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[[File:Azurite - New Nevada Lode, La Sal, Utah, USA.jpg|thumb|A photo of the azurite mineral, as found in nature. ]] |
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'''Azurite''' is an inorganic pigment derived from the [[Azurite|mineral]] of the same name.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Gettens |first1=Rutherford J. |title=Artists' Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics |last2=Fitzhugh |first2=Elisabeth West |publisher=Archetype |year=1993 |editor-last=Roy |editor-first=Ashok |volume=2 |pages=23–36 |chapter=Azurite and Blue Verditer}}</ref> It was likely used by artists as early as the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] in Egypt, but it was less frequently employed than synthetically produced copper pigments such as [[Egyptian blue|Egyptian Blue]].<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=|pages=23–26}} In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was the most prevalent blue pigment in European paintings, appearing more commonly than the more expensive [[ultramarine]].<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=26|pages=}} Azurite's derivation from copper mines tends to give it a greenish hue, in contrast with the more violet tone of ultramarine.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Finlay |first=Victoria |title=Color: A Natural History of the Palette |publisher=Random House |year=2002 |pages=287–88}}</ref> Azurite is also less stable than ultramarine, and notable paintings such as Michelangelo's ''[[The Entombment (Michelangelo)|The Entombment]]'' have seen their azure blues turn to olive green in time |
'''Azurite''' is an inorganic pigment derived from the [[Azurite|mineral]] of the same name.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Gettens |first1=Rutherford J. |title=Artists' Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics |last2=Fitzhugh |first2=Elisabeth West |publisher=Archetype |year=1993 |editor-last=Roy |editor-first=Ashok |volume=2 |pages=23–36 |chapter=Azurite and Blue Verditer}}</ref>{{Rp|page=23}} It was likely used by artists as early as the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] in Egypt, but it was less frequently employed than synthetically produced copper pigments such as [[Egyptian blue|Egyptian Blue]].<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=|pages=23–26}} In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was the most prevalent blue pigment in European paintings, appearing more commonly than the more expensive [[ultramarine]].<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=26|pages=}} Azurite's derivation from copper mines tends to give it a greenish hue, in contrast with the more violet tone of ultramarine.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Finlay |first=Victoria |title=Color: A Natural History of the Palette |publisher=Random House |year=2002 |pages=287–88}}</ref> Azurite is also less stable than ultramarine, and notable paintings such as Michelangelo's ''[[The Entombment (Michelangelo)|The Entombment]]'' have seen their azure blues turn to olive green in time<ref name=":1" />. Azurite pigment typically includes traces of [[malachite]] and [[cuprite]]; both minerals are found alongside azurite in nature, and they may account for some of the green discoloration of the pigment.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=26}} The particle size of azurite pigment has been shown to have a significant effect on its chromatic intensity, and the manner of grinding and preparing the pigment therefore has a major impact on its appearance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Price |first=Michael |date=2000 |title=A Renaissance of Color: Particle Separation and Preparation of Azurite for Use in Oil Painting |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1576902 |journal=Leonardo |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=281–288 |doi=10.1162/002409400552667 |issn=0024-094X |jstor=1576902 |s2cid=57571083}}</ref> |
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== History == |
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Azurite is naturally occurring mineral found particularly in copper-mining areas of the world<ref>{{Cite web |title=Azurite Meaning, Powers and History |url=https://www.jewelsforme.com/gem_and_jewelry_library/azurite#:~:text=Azurite%20is%20found%20particularly%20in,in%20France,%20are%20called%20Chessylite. |access-date=2023-04-10 |website=www.jewelsforme.com}}</ref>. It is often found with [[malachite]], a green basic carbonate of [[copper]]. There is evidence that azurite has been used since the dawn of modern civilization, dating all the way back to the Fourth Dynasty in Egypt<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=23}}. At certain points of history, azurite was even more popular than ultramarine despite ultramarine receiving more attention. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the two were closely related as azurite wold often be used as an under-paint for ultramarine, possibly to lower costs as ultramarine was the more expensive pigment of the two<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=25}}. |
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Hungary was the main supplier of European azurite until the mid 17th century, until it was invaded by the Ottoman empire, but now Hungary is again the most popular source of the pigment<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=25}}. Azurite was popular in the Far East, though limited in Pre-Columbian indigenous and later Spanish Mission Church paintings<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=25}}. |
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=== Lead === |
