botany

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Cephalocereus senilis (old man cactus) showing felted radial spines

In botany, felted is defined as "matted with intertwined hairs".[15] A felted covering is protective against grazing or browsing, wind, windblown sand, ultraviolet radiation, drought, and desiccation.[citation needed] An example is Cephalocereus senilis (old man cactus), which has radial spines that grow into a tangled coating of white hair, concealing the green tissue and the spines. The felt forms a protection against intense radiation, wind, frost, and herbivores.[16] The woolly masses of fibres on such cacti have been used as stuffing for pillows.[17]

Mycology

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refer to caption
Amanita muscaria growing through the volva, the remnant felted tissue forming spots on the surface

Most fungal tissue is filamentous, predisposing it to grow into tangles that lend themselves to felting. Whereas vascular plants seldom have cells that grow into forms that can form massive tangles, fungi hardly can form tissues at all except by tangling and felting their hyphal filaments.[clarify] Most mushroom tissue, including cords and membranes, is formed of anastomosed and felted hyphae. The spots on the caps of Amanita muscaria consist of felted patches of remnant tissue from the volva.[18]

References

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  1. ^ a b Gray, Henry (1918). Anatomy of the Human Body. Revised by Warren H. Lewis (20th ed.). Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. Retrieved 27 December 2022 – via Internet Archive.
  2. ^ Vogel, Steven (2000). "Chapter 5: The Stiff and the Soft". Cats' Paws And Catapults: Mechanical Worlds Of Nature And People. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140277333.
  3. ^ Gordon, J. E. (2003). Structures, Or Why Things Don't Fall Down. Da Capo. ISBN 978-0306812835.
  4. ^ Robinson, Roy (1977). Genetics for Cat Breeders. Pergamon. ISBN 0-08-021209-3.
  5. ^ Feldhamer, George A. (7 September 2007). Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology. The Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 978-0801886959.
  6. ^ Long, Charles A. (2008). The Wild Mammals of Wisconsin (Faunistica). Pensoft Publishers. ISBN 978-9546423139.
  7. ^ Jackson, Hartley H. T. (1961). Mammals of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin. ISBN 978-0299021504.
  8. ^ Rennie, James (1845). "Chapter VIII". Natural History of Birds: Their Aarchitecture Habits and Faculties. New York: Harper – via Internet Archive.
  9. ^ Hockey, Phil; Ryan, Peter; Dean, Richard (2005). Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa. John Voelcker Bird Book Fund. ISBN 9780620340533.
  10. ^ Picker, Mike; Griffiths, Charles; Weaving, Alan (2003). Field Guide to Insects of South Africa. New Holland Books. ISBN 978-1868727131.
  11. ^ Costa, James T. (2006). "Chapter 9". The Other Insect Societies. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0674021631.
  12. ^ Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0761472698.
  13. ^ Fabre, Jean-Henri (1919). The glow-worm and other beetles. Translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company – via Internet Archive.
  14. ^ Fabre, Jean-Henri (1915). The Bramble-bees and others. Translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company – via Internet Archive.
  15. ^ Jackson, Benjamin Daydon (1928). A Glossary of Botanic Terms with their Derivation and Accent (4th ed.). London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Retrieved 27 December 2022 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  16. ^ Mauseth, James D. (2006). "Structure–Function Relationships in Highly Modified Shoots of Cactaceae". Annals of Botany. 98 (5): 901–926. doi:10.1093/aob/mcl133. PMC 2803597. PMID 16820405.
  17. ^ Powell, A. Michael; Weedin, James F. (2004). Cacti of the Trans-Pecos and Adjacent Areas. Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 978-0896725317.
  18. ^ Moore, David; Robson, Geoffrey D.; Trinci, Anthony P. J. (2011). 21st Century Guidebook to Fungi. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521186957.
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