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Music archaeology is an interdisciplinary field of study that combines musicology and archaeology. As it includes the study of music from various cultures, it is often considered to be a subfield of ethnomusicology.

Definitions

According to music archaeologist Adje Both, "In its broadest sense, music archaeology is the study of the phenomenon of past musical behaviours and sounds."^[2] Music archaeologists often combine methods from musicology and archaeology. A theoretical and methodological foundation has yet to be established, and remains one of the main areas of interest for the international community of researchers.^[3]

Research goals in the field include the study of artifacts relevant to the reconstruction of ancient music, such as sound-producing devices, representations of musical scenes, and textual evidence. The archaeological analysis and documentation of such artifacts, including their dating, description, and analysis of their origin and cultural context, can improve understanding of the usage of an instrument and can sometimes enable reconstruction of functional replicas. Textual study may involve the investigation of early musical notations and literary sources.

The field has also expanded to include neurophysiological, biological, and psychological research examining the prerequisites for music production in humans.

History

One of the first attempts to join the two distinct disciplines of musicology and archaeology took place at the conference of the International Musicological Society at Berkeley in 1977. One of the round tables was designated "Music and Archaeology", to which were invited specialists to discuss the musical remains of ancient cultures: Bathia Bayer (Israel), Charles Boilès (Mexico), Ellen Hickmann (Egypt), David Liang (China), Cajsa S. Lund (Sweden). The main stimulus for this session was the sensational discovery of an ancient Mesopotamian musical system by Anne D. Kilmer, an Assyriologist in Berkeley. On the basis of this discovery, excavated from Ugarit, she was able to advance a decipherment and transcription into Western notation of a late Bronze Age hymn in the Hurrian language, which contained notation based on the Mesopotamian system. Prior to the conference a replica of a Sumerian lyre had been made, with the help of musicologist Richard L. Crocker (Berkeley) and instrument maker Robert Brown, and Kilmer's version of the Hurrian hymn had been recorded and released, accompanied by a carefully prepared commentary, as Sounds from Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near Eastern Music (LP with information booklet, Bit Enki Publications, Berkeley, 1976). At the round table in Berkeley, Kilmer explained their method of reconstruction and demonstrated the resulting sound. This was the starting point of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology, officially founded within the International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM) in Seoul/Korea in 1981, and recognized by the ICTM in New York in 1983 following its first meeting on current music-archaeological research in Cambridge/UK in 1982.

The ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology went on to hold international conferences in Stockholm (1984), Hannover/Wolfenbüttel (1986), Saint Germain-en-Laye (1990), Liège (1992), Istanbul (1993), Jerusalem (1994/1995, together with the ICTM-Study Group for Iconography), and Limassol, Cyprus (1996). These meetings resulted in comprehensive conference reports.

The International Study Group on Music Archaeology (ISGMA) has been founded by Ellen Hickmann and Ricardo Eichmann in 1998. The Study Group emerged from the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology with the objective to obtain closer cooperation with archaeologists. Since then, the ISGMA has worked continuously with the German Archaeological Institute, Berlin (DAI, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Berlin). A new series called "Studien zur Musikarchäologie" was created as a sub-series of "Orient-Archäologie" to present the conference reports of the ISGMA, and to integrate music-archaeological monographs independent of the Study Group's meetings; it is published by the Orient Department of the DAI through the Verlag Marie Leidorf. Between 1998 and 2004, conferences of ISGMA were held every two years at Michaelstein Monastery, Music Academy of Sachsen-Anhalt (Kloster Michaelstein, Landesmusikakademie Sachsen-Anhalt), sponsored by the German Research Foundation (DFG, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft).

In close cooperation with the Department for Ethnomusicology at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin (Ethnologisches Museum Berlin, SMB SPK, Abteilung Musikethnologie, Medien-Technik und Berliner Phonogramm-Archiv), the 5th and 6th Symposium of the ISGMA were held in 2006 respectively in 2008 at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin. In friendly cooperation with the Tianjin Conservatory of Music, the 7th Symposium of the ISGMA was held in Tianjin, China, in 2010. The 8th Symposium of the ISGMA (2012) was also held in China, in Suzhou and Beijing; three more symposiums have been held since then, with Germany and China continuing to alternate as hosts.

The ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology continued to develop separately and hold its own events, although a number of researchers remained involved in both groups. After a couple of years of inactivity, Julia L. J. Sanchez re-established the Study Group in 2003 on the initiative of Anthony Seeger, beginning with meetings in Los Angeles, California (2003), and Wilmington, North Carolina (2006). These were followed by a joint-conference in New York (2009), the 11th of the Study Group since its foundation in 1981 (also the 12th Conference of the Research Center for Music Iconography). The 12th conference was then held in Valladolid, Spain (2011), which was the largest meeting of the ICTM Study Group to date, followed by the 13th Symposium of the Study Group held in Guatemala in 2013. Also in 2013, a new print series was launched, Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology, published through Ekho Verlag.

On 27 May 2011, a public concert under the banner of Palaeophonics, funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) Beyond Text programme and the University of Edinburgh Campaign, took place at the George Square Theatre in Edinburgh. The event showcased the outcomes of collaborative research and creative practice by archaeologists, composers, filmmakers, and performers from across Europe and the Americas. Whilst inspired and driven by research in music archaeology, Palaeophonics represents the emergence of a new, possibly significant, development within the field and within musicology which approaches the subject through the production and performance of new sound- and music-based multi-media creative works instead of through direct representation and reproduction. Described by some observers as "experimental" and "avant-garde", the event provoked mixed feedback from a public audience of around 250 people.