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With the invention of [[Prussian blue]] in 1704<ref>{{Citation |last=Kraft |first=Alexander |title=The History of Prussian Blue * |date=2019-04-18 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780429024740-1 |work=Prussian Blue-Type Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites |pages=1–26 |access-date=2023-04-10 |publisher=Jenny Stanford Publishing |isbn=978-0-429-02474-0}}</ref>, azurite was displaced as the go-to blue pigment in certain European paintings, but it still remained largely popular, possibly because of azurite's simple preparation<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=25-26}}. Another synthetic blue pigment that was used similarly as azurite is [[Basic copper carbonate|blue verditer]], a basic carbonate of copper and commonly used to paint houses in the 17th century<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=29-32}}. |
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=== Article body === |
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[[File:Azuritepigment.jpg|thumb|A photo of the azurite pigment after it has been ground. ]] |
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== Chemical Composition == |
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Azurite is a basic compound that is coordinated with [[copper]]<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=23}}. Azurite was popular due to its stability in various light and atmosphere conditions, making it easier to store<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=26}}. Although azurite is permanent in oil and tempura paint, it is darkened when exposed to sulfur and this can be seen in mural paintings that use azurite<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=27}}. Azurite turns greens due to its degradation to malachite and other products<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=27}}. |
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Azurite is relatively easy to identify in conservation studies because of its characteristic ability to produce copper-coordinated compounds, ability to dissolve in acidic solution, and [[birefringence]] interactions with light<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=26-28}}. Various spectroscopy methods such as [[X-ray crystallography|X-ray diffraction,]] [[Emission spectrum|emission spectroscopy]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR spectroscopy]], and Raman spectrophotometry<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=29-32}}. |
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== Conservation == |
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Due to its association with copper and malachite, a green pigment, the hue of azurite over time can change to a greenish blue hue<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=27}}. Conservation studies of a 14th-15th century wall painting of San Antonio Abate in the church of San Pietro near Florence, Italy revealed that the azurite degradation product, once though to be malachite, is actually paratacamite<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|pages=81-84}}. Paratacamite and atacamite are two different phases of a basic copper chloride that are both found amongst azurite degradation products and can be distinguished using FTIR techniques<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=82-84}}. |
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There is controversy of how best to restore azurite degradation because the typical technique of applying ammonium carbonate and barium hydroxide does produce a dark blue hue, but this study, completed in the late 1990's by Italian art conservationists, found that the dark blue hue is not azurite<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=86}}. Rather, the dark blue compound is produced due to the action of [[barium hydroxide]], and not [[ammonium carbonate]], although both are present in the typical conservation technique used to restore azurite. The blue color is not stable, moreover, as two years after the restoration of the San Antonio Abate church wall painting changed color again<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=83}}. Therefore, there is evidence to show that azurite conservation techniques must be updated and continued to be scientifically studied so that not to damage the paintings that are being restored containing this pigment. |
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== Grinding == |
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A finer grind makes azurite appear more pale whereas a coarser grind makes it more pigmented<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=25-26}}. For use in early modern-era paintings, azurite was ground by hand. Artists employed special techniques which required training to grind the pigment in order to achieve different intensities<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=25-26}}. Azurite grinding craftsmanship therefore varies across workshops. Different grinding styles are characterized by both the pigment-medium ratio and the particle size distribution of the pigment<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=25-27}}. Azurite particles are irregular in size and often contains impurities such as malachite and cuprite due to its close association with these compounds<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=23-24}}. The pigment to volume concentration of azurite is difficult to study because azurite was often mixed with varying amounts of lead white<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=31-32}}, especially in early Netherlandish paintings<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|page=233}}. |
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== Association with Ultramarine == |
