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{{short description|Ultramafic extrusive rock high in both magnesium and silica}}
{{More footnotes|date=February 2008}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{refimprove|date=March 2021}}
{{Technical|date=December 2009}}
{{Technical|date=December 2009}}
}}
'''Boninite''' is a [[mafic]] [[extrusive]] [[Rock (geology)|rock]] high in both [[magnesium]] and [[silica]], formed in [[fore-arc]] environments, typically during the early stages of [[subduction]]. The rock is named for its occurrence in the [[Bonin Islands|Izu-Bonin]] [[Island arc|arc]] south of [[Japan]]. It is characterized by extreme depletion in compatible trace elements that are not fluid mobile (e.g., the heavy [[rare earth elements]] plus Nb, Ta, Hf) but variable enrichment in the fluid mobile elements (e.g., Rb, Ba, K). They are found almost exclusively in the fore-arc of [[Magma|primitive]] [[island arc]]s (that is, closer to the [[ocean trench]]) and in [[ophiolite]] complexes thought to represent former fore-arc settings.
'''Boninite''' is an [[extrusive]] [[Rock (geology)|rock]] high in both [[magnesium]] and [[silica]], thought to be usually formed in [[fore-arc]] environments, typically during the early stages of [[subduction]]. The rock is named for its occurrence in the [[Bonin Islands|Izu-Bonin]] [[Island arc|arc]] south of [[Japan]]. It is characterized by extreme depletion in incompatible trace elements that are not fluid mobile (e.g., the heavy [[rare-earth elements]] plus Nb, Ta, Hf) but variable enrichment in the fluid mobile elements (e.g., Rb, Ba, K). They are found almost exclusively in the fore-arc of [[Magma|primitive]] [[island arc]]s (that is, closer to the [[ocean trench]]) and in [[ophiolite]] complexes thought to represent former fore-arc settings or at least formed above a subduction zone.


Boninite is considered to be a ''primitive'' [[andesite]] derived from melting of [[metasomatism|metasomatised]] [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]].
Boninite is considered to be a ''primitive'' [[andesite]] derived from melting of [[metasomatism|metasomatised]] [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]].


Similar [[Archean]] [[intrusion (geology)|intrusive rocks]], called [[sanukitoid]]s, have been reported in the rocks of several early [[craton]]s.
Similar [[Archean]] [[intrusion (geology)|intrusive rocks]], called [[sanukitoid]]s, have been reported in the rocks of several early [[craton]]s. Archean boninite lavas are also reported.


== Petrology ==
== Petrology ==
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== Geochemistry ==
== Geochemistry ==
Boninite is defined by
Boninite is defined by
* high magnesium content ([[MgO]] = 8-15%)
* high magnesium content ([[MgO]] = >8%)
* low [[titanium]] ([[Titanium dioxide|TiO<sub>2</sub>]] < 0.5%)
* low [[titanium]] ([[Titanium dioxide|TiO<sub>2</sub>]] < 0.5%)
* [[silica]] content is 57 - 60%
* [[silica]] content is 52–63%
* high Mg/(Mg + [[Iron|Fe]]) (0.55-0.83)
* high Mg/(Mg + [[Iron|Fe]]) (0.55–0.83)
* Mantle-normal [[compatibility (geochemistry)|compatible]] elements [[Nickel|Ni]] = 70-450 parts per million, [[Chromium|Cr]] = 200-1800 ppm
* Mantle-normal [[compatibility (geochemistry)|compatible]] elements [[Nickel|Ni]] = 70–450 parts per million, [[Chromium|Cr]] = 200–1800 ppm
* [[barium|Ba]], [[strontium|Sr]], L[[Rare earth element|REE]] enrichments compared to [[Tholeiitic magma series|tholeiite]]
* [[barium|Ba]], [[strontium|Sr]], L[[Rare-earth element|REE]] enrichments compared to [[Tholeiitic magma series|tholeiite]]
* Characteristic Ti/[[Zirconium|Zr]] ratios (23-63) and [[Lanthanum|La]]/[[Ytterbium|Yb]] ratios (0.6-4.7)
* Characteristic Ti/[[Zirconium|Zr]] ratios (23–63) and [[Lanthanum|La]]/[[Ytterbium|Yb]] ratios (0.6–4.7)