In 2013, the European Music Archaeology Project (EMAP) was funded by the EU funding programme EACEA, for a period of five years. The project developed a touring exhibition on ancient music in Europe and an elaborate concert and event program.^[4]^[5]

Approaches

Music archaeology is an interdisciplinary field with multifaceted approaches,^[6] falling under the cross section of experimental archaeology and musicology research.^[7] Music archaeology research aims to understand past musical behaviors; this may be done through methods such as recreating past musical performances, or reconstructing musical instruments from the past.

A common research approach for an interdisciplinary field is to develop a collaborative research team with diverse specialists who can offer varying perspectives on data and findings. Music archaeology research teams are frequently composed of musicologists and archaeologists. In addition, specialists such as psychologists, organologists, biologists, chemists, and historians can be key in understanding past musical behaviors.^[8] For example, a human physiologist can help provide useful insight on singing and tonal capabilities when analysing excavated human remains.^[9] In pursuit of achieving accurate results, it is important that all sources of information and data, regardless of how they are reported or recorded, are treated equally. The information obtained from various scientific approaches can deepen the interpretation of past musical behaviors, sound artefacts, and acoustic spaces.^[10] Archaeological researchers date and classify findings from digs to better understand past behaviors; both dating and classifying are equally important when interpreting data.^[11]

Notable music archaeologists

Graeme Lawson
Ellen Hickmann^[12]
Cajsa Lund^[13]
Bo Lawergren^[14]
Anne D. Kilmer
Ricardo Eichmann
Arnd Adje Both [1]
Stefan Hagel [2]
Peter Holmes [3]
John C. Franklin [4]

Networks

The ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology was founded in the early 1980s.^[15] In 2013, the book series Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology was launched.

The International Study Group on Music Archaeology (ISGMA)^[16] was founded in 1998. The study group is hosted at the Orient Department of the German Archaeological Institute Berlin (DAI, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung) and the Department for Ethnomusicology at the Ethnological Museum Berlin (Ethnologisches Museum Berlin, SMB SPK, Abteilung Musikethnologie, Medien-Technik und Berliner Phonogramm-Archiv).

MOISA: The International Society for the Study of Greek and Roman Music and its Cultural Heritage is a non-profit association incorporated in Italy in 2007 for the preservation, interpretation, and valorization of ancient Greek and Roman music and musical theory, as well as its cultural heritage to the present day.^[17]

The Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, led by Rupert Till and Chris Scarre, as well as Professor Jian Kang of Sheffield University's Department of Architecture. The network maintains a list of researchers working in the field, as well as links to many other relevant sites.^[18]

Gallery

Man playing traditional Music bow. one of the oldest stringed instruments.
Bone Flutes are some of the oldest remaining musical instruments.

References

^ "Ancient Classic Maya music". www.mexicolore.co.uk. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
^ Arnd Adje Both, Music Archaeology: Some Methodological and Theoretical Considerations, in: Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 41 Archived 13 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine, 2009, published by the ICTM Archived 19 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
^ Ricardo Eichmann, Einführung in die Musikarchäologie Archived 13 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine, 2011
^ Franz, Angelika (28 December 2013). "Musik früherer Jahrhunderte: Von wegen alte Leier". Spiegel Online. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014.
^ http://www.archaiologia.gr/en/blog/2013/06/13/listening-to-the-past/ ^{[dead link‍]}
^ Schonfeld, Roger C., 1977- (2003). JSTOR : a history. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4311-4. OCLC 777375664.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Klisala Harrison (2013). "Guest Editor's Preface: Special Edition on Music and Poverty". Yearbook for Traditional Music. 45: xi. doi:10.5921/yeartradmusi.45.2013.00xi. ISSN 0740-1558. S2CID 152215994.
^ Killin, Anton (6 November 2019). "Music Pluralism, Music Realism, and Music Archaeology". Topoi. 40: 261–272. doi:10.1007/s11245-019-09676-z. ISSN 0167-7411. S2CID 211939406.
^ Bourne, Tracy; Garnier, Maëva (February 2012). "Physiological and acoustic characteristics of the female music theater voice". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 131 (2): 1586–1594. Bibcode:2012ASAJ..131.1586B. doi:10.1121/1.3675010. hdl:1959.17/63102. ISSN 0001-4966. PMID 22352528. S2CID 20569073.
^ Both, Arnd Adje (2009). "Music Archaeology: Some Methodological and Theoretical Considerations". Yearbook for Traditional Music. 41: 1–11. doi:10.1017/S0740155800004100. ISSN 0740-1558. JSTOR 25735475. S2CID 194468759.
^ Archer, Steven N.; Bartoy, Kevin, eds. (2006). Between Dirt and Discussion: Methods, Methodology, and Interpretation in Historical Archaeology (First ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/b106771. ISBN 978-0-387-34218-4.
^ Ellen Hickmann (2003) 'Musikarchäologie - Forschungsgrundlagen und Ziele', Die Musikforschung, 56/2: 121-134.
^ Cajsa Lund (1974) The sound of archaeology: Concept, content, planning. Musikmuseet.
^ "Publications — Hunter College". Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
^ "ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology - International Council for Traditional Music". www.ictmusic.org. Archived from the original on 19 February 2011.
^ "Welcome to the International Study Group on Music Archaeology - musicarchaeology". www.musicarchaeology.org. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008.
^ "The MOISA Society". www.moisasociety.org. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011.
^ "Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network". Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011.