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Azurite can often be used with ultramarine, perhaps to save costs because ultramarine was very expensive <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Dei |first=Luigi |last2=Ahle |first2=Andreas |last3=Baglioni |first3=Piero |last4=Dini |first4=Daniela |last5=Ferroni |first5=Enzo |date=1998 |title=Green Degradation Products of Azurite in Wall Paintings: Identification and Conservation Treatment |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1506644 |journal=Studies in Conservation |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=80–88 |doi=10.2307/1506644 |issn=0039-3630}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=80-82}}. The two can be distinguished by contrasting the blue-green degradation of azurite with the blue-violet degradation of ultramarine as they are sourced from two different minerals<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=25-31}}. Whereas ultramarine was ground a bit finer than azurite, azurite is a strong pigment if left coarsely ground, so artists took care not to grind it too fine<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=J. R. J. Van Asperen De |date=1974 |title=An Examination of Particle Size Distributions of Azurite and Natural Ultramarine in Some Early Netherlandish Paintings |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1505730 |journal=Studies in Conservation |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=233–243 |doi=10.2307/1505730 |issn=0039-3630}}</ref>{{Rp|page=233}}. |
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[[File:The Ghent Altarpiece The Adoration of The Mystic Lamb Detail.jpg|thumb|The ''Mystic Lamb,'' a painting in which azurite is used.]] |
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In the painting ''[[Ghent Altarpiece|Mystic Lamb]]'', ultramarine and azurite were used in nearly the same areas and in similar particle size distributions<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|pages=233-236}}. Both pigments are finely ground. However, ''The Mystic Lamb'' alone should not be used to generalize the style of azurite use in early Netherlandish paintings. In a different early Netherlandish painting from the group D. Bouts, azurite and ultramarine are used together, but they are ground much coarser<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|pages=237-243}}. |
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== In Paintings == |
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Azurite was used to paint the dark blue sky of a Renaissance-era Spanish altarpiece painting by [[Bartolomé Bermejo|Bartolome Bermejo]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Rodríguez-López |first=Ainhoa |last2=Khandekar |first2=Narayan |last3=Gates |first3=Glenn |last4=Newman |first4=Richard |date=2007 |title=Materials and Techniques of a Spanish Renaissance Panel Painting |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20619489 |journal=Studies in Conservation |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=81–100 |issn=0039-3630}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=81-84}}. In this work, the panel painting of St Jerome, is comprised of typical Spanish Renaissance painting techniques and materials, of which azurite was common. During this time, azurite was a common pigment used to paint a blue sky<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=24}}. In this painting, azurite is also combined with lead white to paint the green robe of the Saint<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|pages=84-86}}. |
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[[File:Albrecht Altdorfer, Christ Taking Leave of His Mother (probably 1520).jpg|thumb|''Christ Taking Leave of Mother'' (circa 1520).]] |
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In the 1520 painting titled ''[[Christ taking leave of his Mother|Christ Taking Leave of His Mother]]'' by Altdorfer, the color blue is supplied by azurite used to paint the garments of figures depicted. In addition, azurite is mixed with lead white to paint the sky<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=24}}. |
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Azurite has been used to produce greens for foliage and landscapes and mixed with red pigments to produce violet<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=32}}. {{Dashboard.wikiedu.org draft template/about this sandbox}} |
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== References == |
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[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]] |
[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]] |
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Latest revision as of 17:28, 9 May 2023
Azurite is an inorganic pigment derived from the mineral of the same name.[1]: 23 It was likely used by artists as early as the Fourth Dynasty in Egypt, but it was less frequently employed than synthetically produced copper pigments such as Egyptian Blue.[1]: 23–26 In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was the most prevalent blue pigment in European paintings, appearing more commonly than the more expensive ultramarine.[1]: 26 Azurite's derivation from copper mines tends to give it a greenish hue, in contrast with the more violet tone of ultramarine.[2] Azurite is also less stable than ultramarine, and notable paintings such as Michelangelo's The Entombment have seen their azure blues turn to olive green in time[2]. Azurite pigment typically includes traces of malachite and cuprite; both minerals are found alongside azurite in nature, and they may account for some of the green discoloration of the pigment.[1]: 26 The particle size of azurite pigment has been shown to have a significant effect on its chromatic intensity, and the manner of grinding and preparing the pigment therefore has a major impact on its appearance.[3]
History
[edit]Azurite is naturally occurring mineral found particularly in copper-mining areas of the world[4]. It is often found with malachite, a green basic carbonate of copper. There is evidence that azurite has been used since the dawn of modern civilization, dating all the way back to the Fourth Dynasty in Egypt[1]: 23 . At certain points of history, azurite was even more popular than ultramarine despite ultramarine receiving more attention. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the two were closely related as azurite wold often be used as an under-paint for ultramarine, possibly to lower costs as ultramarine was the more expensive pigment of the two[1]: 25 .