== Genesis ==
== Genesis ==
Most boninite [[magma]] is formed by second stage melting in [[forearc]]s via [[mineral hydration|hydration]] of previously depleted [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] within the mantle wedge above a [[subduction|subducted slab]], causing further melting of the already depleted [[peridotite]]. Although a forearc environment is ideal for boninite genesis, other tectonic environments, such as [[backarc]]s, might be capable of forming boninite as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Encarnación|first=John|last2=Mukasa|first2=Samuel B|last3=Evans|first3=Cynthia A|date=1999-04-01|title=Subduction components and the generation of arc-like melts in the Zambales ophiolite, Philippines: Pb, Sr and Nd isotopic constraints|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009254198001909|journal=Chemical Geology|volume=156|issue=1–4|pages=343–357|doi=10.1016/S0009-2541(98)00190-9}}</ref> The extremely low content of titanium, which is an incompatible element within melting of peridotite is the result of previous melting events that removed most of the incompatible elements from the residual mantle source. The first stage melting typically forms island arc [[tholeiite basalt|basalt]].
Most boninite [[magma]] is formed by second stage melting in [[forearc]]s via [[mineral hydration|hydration]] of previously depleted [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] within the mantle wedge above a [[subduction|subducted slab]], causing further melting of the already depleted [[peridotite]]. A forearc environment is ideal for boninite genesis, but other tectonic environments, such as [[backarc]]s, might be able to form boninite.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Encarnación|first1=John|last2=Mukasa|first2=Samuel B|last3=Evans|first3=Cynthia A|date=1999-04-01|title=Subduction components and the generation of arc-like melts in the Zambales ophiolite, Philippines: Pb, Sr and Nd isotopic constraints|journal=Chemical Geology|volume=156|issue=1–4|pages=343–357|doi=10.1016/S0009-2541(98)00190-9|bibcode=1999ChGeo.156..343E}}</ref> The content of titanium (an incompatible element within melting of peridotite) is extremely low because previous melting events had removed most of the incompatible elements from the residual mantle source. The first stage melting typically forms island arc [[tholeiite basalt|basalt]]. The second melting event is partly made possible by hydrous fluids being added to the shallow hot depleted mantle, leading the enrichment in large ion lithophile elements in the boninite.


Boninite attains its high magnesium and very low titanium content via high degrees of partial melting within the [[mantle convection|convecting]] mantle wedge. The high degrees of partial melting are caused by the high water content of the mantle. With the addition of slab-derived volatiles, and incompatible elements derived from the release of low-volume partial melts of the subducted slab, the depleted mantle in the mantle wedge undergoes melting.
Boninite attains its high magnesium and very low titanium content via high degrees of partial melting within the [[mantle convection|convecting]] mantle wedge. The high degrees of partial melting are caused by the high water content of the mantle. With the addition of slab-derived volatiles, and incompatible elements derived from the release of low-volume partial melts of the subducted slab, the depleted mantle in the mantle wedge undergoes melting.


Evidence for variable enrichment or depletion of incompatible elements suggests that boninites are derived from refractory peridotite which has been metasomatically enriched in LREE, Sr, Ba and [[alkali]]s. Enrichment in Ba, Sr and alkalis may result from a component derived from subducted oceanic crust. This is envisaged as contamination from the underlying subducted slab, either as a sedimentary source or as melts derived from the dehydrating slab.
Evidence for variable enrichment or depletion of incompatible elements suggests that boninites are derived from refractory peridotite which has been metasomatically enriched in [[LREE]], strontium, barium, and [[alkali]]s. Enrichment in Ba, Sr and alkalis may result from a component derived from subducted oceanic crust. This is envisaged as contamination from the underlying subducted slab, either as a sedimentary source or as melts derived from the dehydrating slab.