[1] "Ancient Classic Maya music". www.mexicolore.co.uk. Retrieved 3 November 2020.

[2] Arnd Adje Both, Music Archaeology: Some Methodological and Theoretical Considerations, in: Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 41 Archived 13 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine, 2009, published by the ICTM Archived 19 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine

[3] Ricardo Eichmann, Einführung in die Musikarchäologie Archived 13 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine, 2011

[4] Franz, Angelika (28 December 2013). "Musik früherer Jahrhunderte: Von wegen alte Leier". Spiegel Online. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014.

[5] ttp://www.archaiologia.gr/en/blog/2013/06/13/listening-to-the-past/ ^{[dead link‍]}

[6] Schonfeld, Roger C., 1977- (2003). JSTOR : a history. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4311-4. OCLC 777375664.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[7] Klisala Harrison (2013). "Guest Editor's Preface: Special Edition on Music and Poverty". Yearbook for Traditional Music. 45: xi. doi:10.5921/yeartradmusi.45.2013.00xi. ISSN 0740-1558. S2CID 152215994.

[8] Killin, Anton (6 November 2019). "Music Pluralism, Music Realism, and Music Archaeology". Topoi. 40: 261–272. doi:10.1007/s11245-019-09676-z. ISSN 0167-7411. S2CID 211939406.

[9] Bourne, Tracy; Garnier, Maëva (February 2012). "Physiological and acoustic characteristics of the female music theater voice". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 131 (2): 1586–1594. Bibcode:2012ASAJ..131.1586B. doi:10.1121/1.3675010. hdl:1959.17/63102. ISSN 0001-4966. PMID 22352528. S2CID 20569073.

[10] Both, Arnd Adje (2009). "Music Archaeology: Some Methodological and Theoretical Considerations". Yearbook for Traditional Music. 41: 1–11. doi:10.1017/S0740155800004100. ISSN 0740-1558. JSTOR 25735475. S2CID 194468759.

[11] Archer, Steven N.; Bartoy, Kevin, eds. (2006). Between Dirt and Discussion: Methods, Methodology, and Interpretation in Historical Archaeology (First ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/b106771. ISBN 978-0-387-34218-4.

[12] Ellen Hickmann (2003) 'Musikarchäologie - Forschungsgrundlagen und Ziele', Die Musikforschung, 56/2: 121-134.

[13] Cajsa Lund (1974) The sound of archaeology: Concept, content, planning. Musikmuseet.

[14] "Publications — Hunter College". Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 20 April 2011.

[15] "ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology - International Council for Traditional Music". www.ictmusic.org. Archived from the original on 19 February 2011.

[16] "Welcome to the International Study Group on Music Archaeology - musicarchaeology". www.musicarchaeology.org. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008.

[17] "The MOISA Society". www.moisasociety.org. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011.

[18] "Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network". Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011.