Hungary was the main supplier of European azurite until the mid 17th century, until it was invaded by the Ottoman empire, but now Hungary is again the most popular source of the pigment[1]: 25 . Azurite was popular in the Far East, though limited in Pre-Columbian indigenous and later Spanish Mission Church paintings[1]: 25 .
With the invention of Prussian blue in 1704[5], azurite was displaced as the go-to blue pigment in certain European paintings, but it still remained largely popular, possibly because of azurite's simple preparation[1]: 25–26 . Another synthetic blue pigment that was used similarly as azurite is blue verditer, a basic carbonate of copper and commonly used to paint houses in the 17th century[1]: 29–32 .
Chemical Composition
[edit]Azurite is a basic compound that is coordinated with copper[1]: 23 . Azurite was popular due to its stability in various light and atmosphere conditions, making it easier to store[1]: 26 . Although azurite is permanent in oil and tempura paint, it is darkened when exposed to sulfur and this can be seen in mural paintings that use azurite[1]: 27 . Azurite turns greens due to its degradation to malachite and other products[1]: 27 .
Azurite is relatively easy to identify in conservation studies because of its characteristic ability to produce copper-coordinated compounds, ability to dissolve in acidic solution, and birefringence interactions with light[1]: 26–28 . Various spectroscopy methods such as X-ray diffraction, emission spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, and Raman spectrophotometry[1]: 29–32 .
Conservation
[edit]Due to its association with copper and malachite, a green pigment, the hue of azurite over time can change to a greenish blue hue[1]: 27 . Conservation studies of a 14th-15th century wall painting of San Antonio Abate in the church of San Pietro near Florence, Italy revealed that the azurite degradation product, once though to be malachite, is actually paratacamite[6]: 81–84 . Paratacamite and atacamite are two different phases of a basic copper chloride that are both found amongst azurite degradation products and can be distinguished using FTIR techniques[6]: 82-84 .
There is controversy of how best to restore azurite degradation because the typical technique of applying ammonium carbonate and barium hydroxide does produce a dark blue hue, but this study, completed in the late 1990's by Italian art conservationists, found that the dark blue hue is not azurite[6]: 86 . Rather, the dark blue compound is produced due to the action of barium hydroxide, and not ammonium carbonate, although both are present in the typical conservation technique used to restore azurite. The blue color is not stable, moreover, as two years after the restoration of the San Antonio Abate church wall painting changed color again[6]: 83 . Therefore, there is evidence to show that azurite conservation techniques must be updated and continued to be scientifically studied so that not to damage the paintings that are being restored containing this pigment.