Boninites can be derived from the peridotite residue of earlier arc tholeiite generation which is metasomatically enriched in LREE before boninite [[volcano|volcanism]], or arc tholeiites and boninites can be derived from a variably depleted peridotite source which has been variably metasomatised in LREE.
Boninites can be derived from the peridotite residue of earlier arc tholeiite generation which is metasomatically enriched in LREE before boninite [[volcano|volcanism]], or arc tholeiites and boninites can be derived from a variably depleted peridotite source which has been variably metasomatised in LREE.


Areas of fertile peridotite would yield tholeiites while refractory areas would yield boninites.
Areas of fertile peridotite would yield tholeiites, and refractory areas would yield boninites.


== Examples ==
== Examples ==
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:left"
|+'''''Examples of Boninite'''''<ref>A. J. Crawford, (1989) ''Boninites'', London, Unwin Hyman, ISBN 0-04-445003-6</ref>
|+'''''Examples of Boninite'''''
!Name!!Location!!Age!!Comments
!Name!!Location!!Age!!Comments
|-
|-
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|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|[[Eocene]]
|[[Eocene]]
|mostly volcanic [[breccia]]s and [[pillow lava]] flows
|mostly volcanic [[breccia]]s and [[pillow lava]] flows<ref name="Crawford1989">{{cite book | title=Boninites | publisher=Unwin Hyman | author=Crawford, A.J. | year=1989 | location=London | isbn=978-0-04-445003-0}}</ref>
|-
|[[Zambales Mountains|Zambales]] ophiolite
|western [[Luzon]]
|Eocene
|upper volcanic unit: high silica boninite, low silica boninite, boninitic basalt.
lower volcanic unit: low silica boninite series volcanics<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Perez|first1=Americus|last2=Umino|first2=Susumu|last3=Yumul Jr.|first3=Graciano P.|last4=Ishizuka|first4=Osamu|date=2018-06-05|title=Boninite and boninite-series volcanics in northern Zambales ophiolite: doubly vergent subduction initiation along Philippine Sea plate margins|journal=Solid Earth|language=English|volume=9|issue=3|pages=713–733|doi=10.5194/se-9-713-2018|bibcode=2018SolE....9..713P|issn=1869-9529|url=https://www.solid-earth-discuss.net/se-2017-138/se-2017-138.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>
|-
|-
|[[Cape Vogel]]
|[[Cape Vogel]]
|[[Papua New Guinea]]
|[[Papua New Guinea]]
|[[Paleocene]]
|[[Paleocene]]
|<ref name="Crawford1989"/>
|
|-
|-
|[[Troodos Mountains|Troodos]]
|[[Troodos Mountains|Troodos]]
|[[Cyprus]]
|[[Cyprus]]
|[[Cretaceous]]
|[[Cretaceous]]
|upper pillow lavas of [[ophiolite]] complex
|upper pillow lavas of [[ophiolite]] complex<ref name="Crawford1989"/>
|-
|-
|[[Guam]]
|[[Guam]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|[[Paleogene]]
|[[Paleogene]]
|late Eocene to early [[Oligocene]]
|late Eocene to early [[Oligocene]]<ref name="Crawford1989"/>
|-
|-
|[[Seto Inland Sea|Setouchi]]
|[[Seto Inland Sea|Setouchi]]
|[[Japan]]
|[[Japan]]
|[[Miocene]]
|[[Miocene]]
|[[sanukitoid]]s, 13 million years old
|[[sanukitoid]]s, 13 million years old<ref name="Crawford1989"/>
|-
|-
|[[Baja California]]
|[[Baja California]]
|[[Mexico]]
|[[Mexico]]
|Miocene
|Miocene
|14 to 12 million years old, includes [[bajaite]]
|14 to 12 million years old, includes [[bajaite]]<ref name="Crawford1989"/>
|-
|-
|[[New Caledonia]]
|[[New Caledonia]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|[[Mesozoic]]
|[[Mesozoic]]
|[[Permian]]-[[Triassic]] and Cretaceous age
|[[Permian]]-[[Triassic]] and Cretaceous age<ref name="Crawford1989"/>
|-
|-
|[[Mariana Trench]]
|[[Mariana Trench]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|Eocene
|Eocene
|<ref name="Crawford1989"/>
|
|-
|-
|North-east [[Lau Basin]]
|North-east [[Lau Basin]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|[[Pacific Ocean]]
|Modern
|Modern
|Eruption of boninite lava was observed in 2009 at [[West Mata]] volcano in the Lau Basin by scientists using a remotely-operated [[submersible]]. Previously, boninite had been found only near extinct volcanoes more than one million years old.<ref>http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=116098 National Science Foundation Press Release 09-243
|Eruption of boninite lava was observed in 2009 at [[West Mata]] volcano in the Lau Basin by scientists using a remotely-operated [[submersible]]. Previously, boninite had been found only near extinct volcanoes more than one million years old.<ref name="WestMataNSF">{{cite web | url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=116098 | title=Marine Scientists Discover Deepest Undersea Erupting Volcano | publisher=[[National Science Foundation]] | work=News Release 09-243 | date=17 December 2009 | accessdate=20 February 2016}}</ref>
Marine Scientists Discover Deepest Undersea Erupting Volcano.</ref>
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 86: Line 94:
==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
* Anthony J. Crawford and W. E. Cameron, 1985. '' Petrology and geochemistry of Cambrian boninites and low-Ti andesites from Heathcote, Victoria'' Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol 91 no. 1. [https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00429431 Abstract]