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+{{Short description|Interdisciplinary study field}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
 [[File:Mexico-2347 - Mayan Music Time in 770AD (4285760560).jpg|300px|thumb|Performers in procession, [[Bonampak]] temple room 1.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ancient Classic Maya music|url=https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/maya/teachers/ancient-maya-music|access-date=2020-11-03|website=www.mexicolore.co.uk}}</ref>]]
-'''Music archaeology''' is an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] study field that combines [[musicology]] and [[archaeology]]. As it includes music from numerous cultures, it is often seen as being a part of [[ethnomusicology]], and indeed a study group looking into music archaeology first emerged from ethnomusicological group the ICTM, not from within archaeology.
+'''Music archaeology''' is an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field of study that combines [[musicology]] and [[archaeology]]. As it includes the study of music from various cultures, it is often considered to be a subfield of [[ethnomusicology]].
 ==Definitions==
-"In its broadest sense, music archaeology is the study of the phenomenon of past musical behaviours and sounds", as music archaeologist Adje Both connects several definitions.<ref>Arnd Adje Both, Music Archaeology: Some Methodological and Theoretical Considerations, in: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/i25735471 Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 41] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513001609/https://www.jstor.org/stable/i25735471 |date=13 May 2018 }}, 2009, published by the [http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology ICTM] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219215540/http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology |date=19 February 2011 }}</ref>
+According to music archaeologist Adje Both, "In its broadest sense, music archaeology is the study of the phenomenon of past musical behaviours and sounds."<ref>Arnd Adje Both, Music Archaeology: Some Methodological and Theoretical Considerations, in: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/i25735471 Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 41] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513001609/https://www.jstor.org/stable/i25735471 |date=13 May 2018 }}, 2009, published by the [http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology ICTM] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219215540/http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology |date=19 February 2011 }}</ref> Music archaeologists often combine methods from musicology and archaeology. A theoretical and methodological foundation has yet to be established, and remains one of the main areas of interest for the international community of researchers.<ref>Ricardo Eichmann, [http://www.dainst.org/de/profile/ricardo-eichmann?ft=all Einführung in die Musikarchäologie] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413221402/http://www.dainst.org/de/profile/ricardo-eichmann?ft=all |date=13 April 2014 }}, 2011</ref>
-Music archaeologists use methods of both musicology and archaeology. A theoretical and methodological basic work is still missing and one of the main areas of interest for the international community of researchers.<ref>Ricardo Eichmann, [http://www.dainst.org/de/profile/ricardo-eichmann?ft=all Einführung in die Musikarchäologie] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413221402/http://www.dainst.org/de/profile/ricardo-eichmann?ft=all |date=13 April 2014 }}, 2011</ref>
-There are different goals in music archaeology; one of the most important is the exploration of excavated artefacts that are relevant for the reconstruction of [[ancient music]], such as sound-producing devices, representations of musical scenes and textual evidence. The archaeological analysis and documentation of such artefacts, their dating and description as well as the explanation of find contexts and cultural contexts can shed light on its use and function in everyday life of the past, and can help us to rebuild them (i.e., to construct playable replicas). To produce music in a broader sense may also mean the investigation of early musical notations and literary sources that are "excavated" in libraries or other hidden places. These results may illuminate how instruments were played or how music was sung, but ultimately what was played in ancient times must remain in the dark of the past, and much fantasy is needed by modern musicians to imagine how melodies and rhythms may have been composed. Strictly speaking, only the sound of the instruments can be revived – these are the possibilities and limits of music archaeology.
+Research goals in the field include the study of artifacts relevant to the reconstruction of [[ancient music]], such as [[Musical instrument|sound-producing devices]], representations of musical scenes, and textual evidence. The archaeological analysis and documentation of such artifacts, including their dating, description, and analysis of their origin and cultural context, can improve understanding of the usage of an instrument and can sometimes enable reconstruction of functional replicas. Textual study may involve the investigation of early [[Musical notation|musical notations]] and literary sources.
+The field has also expanded to include [[Neurophysiology|neurophysiological]], [[Biology|biological]], and [[Psychology|psychological]] research examining the prerequisites for music production in humans.
-In the last few years the field has expanded considerably, with the inclusion of neurophysiological, biological, and psychological research. These approaches explore the possible beginnings of sound production by seeking the earliest prerequisites in the evolution of mankind for music making and musical 'understanding'. At the other end of the continuum, newly published evidence for [[musical notation]] and theoretical writings, or new literary and iconographic sources relevant to ancient music, can add to our understanding of mostly vanished music cultures. The observation and integration of ethnographic analogies in recent or contemporary societies may also help us discover long lasting traditions in making music which are comparable to the silent past.
 ==History==
-A first attempt to join the two distinct disciplines of musicology and archaeology took place at the conference of the International Musicological Society at Berkeley in 1977. One of the round tables was designated "Music and Archaeology", to which were invited specialists to discuss the musical remains of ancient cultures: Bathia Bayer (Israel), Charles Boilès (Mexico), Ellen Hickmann (Egypt), David Liang (China), Casja Lund (Scandinavia). The main stimulus for this was the sensational discovery of an ancient Mesopotamian musical system by Anne D. Kilmer, Assyriologist in Berkeley. On the basis of this she was able to advance a decipherment and transcription into Western notation of a late Bronze Age hymn in the Hurrian language, excavated from Ugarit, which contained notation based on the Mesopotamian system. With the help of musicologist Richard L. Crocker (Berkeley) and instrument maker Robert Brown, a replica of a Sumerian lyre was made, and Kilmer's version of the Hurrian hymn was recorded, accompanied by a carefully prepared commentary, as Kilmer/Crocker/Brown, Sounds from Silence, Recent Discoveries in Ancient Eastern Music (LP with information booklet, Bit Enki Publications, Berkeley, 1976). At the round table in Berkeley, Kilmer explained their method of reconstruction and demonstrated the resulting sound. This was the starting point of the [http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology], officially founded within the International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM) in Seoul/Korea in 1981, and recognized by the ICTM in New York in 1983 following its first meeting on current music-archaeological research in Cambridge/UK in 1982.