Grinding
[edit]A finer grind makes azurite appear more pale whereas a coarser grind makes it more pigmented[1]: 25–26 . For use in early modern-era paintings, azurite was ground by hand. Artists employed special techniques which required training to grind the pigment in order to achieve different intensities[1]: 25–26 . Azurite grinding craftsmanship therefore varies across workshops. Different grinding styles are characterized by both the pigment-medium ratio and the particle size distribution of the pigment[1]: 25–27 . Azurite particles are irregular in size and often contains impurities such as malachite and cuprite due to its close association with these compounds[1]: 23–24 . The pigment to volume concentration of azurite is difficult to study because azurite was often mixed with varying amounts of lead white[1]: 31–32 , especially in early Netherlandish paintings[7]: 233 .
Association with Ultramarine
[edit]Azurite can often be used with ultramarine, perhaps to save costs because ultramarine was very expensive [6]: 80–82 . The two can be distinguished by contrasting the blue-green degradation of azurite with the blue-violet degradation of ultramarine as they are sourced from two different minerals[1]: 25–31 . Whereas ultramarine was ground a bit finer than azurite, azurite is a strong pigment if left coarsely ground, so artists took care not to grind it too fine[7]: 233 .
In the painting Mystic Lamb, ultramarine and azurite were used in nearly the same areas and in similar particle size distributions[7]: 233–236 . Both pigments are finely ground. However, The Mystic Lamb alone should not be used to generalize the style of azurite use in early Netherlandish paintings. In a different early Netherlandish painting from the group D. Bouts, azurite and ultramarine are used together, but they are ground much coarser[7]: 237–243 .
In Paintings
[edit]Azurite was used to paint the dark blue sky of a Renaissance-era Spanish altarpiece painting by Bartolome Bermejo[8]: 81–84 . In this work, the panel painting of St Jerome, is comprised of typical Spanish Renaissance painting techniques and materials, of which azurite was common. During this time, azurite was a common pigment used to paint a blue sky[1]: 24 . In this painting, azurite is also combined with lead white to paint the green robe of the Saint[8]: 84–86 .
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In the 1520 painting titled Christ Taking Leave of His Mother by Altdorfer, the color blue is supplied by azurite used to paint the garments of figures depicted. In addition, azurite is mixed with lead white to paint the sky[1]: 24 .
Azurite has been used to produce greens for foliage and landscapes and mixed with red pigments to produce violet[1]: 32 .
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References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Gettens, Rutherford J.; Fitzhugh, Elisabeth West (1993). "Azurite and Blue Verditer". In Roy, Ashok (ed.). Artists' Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics. Vol. 2. Archetype. pp. 23–36.
- ^ a b Finlay, Victoria (2002). Color: A Natural History of the Palette. Random House. pp. 287–88.
- ^ Price, Michael (2000). "A Renaissance of Color: Particle Separation and Preparation of Azurite for Use in Oil Painting". Leonardo. 33 (4): 281–288. doi:10.1162/002409400552667. ISSN 0024-094X. JSTOR 1576902. S2CID 57571083.
- ^ "Azurite Meaning, Powers and History". www.jewelsforme.com. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
- ^ Kraft, Alexander (2019-04-18), "The History of Prussian Blue *", Prussian Blue-Type Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites, Jenny Stanford Publishing, pp. 1–26, ISBN 978-0-429-02474-0, retrieved 2023-04-10
- ^ a b c d e Dei, Luigi; Ahle, Andreas; Baglioni, Piero; Dini, Daniela; Ferroni, Enzo (1998). "Green Degradation Products of Azurite in Wall Paintings: Identification and Conservation Treatment". Studies in Conservation. 43 (2): 80–88. doi:10.2307/1506644. ISSN 0039-3630.
- ^ a b c d Boer, J. R. J. Van Asperen De (1974). "An Examination of Particle Size Distributions of Azurite and Natural Ultramarine in Some Early Netherlandish Paintings". Studies in Conservation. 19 (4): 233–243. doi:10.2307/1505730. ISSN 0039-3630.
- ^ a b Rodríguez-López, Ainhoa; Khandekar, Narayan; Gates, Glenn; Newman, Richard (2007). "Materials and Techniques of a Spanish Renaissance Panel Painting". Studies in Conservation. 52 (2): 81–100. ISSN 0039-3630.