* Anthony J. Crawford and W. E. Cameron, 1985. '' Petrology and geochemistry of Cambrian boninites and low-Ti andesites from Heathcote, Victoria'' Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol 91 no. 1. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/p630877h63021v6g/ Abstract]
* Dobson, P.F., Blank, J.G., Maruyama, S., and Liou, J.G. (2006) ''Petrology and geochemistry of boninite series volcanic rocks, Chichi-jima, Bonin Islands, Japan''. International Geology Review 48, 669–701 (LBNL #57671)
* Dobson, P.F., Blank, J.G., Maruyama, S., and Liou, J.G. (2006) ''Petrology and geochemistry of boninite series volcanic rocks, Chichi-jima, Bonin Islands, Japan''. International Geology Review 48, 669–701 (LBNL #57671)
* Dobson, P.F., Skogby, H, and Rossman, G.R. (1995) ''Water in boninite glass and coexisting orthopyroxene: concentration and partitioning''. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 118,414-419.
* Dobson, P.F., Skogby, H, and Rossman, G.R. (1995) ''Water in boninite glass and coexisting orthopyroxene: concentration and partitioning''. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 118,414-419.
* Le Maitre, R. W. and others (Editors), 2002, ''Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms: Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd, ISBN 0-521-66215-X
* Le Maitre, R. W. and others (Editors), 2002, ''Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms: Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd, {{ISBN|0-521-66215-X}}
*Blatt, Harvey and Robert Tracy, 1995, ''Petrology, Second Edition: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic'', W. H. Freeman, 2nd, p.&nbsp;176 ISBN 0-7167-2438-3
*Blatt, Harvey and Robert Tracy, 1995, ''Petrology, Second Edition: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic'', W. H. Freeman, 2nd, p.&nbsp;176 {{ISBN|0-7167-2438-3}}
* Hickey, Rosemary L.; Frey, Frederick A. (1982) ''Geochemical characteristics of boninite series volcanics: implications for their source.'' Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. 46, Issue 11, pp.&nbsp;2099–2115
* Hickey, Rosemary L.; Frey, Frederick A. (1982) ''Geochemical characteristics of boninite series volcanics: implications for their source.'' Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. 46, Issue 11, pp.&nbsp;2099–2115
* Resing, J. A., K.H. Rubin, R. Embley, J. Lupton, E. Baker, R. Dziak, T. Baumberger, M. Lilley, J. Huber, T.M. Shank, D. Butterfield, D. Clague, N. Keller, S. Merle, N.J. Buck, P. Michael, A. Soule, D. Caress, S. Walker, R. Davis, J. Cowen, A-L. Reysenbach, and H. Thomas, (2011): Active Submarine Eruption of Boninite at West Mata Volcano in the Extensional NE Lau Basin, Nature Geosciences, 10.1038/ngeo1275.
* Resing, J. A., K.H. Rubin, R. Embley, J. Lupton, E. Baker, R. Dziak, T. Baumberger, M. Lilley, J. Huber, T.M. Shank, D. Butterfield, D. Clague, N. Keller, S. Merle, N.J. Buck, P. Michael, A. Soule, D. Caress, S. Walker, R. Davis, J. Cowen, A-L. Reysenbach, and H. Thomas, (2011): Active Submarine Eruption of Boninite at West Mata Volcano in the Extensional NE Lau Basin, Nature Geosciences, 10.1038/ngeo1275.
Petrology