+One of the first attempts to join the two distinct disciplines of musicology and archaeology took place at the conference of the [[International Musicological Society]] at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] in 1977. One of the round tables was designated "Music and Archaeology", to which were invited specialists to discuss the musical remains of ancient cultures: Bathia Bayer (Israel), Charles Boilès (Mexico), Ellen Hickmann (Egypt), David Liang (China), [[Cajsa S. Lund]] (Sweden). The main stimulus for this session was the sensational discovery of an ancient Mesopotamian musical system by Anne D. Kilmer, an [[Assyriology|Assyriologist]] in Berkeley. On the basis of this discovery, excavated from [[Ugarit]], she was able to advance a decipherment and transcription into Western notation of a late Bronze Age hymn in the [[Hurrian language]],  which contained notation based on the [[Music of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian system]]. Prior to the conference a replica of a [[Sumer|Sumerian]] [[lyre]] had been made, with the help of musicologist Richard L. Crocker (Berkeley) and instrument maker Robert Brown,  and Kilmer's version of the Hurrian hymn had been recorded and released, accompanied by a carefully prepared commentary, as ''Sounds from Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near Eastern Music'' (LP with information booklet, Bit Enki Publications, Berkeley, 1976). At the round table in Berkeley, Kilmer explained their method of reconstruction and demonstrated the resulting sound. This was the starting point of the [http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology], officially founded within the [[International Council for Traditional Music]] (ICTM) in Seoul/Korea in 1981, and recognized by the ICTM in New York in 1983 following its first meeting on current music-archaeological research in Cambridge/UK in 1982.
 The ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology went on to hold international conferences in Stockholm (1984), Hannover/Wolfenbüttel (1986), Saint Germain-en-Laye (1990), Liège (1992), Istanbul (1993), Jerusalem (1994/1995, together with the ICTM-Study Group for Iconography), and Limassol, Cyprus (1996). These meetings resulted in comprehensive conference reports.
-The [[International Study Group on Music Archaeology]] ([http://www.musicarchaeology.org/index.php ISGMA]) has been founded by Ellen Hickmann and Ricardo Eichmann in 1998. The Study Group emerged from the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology with the objective to obtain closer cooperation with archaeologists. Since then, the ISGMA has worked continuously with the German Archaeological Institute, Berlin (DAI, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Berlin). A new series called "Studien zur Musikarchäologie" was created as a sub-series of "Orient-Archäologie" to present the conference reports of the ISGMA, and to integrate music-archaeological monographs independent of the Study Group's meetings; it is published by the Orient Department of the DAI through the Verlag Marie Leidorf. Between 1998 and 2004, conferences of ISGMA were held every two years at Michaelstein Monastery, Music Academy of Sachsen-Anhalt (Kloster Michaelstein, Landesmusikakademie Sachsen-Anhalt), sponsored by the German Research Foundation (DFG, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft).
+The [[International Study Group on Music Archaeology]] ([http://www.musicarchaeology.org/index.php ISGMA]) has been founded by Ellen Hickmann and [[Ricardo Eichmann]] in 1998. The Study Group emerged from the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology with the objective to obtain closer cooperation with archaeologists. Since then, the ISGMA has worked continuously with the [[German Archaeological Institute]], Berlin (DAI, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Berlin). A new series called "Studien zur Musikarchäologie" was created as a sub-series of "Orient-Archäologie" to present the conference reports of the ISGMA, and to integrate music-archaeological monographs independent of the Study Group's meetings; it is published by the Orient Department of the DAI through the Verlag Marie Leidorf. Between 1998 and 2004, conferences of ISGMA were held every two years at Michaelstein Monastery, Music Academy of Sachsen-Anhalt (Kloster Michaelstein, Landesmusikakademie Sachsen-Anhalt), sponsored by the [[German Research Foundation]] (DFG, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft).
-In close cooperation with the Department for Ethnomusicology at the [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]] (Ethnologisches Museum Berlin, SMB SPK, Abteilung Musikethnologie, Medien-Technik und Berliner Phonogramm-Archiv), the 5th and 6th Symposium of the ISGMA were held in 2006 respectively in 2008 at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin. In friendly cooperation with the Tianjin Conservatory of Music, the 7th Symposium of the ISGMA was held in Tianjin, China, in 2010. The 8th Symposium of the ISGMA (2012) was also held in China, in Suzhou and Beijing, and the 9th Symposium is being planned for September 2014, again held at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin.
+In close cooperation with the Department for Ethnomusicology at the [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]] (Ethnologisches Museum Berlin, SMB SPK, Abteilung Musikethnologie, Medien-Technik und Berliner Phonogramm-Archiv), the 5th and 6th Symposium of the ISGMA were held in 2006 respectively in 2008 at the [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]]. In friendly cooperation with the [[Tianjin Conservatory of Music]], the 7th Symposium of the ISGMA was held in Tianjin, China, in 2010. The 8th Symposium of the ISGMA (2012) was also held in China, in Suzhou and Beijing; three more symposiums have been held since then, with Germany and China continuing to alternate as hosts.
-Meanwhile, the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology continued separately, and holds its own events, although a number of researchers are involved in both groups. After a couple of years of inactivity, Julia L. J. Sanchez re-established the Study Group in 2003 on the initiative of Anthony Seeger, beginning with meetings in Los Angeles, California (2003), and Wilmington, North Carolina (2006). These were followed by a joint-conference in New York (2009), the 11th of the Study Group since its foundation in 1981 (also the 12th Conference of the Research Center for Music Iconography). The 12th conference was then held in Valladolid, Spain (2011), which was the largest meeting of the ICTM Study Group so far, followed by the 13th Symposium of the Study Group held in Guatemala 2013. In 2015, the 14th symposium will be held in Poland. In 2013 it was decided to establish a new series, [http://www.ekho-verlag.com/category/series/publications-of-the-ictm-study-group-on-music-archaeology/ Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology], published through [https://www.facebook.com/ekhoverlag Ekho Verlag].
+The ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology continued to develop separately and hold its own events, although a number of researchers remained involved in both groups. After a couple of years of inactivity, Julia L. J. Sanchez re-established the Study Group in 2003 on the initiative of Anthony Seeger, beginning with meetings in Los Angeles, California (2003), and Wilmington, North Carolina (2006). These were followed by a joint-conference in New York (2009), the 11th of the Study Group since its foundation in 1981 (also the 12th Conference of the Research Center for Music Iconography). The 12th conference was then held in Valladolid, Spain (2011), which was the largest meeting of the ICTM Study Group to date, followed by the 13th Symposium of the Study Group held in Guatemala in 2013. Also in 2013, a new print series was launched, [http://www.ekho-verlag.com/category/series/publications-of-the-ictm-study-group-on-music-archaeology/ Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology], published through [https://www.facebook.com/ekhoverlag Ekho Verlag].
-On 27 May 2011, a public concert under the banner of ''Palaeophonics'', funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) ''Beyond Text'' programme and the University of Edinburgh Campaign, took place at the George Square Theatre in Edinburgh. The event showcased the outcomes of collaborative research and creative practice by archaeologists, composers, filmmakers and performers from across Europe and the Americas. Whilst inspired and driven by research in music archaeology, ''Palaeophonics'' represents the emergence of a new, possibly significant, development within the field and within musicology which approaches the subject through the production and performance of new sound and music based multi-media creative works instead of through direct representation and reproduction. Said by some observers as 'experimental' and 'avant-garde', the event provoked mixed feedback from a wide public audience of around 250 people. A related publication is planned and further ''Palaeophonics'' events are thought to be taking place in the future, although none are currently programmed, whilst funding for developing the project is sourced.
+On 27 May 2011, a public concert under the banner of ''Palaeophonics'', funded by the [[Arts and Humanities Research Council]] (AHRC) ''Beyond Text'' programme and the [[University of Edinburgh]] Campaign, took place at the [[Gordon Aikman Lecture Theatre|George Square Theatre]] in Edinburgh. The event showcased the outcomes of collaborative research and creative practice by archaeologists, composers, filmmakers, and performers from across Europe and the Americas. Whilst inspired and driven by research in music archaeology, ''Palaeophonics'' represents the emergence of a new, possibly significant, development within the field and within musicology which approaches the subject through the production and performance of new sound- and music-based multi-media creative works instead of through direct representation and reproduction. Described by some observers as "experimental" and "avant-garde", the event provoked mixed feedback from a public audience of around 250 people.
-In 2013, the [http://www.emaproject.eu European Music Archaeology Project] (EMAP) has been funded by the EU funding programme [http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index_en.php EACEA], for the period of five years. The project will develop a touring exhibition on ancient music in Europe and an elaborate concert and event program.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/musik-in-der-steinzeit-eu-projekt-zum-sound-der-vergangenheit-a-937534.html|title=Musik früherer Jahrhunderte: Von wegen alte Leier|first=Angelika|last=Franz|date=28 December 2013|newspaper=Spiegel Online|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428122446/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/musik-in-der-steinzeit-eu-projekt-zum-sound-der-vergangenheit-a-937534.html|archive-date=28 April 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>http://www.archaiologia.gr/en/blog/2013/06/13/listening-to-the-past/</ref>
+In 2013, the [http://www.emaproject.eu European Music Archaeology Project] (EMAP) was funded by the EU funding programme [http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index_en.php EACEA], for a period of five years. The project developed a touring exhibition on ancient music in Europe and an elaborate concert and event program.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/musik-in-der-steinzeit-eu-projekt-zum-sound-der-vergangenheit-a-937534.html|title=Musik früherer Jahrhunderte: Von wegen alte Leier|first=Angelika|last=Franz|date=28 December 2013|newspaper=Spiegel Online|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428122446/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/musik-in-der-steinzeit-eu-projekt-zum-sound-der-vergangenheit-a-937534.html|archive-date=28 April 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>http://www.archaiologia.gr/en/blog/2013/06/13/listening-to-the-past/ {{Dead link|date=February 2022}}</ref>
 == Approaches ==
-Music archaeology is an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field with multifaceted approaches.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schonfeld, Roger C., 1977-|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/777375664|title=JSTOR : a history|date=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4311-4|location=Princeton|oclc=777375664}}</ref> Music archaeology falls under the cross section of [[experimental archaeology]] and [[Musicology]] research.