{{Rock type}}
[[Category:Volcanic rocks]]
[[Category:Volcanic rocks]]
[[Category:Intermediate rocks]]
[[Category:Intermediate rocks]]

Latest revision as of 22:15, 10 March 2023

Boninite is an extrusive rock high in both magnesium and silica, thought to be usually formed in fore-arc environments, typically during the early stages of subduction. The rock is named for its occurrence in the Izu-Bonin arc south of Japan. It is characterized by extreme depletion in incompatible trace elements that are not fluid mobile (e.g., the heavy rare-earth elements plus Nb, Ta, Hf) but variable enrichment in the fluid mobile elements (e.g., Rb, Ba, K). They are found almost exclusively in the fore-arc of primitive island arcs (that is, closer to the ocean trench) and in ophiolite complexes thought to represent former fore-arc settings or at least formed above a subduction zone.

Boninite is considered to be a primitive andesite derived from melting of metasomatised mantle.

Similar Archean intrusive rocks, called sanukitoids, have been reported in the rocks of several early cratons. Archean boninite lavas are also reported.

Petrology

[edit]

Boninite typically consists of phenocrysts of pyroxenes and olivine in a crystallite-rich glassy matrix.

Geochemistry

[edit]

Boninite is defined by

  • high magnesium content (MgO = >8%)
  • low titanium (TiO2 < 0.5%)
  • silica content is 52–63%
  • high Mg/(Mg + Fe) (0.55–0.83)
  • Mantle-normal compatible elements Ni = 70–450 parts per million, Cr = 200–1800 ppm
  • Ba, Sr, LREE enrichments compared to tholeiite
  • Characteristic Ti/Zr ratios (23–63) and La/Yb ratios (0.6–4.7)

Genesis

[edit]

Most boninite magma is formed by second stage melting in forearcs via hydration of previously depleted mantle within the mantle wedge above a subducted slab, causing further melting of the already depleted peridotite. A forearc environment is ideal for boninite genesis, but other tectonic environments, such as backarcs, might be able to form boninite.[1] The content of titanium (an incompatible element within melting of peridotite) is extremely low because previous melting events had removed most of the incompatible elements from the residual mantle source. The first stage melting typically forms island arc basalt. The second melting event is partly made possible by hydrous fluids being added to the shallow hot depleted mantle, leading the enrichment in large ion lithophile elements in the boninite.

Boninite attains its high magnesium and very low titanium content via high degrees of partial melting within the convecting mantle wedge. The high degrees of partial melting are caused by the high water content of the mantle. With the addition of slab-derived volatiles, and incompatible elements derived from the release of low-volume partial melts of the subducted slab, the depleted mantle in the mantle wedge undergoes melting.

Evidence for variable enrichment or depletion of incompatible elements suggests that boninites are derived from refractory peridotite which has been metasomatically enriched in LREE, strontium, barium, and alkalis. Enrichment in Ba, Sr and alkalis may result from a component derived from subducted oceanic crust. This is envisaged as contamination from the underlying subducted slab, either as a sedimentary source or as melts derived from the dehydrating slab.

Boninites can be derived from the peridotite residue of earlier arc tholeiite generation which is metasomatically enriched in LREE before boninite volcanism, or arc tholeiites and boninites can be derived from a variably depleted peridotite source which has been variably metasomatised in LREE.

Areas of fertile peridotite would yield tholeiites, and refractory areas would yield boninites.