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klisala Harrison|date=2013|title=Guest Editor's Preface: Special Edition on Music and Poverty|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5921/yeartradmusi.45.2013.00xi|journal=Yearbook for Traditional Music|volume=45|pages=xi|doi=10.5921/yeartradmusi.45.2013.00xi|issn=0740-1558}}</ref> The goals of research for Music archaeology is to understand past musical behaviors, whether it is recreating past musical performances or reconstructing musical instruments from the past. A common research approach to an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field is to develop a collaborative research team with diverse specialists who can offer varying perspectives on data and findings. Music archaeology research teams are frequently composed of [[Musicologists]] and [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]]. However, [[Psychologist]]s, [[Organology|Organologists]], [[Biologist]]s, [[Chemist]]s, and [[History|Historians]], among other professionals and collaborators, can be key in understanding past musical behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Killin|first=Anton|date=2019-11-06|title=Music Pluralism, Music Realism, and Music Archaeology|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11245-019-09676-z|journal=Topoi|language=en|doi=10.1007/s11245-019-09676-z|issn=0167-7411}}</ref> For example, a human [[physiologist]] can help provide useful insight on the singing and tonal capabilities when analysing excavated human remains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bourne|first=Tracy|last2=Garnier|first2=Maëva|date=February 2012|title=Physiological and acoustic characteristics of the female music theater voice|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.3675010|journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America|volume=131|issue=2|pages=1586–1594|doi=10.1121/1.3675010|issn=0001-4966}}</ref> In pursuit of achieving accurate results, it is important  that all sources of information and data, however they may be reported or recorded, be treated equally. The information obtained from various scientific approaches can deepen the interpretation of past musical behaviors, sound artefacts, and [[Acoustic space|acoustic spaces]] .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Both|first=Arnd Adje|date=2009|title=MUSIC ARCHAEOLOGY: SOME METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25735475|journal=Yearbook for Traditional Music|volume=41|pages=1–11|issn=0740-1558}}</ref>
+Music archaeology is an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field with multifaceted approaches,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schonfeld, Roger C., 1977-|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/777375664|title=JSTOR : a history|date=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4311-4|location=Princeton|oclc=777375664}}</ref> falling under the cross section of [[experimental archaeology]] and [[musicology]] research.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klisala Harrison|date=2013|title=Guest Editor's Preface: Special Edition on Music and Poverty|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5921/yeartradmusi.45.2013.00xi|journal=Yearbook for Traditional Music|volume=45|pages=xi|doi=10.5921/yeartradmusi.45.2013.00xi|s2cid=152215994|issn=0740-1558}}</ref> Music archaeology research aims to understand past musical behaviors; this may be done through methods such as recreating past musical performances, or reconstructing musical instruments from the past.
+A common research approach for an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field is to develop a collaborative research team with diverse specialists who can offer varying perspectives on data and findings. Music archaeology research teams are frequently composed of [[musicologists]] and [[Archaeology|archaeologists]]. In addition, specialists such as [[psychologist]]s, [[Organology|organologists]], [[biologist]]s, [[chemist]]s, and [[History|historians]] can be key in understanding past musical behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Killin|first=Anton|date=2019-11-06|title=Music Pluralism, Music Realism, and Music Archaeology|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11245-019-09676-z|journal=Topoi|volume=40|pages=261–272|language=en|doi=10.1007/s11245-019-09676-z|s2cid=211939406|issn=0167-7411}}</ref> For example, a human [[physiologist]] can help provide useful insight on singing and tonal capabilities when analysing excavated human remains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bourne|first1=Tracy|last2=Garnier|first2=Maëva|date=February 2012|title=Physiological and acoustic characteristics of the female music theater voice|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.3675010|journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America|volume=131|issue=2|pages=1586–1594|doi=10.1121/1.3675010|pmid=22352528|bibcode=2012ASAJ..131.1586B|hdl=1959.17/63102|s2cid=20569073 |issn=0001-4966}}</ref> In pursuit of achieving accurate results, it is important that all sources of information and data, regardless of how they are reported or recorded, are treated equally. The information obtained from various scientific approaches can deepen the interpretation of past musical behaviors, sound artefacts, and [[acoustic space]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Both|first=Arnd Adje|title=Music Archaeology: Some Methodological and Theoretical Considerations|date=2009|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25735475|journal=Yearbook for Traditional Music|volume=41|pages=1–11|doi=10.1017/S0740155800004100 |jstor=25735475|s2cid=194468759 |issn=0740-1558}}</ref> [[Archaeological]] researchers [[Radiocarbon dating|date]] and [[Classification|classify]] findings from [[Archaeology|digs]] to better understand past behaviors; both dating and classifying are equally important when interpreting data.<ref>{{Cite book|editor1-last=Archer |editor1-first=Steven N. |editor2-last=Bartoy |editor2-first=Kevin |title=Between Dirt and Discussion: Methods, Methodology, and Interpretation in Historical Archaeology |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=New York |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-387-34218-4 |edition=First |doi=10.1007/b106771 }}</ref>
-== Interpretations ==
-[[File:Divje Babe flute.jpg|thumb|The world's oldest musical Instrument. the [[Divje Babe Flute]]  ]]
-[[Archaeological]] researchers [[Radiocarbon dating|date]] and [[Classification|classify]] findings from a [[Archaeology|dig]] to better understand past behaviors.<ref>{{Cite book|editor1-last=Archer |editor1-first=Steven N. |editor2-last=Bartoy |editor2-first=Kevin |title=Between Dirt and Discussion: Methods, Methodology, and Interpretation in Historical Archaeology |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=New York |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-387-34218-4 |edition=First |doi=10.1007/b106771 }}</ref> In music archaeology, [[Radiocarbon dating|dating]] and [[Classification|classifying]] are just as important when interpreting data. To answer the question of what is a [[musical instrument]] and what is not an instrument is a tricky task and can spark debate. For example, the [[paleolithic]] era [[Divje Babe Flute]] is considered the world's oldest musical instrument.
-The [[Divje Babe Flute]] goes by the name of the ''Neanderthal Flute'' because of how old it is (over 40,000 years old) and where it was found in [[Slovenia]]. While it is possible that [[Neanderthal]] had [[music]], there are debates as to whether or not the flute was even constructed by a [[Hominini|hominin]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Turk|first=Matija|last2=Turk|first2=Ivan|last3=Otte|first3=Marcel|date=2020-02-12|title=The Neanderthal Musical Instrument from Divje Babe I Cave (Slovenia): A Critical Review of the Discussion|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/10/4/1226|journal=Applied Sciences|language=en|volume=10|issue=4|pages=1226|doi=10.3390/app10041226|issn=2076-3417|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tuniz|first=C.|last2=Bernardini|first2=F.|last3=Turk|first3=I.|last4=Dimkaroski|first4=L.|last5=Mancini|first5=L.|last6=Dreossi|first6=D.|date=2011-08-28|title=Did Neanderthals Play Music? X-ray Computed Micro-Tomography of the Divje Babe 'Flute'*|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00630.x|journal=Archaeometry|volume=54|issue=3|pages=581–590|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00630.x|issn=0003-813X}}</ref> Some specialists believe that the holes in the [[Divje Babe Flute]] was simply the result of gnawing [[Cave bear]] or [[Hyena|Ice age hyenas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Diedrich|first=Cajus G.|date=1 April 2015|title=‘Neanderthal bone flutes’: simply products of Ice Age spotted hyena scavenging activities on cave bear cubs in European cave bear dens|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.140022|journal=Royal Society Open Science|language=en|volume=2|issue=4|pages=140022|doi=10.1098/rsos.140022|issn=2054-5703|pmc=4448875|pmid=26064624}}</ref>
-==Related fields==
-From within this history, the subject has proliferated, including work on [[Prehistoric music]]. This has focused on the earliest period of music archaeology.
-[[Ancient music]]. The most work in the field has been carried out on this period, which lies between prehistory and [[Early music]], which is often the study of Western [[classical music]] from the medieval period onwards. In particular, there has been substantial research carried out on [[Music of ancient Greece]] and [[Music of ancient Rome]].
-[[Organology]] classifies musical instruments and can helps researchers when identifying [[Artifact (archaeology)]] that may have been intended to produce [[sound]] and [[Pitch (music)]].
-[[Archaeoacoustics]] is the use of methodologies from the field of [[acoustics]] and other scientific approaches to musicology, to undertake archaeological study.
 ==Notable music archaeologists==
@@ Line 61: / Line 48: @@
 ==Networks==
-The [http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology] has been founded in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology|title=ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology - International Council for Traditional Music|website=www.ictmusic.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219215540/http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology|archive-date=19 February 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2013, the book series [http://www.ekho-verlag.com/category/series/publications-of-the-ictm-study-group-on-music-archaeology/ Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology] has been launched.
+The [http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology] was founded in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology|title=ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology - International Council for Traditional Music|website=www.ictmusic.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219215540/http://www.ictmusic.org/group/music-archaeology|archive-date=19 February 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2013, the book series [http://www.ekho-verlag.com/category/series/publications-of-the-ictm-study-group-on-music-archaeology/ Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology] was launched.
-The [http://www.musicarchaeology.org/ International Study Group on Music Archaeology] (ISGMA)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicarchaeology.org/|title=Welcome to the International Study Group on Music Archaeology - musicarchaeology|website=www.musicarchaeology.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724065706/http://www.musicarchaeology.org/|archive-date=24 July 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> has been founded in 1998. The study group is hosted at the Orient Department of the German Archaeological Institute Berlin (DAI, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung) and the Department for Ethnomusicology at the Ethnological Museum Berlin (Ethnologisches Museum Berlin, SMB SPK, Abteilung Musikethnologie, Medien-Technik und Berliner Phonogramm-Archiv).
+The [http://www.musicarchaeology.org/ International Study Group on Music Archaeology] (ISGMA)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicarchaeology.org/|title=Welcome to the International Study Group on Music Archaeology - musicarchaeology|website=www.musicarchaeology.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724065706/http://www.musicarchaeology.org/|archive-date=24 July 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> was founded in 1998. The study group is hosted at the Orient Department of the German Archaeological Institute Berlin (DAI, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung) and the Department for Ethnomusicology at the Ethnological Museum Berlin (Ethnologisches Museum Berlin, SMB SPK, Abteilung Musikethnologie, Medien-Technik und Berliner Phonogramm-Archiv).
 [http://www.moisasociety.org/ MOISA]: The International Society for the Study of Greek and Roman Music and its Cultural Heritage is a non-profit association incorporated in Italy in 2007 for the preservation, interpretation, and valorization of ancient Greek and Roman music and musical theory, as well as its cultural heritage to the present day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moisasociety.org|title=The MOISA Society|website=www.moisasociety.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203042951/http://moisasociety.org/|archive-date=3 February 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
-The [http://ambpnetwork.wordpress.com/ Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network] was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, led by [https://www.hud.ac.uk/ourstaff/profile/index.php?staffid=432 Rupert Till] and [http://www.dur.ac.uk/archaeology/staff/?id=3296 Chris Scarre], as well as Professor [http://www.acoustics.group.shef.ac.uk/members.php Jian Kang] of Sheffield University's Department of Architecture. It has a list of researchers working in the field, and links to many other relevant sites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ambpnetwork.wordpress.com/|title=Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network|website=Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726182545/http://ambpnetwork.wordpress.com/ |archive-date=26 July 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
+The [http://ambpnetwork.wordpress.com/ Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network] was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, led by [https://www.hud.ac.uk/ourstaff/profile/index.php?staffid=432 Rupert Till] and [http://www.dur.ac.uk/archaeology/staff/?id=3296 Chris Scarre], as well as Professor [http://www.acoustics.group.shef.ac.uk/members.php Jian Kang] of Sheffield University's Department of Architecture. The network maintains a list of researchers working in the field, as well as links to many other relevant sites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ambpnetwork.wordpress.com/|title=Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network|website=Acoustics and Music of British Prehistory Research Network|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726182545/http://ambpnetwork.wordpress.com/ |archive-date=26 July 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 == Gallery ==