Examples

[edit]
Examples of Boninite
Name Location Age Comments
Bonin Islands Pacific Ocean Eocene mostly volcanic breccias and pillow lava flows[2]
Zambales ophiolite western Luzon Eocene upper volcanic unit: high silica boninite, low silica boninite, boninitic basalt.

lower volcanic unit: low silica boninite series volcanics[3]

Cape Vogel Papua New Guinea Paleocene [2]
Troodos Cyprus Cretaceous upper pillow lavas of ophiolite complex[2]
Guam Pacific Ocean Paleogene late Eocene to early Oligocene[2]
Setouchi Japan Miocene sanukitoids, 13 million years old[2]
Baja California Mexico Miocene 14 to 12 million years old, includes bajaite[2]
New Caledonia Pacific Ocean Mesozoic Permian-Triassic and Cretaceous age[2]
Mariana Trench Pacific Ocean Eocene [2]
North-east Lau Basin Pacific Ocean Modern Eruption of boninite lava was observed in 2009 at West Mata volcano in the Lau Basin by scientists using a remotely-operated submersible. Previously, boninite had been found only near extinct volcanoes more than one million years old.[4]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Encarnación, John; Mukasa, Samuel B; Evans, Cynthia A (1999-04-01). "Subduction components and the generation of arc-like melts in the Zambales ophiolite, Philippines: Pb, Sr and Nd isotopic constraints". Chemical Geology. 156 (1–4): 343–357. Bibcode:1999ChGeo.156..343E. doi:10.1016/S0009-2541(98)00190-9.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Crawford, A.J. (1989). Boninites. London: Unwin Hyman. ISBN 978-0-04-445003-0.
  3. ^ Perez, Americus; Umino, Susumu; Yumul Jr., Graciano P.; Ishizuka, Osamu (2018-06-05). "Boninite and boninite-series volcanics in northern Zambales ophiolite: doubly vergent subduction initiation along Philippine Sea plate margins" (PDF). Solid Earth. 9 (3): 713–733. Bibcode:2018SolE....9..713P. doi:10.5194/se-9-713-2018. ISSN 1869-9529.
  4. ^ "Marine Scientists Discover Deepest Undersea Erupting Volcano". News Release 09-243. National Science Foundation. 17 December 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
  • Anthony J. Crawford and W. E. Cameron, 1985. Petrology and geochemistry of Cambrian boninites and low-Ti andesites from Heathcote, Victoria Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol 91 no. 1. Abstract
  • Dobson, P.F., Blank, J.G., Maruyama, S., and Liou, J.G. (2006) Petrology and geochemistry of boninite series volcanic rocks, Chichi-jima, Bonin Islands, Japan. International Geology Review 48, 669–701 (LBNL #57671)
  • Dobson, P.F., Skogby, H, and Rossman, G.R. (1995) Water in boninite glass and coexisting orthopyroxene: concentration and partitioning. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 118,414-419.
  • Le Maitre, R. W. and others (Editors), 2002, Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms: Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks, Cambridge University Press, 2nd, ISBN 0-521-66215-X
  • Blatt, Harvey and Robert Tracy, 1995, Petrology, Second Edition: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic, W. H. Freeman, 2nd, p. 176 ISBN 0-7167-2438-3
  • Hickey, Rosemary L.; Frey, Frederick A. (1982) Geochemical characteristics of boninite series volcanics: implications for their source. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. 46, Issue 11, pp. 2099–2115
  • Resing, J. A., K.H. Rubin, R. Embley, J. Lupton, E. Baker, R. Dziak, T. Baumberger, M. Lilley, J. Huber, T.M. Shank, D. Butterfield, D. Clague, N. Keller, S. Merle, N.J. Buck, P. Michael, A. Soule, D. Caress, S. Walker, R. Davis, J. Cowen, A-L. Reysenbach, and H. Thomas, (2011): Active Submarine Eruption of Boninite at West Mata Volcano in the Extensional NE Lau Basin, Nature Geosciences, 10.1038/ngeo1275.

Petrology