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This article discusses the history of marketing as a recognized discipline, along with concomitant changes in marketing theory and practice. (Marketing comprises all activities involved in the transfer of goods from the producer or seller to the consumer or buyer, including advertising, shipping, storing, and selling.^{[citation needed]})

The study of the history of marketing as an academic field emerged only recently^[update].^[when?] Controversies and disputes abound in the field.^{[citation needed]} The publication in 1976 of the book The History of Marketing Thought, by Robert Bartels marks a turning-point^{[citation needed]} in marketing thought. Since then, academics specializing in marketing decided^{[citation needed]} to imitate economics, distinguishing theory and practice. Two different fields of study emerged:

the history of marketing thought, giving theoretical accounts
marketing history, focusing on the history of marketing practice

This division parallels the distinction between the history of economic thought and economic history.^[1]

Practitioners of the history of marketing thought note that both practitioners and academics know relatively little about the field.^{[citation needed]} But history has significance for academics because it helps to define the baselines upon which they can recognize change and evolve marketing theory.^[2] On the other hand, proponents of marketing history argue that one cannot fully compare the marketing field with economics and hence suggest the impracticality of divorcing theory and practice.^{[citation needed]} First, marketing scholars seldom engage in the practice of marketing as much as economists engage in the development and execution of public policies. Second, business people innovate in the marketing field, and the history of marketing will remain incomplete if one dissociates academia from practitioners.^[1]

The following sections discuss both approaches to the history of marketing, closing with a debate about the standard chronology of marketing, a widely-known hypothesis about the history of marketing, but one that historians in the marketing field have challenged.

History of marketing thought

The history of marketing thought deals with the evolution of theories in the field of marketing, from the ancient world . Marketing historians agree that the discipline branched out of at the turn of the twentieth century, though some argue that scholars in the ancient and medieval ages had already studied marketing ideas.

Periodization

Robert Bartels in The History of Marketing Thought' categorised the development of marketing theory decade by decade from the beginning of the 20th century thus:

1900s: discovery of basic concepts and their exploration
1910s: conceptualisation, classification and definition of terms
1920s: integration on the basis of principles
1930s: development of specialisation and variation in theory
1940s: reappraisal in the light of new demands and a more scientific approach
1950s: reconceptualisation in the light of managerialism, social development and quantitative approaches
1960s: differentiation on bases such as managerialism, holism, environmentalism, systems, and internationalism
1970s: socialisation; the adaptation of marketing to social change

With the growth in importance of marketing departments and their associated marketing managers, the field has become ripe for the propagation of management fads which do not always lend themselves to periodization.

Birth of marketing ideas

In pre-modern economies, the predominance of small enterprises militated against the recognition of marketing as a separate field of expertise. Changes in the patterns and intensity of economic activity, as well as the rise of economics as a science, particularly in the 19th century, paved the way for studies of marketing. The growth in size and scope of national and international economies in the course of the Industrial revolution led eventually to a transcendence of ad hoc retailing and advertising innovations and eventually to systematization. Marketing emerged as a separate technical field only in the late 19th century. The OED traces the abstract usage of the word only as far back as 1884.

Traditional schools

Traditional authorities^[who?] on marketing concentrated on products and on the sale and purchase of goods and services. They paid little attention to areas like after-sales service, and devoted even less attention to social responsibility or to social accountability.

Modern schools

Marketing historians like Eric Shaw and Barton A. Weitz point to the publication of Wroe Alderson's book, Marketing Behavior and Executive Action (1957), as a break-point in the history of marketing thought,^[3] moving from the macro functions-institutions-commodities approach to a micromarketing management paradigm. After Alderson, marketing began to incorporate other fields of knowledge besides economics, notably behavioral science, becoming a multidisciplinary field. For some scholars, Alderson's book marks the beginning of the Marketing Management Era.

Unlike economists, marketers have difficulty in organizing the different theories in their discipline into schools-of-thought.^{[clarification needed]} However, some marketing historians like Jagdish Sheth have tried to identify the main concepts behind the work of scholars in the field, grouping their ideas into "marketing schools" such as the following:

the Managerial school emerged during the late 1950s and became arguably the predominant and most influential school of thought in the field
the Consumer/buyer behavior school, which dominated the academic field in the second half of the twentieth century (apart from the Manageerial school), features theories emerging from behavioral science
the Social exchange school, which focuses on exchange as the fundamental concept of marketing

Marketing history

Much of traditional marketing practice prior to the twentieth century remained hidebound by rules-of-thumb and lack of information. Information technology, especially since the mid-twentieth century, has given the marketeer new channels of communication as well as enhanced means of aggregating and analyzing marketing data. Specializations have emerged (especially sales versus marketing and advertising versus retailing) and re-combined (business development) over the years.

Timeline of innovation

1450: Gutenberg's metal movable type, leading eventually to mass-production of flyers and brochures
1730s: emergence of magazines (a future vector of niche marketing)
1836: first paid advertising in a newspaper (in France)
1839: posters on private property banned in London
1864: earliest recorded use of the telegraph for mass unsolicited spam
1867: earliest recorded billboard rentals
1880s: early examples of trademarks as branding
1905: the University of Pennsylvania offered a course in "The Marketing of Products"^[4]
1908: Harvard Business School opens
1922: radio advertising commences
1940s: electronic computers developed
1941: first recorded use of television advertising
1950s: systematization of telemarketing
1970s: E-commerce invented
1980s: development of database marketing as precursor to CRM^[5]
1980s: emergence of relationship marketing
1980s: emergence of computer-oriented spam
1984: introduction of guerrilla marketing
1985: desktop publishing democratizes the production of print-advertising

1991: Integrated marketing communications gains academic status ^[6]

1990s CRM and IMC (in various guises and names) gain dominance in promotions and marketing planning^[7],^[8]
1995-2001: the Dot-com bubble temporarily re-defines^{[citation needed]} the future of marketing
1996: identification of viral marketing
2000s: Integrated marketing gains acceptance and in 2002 its first dedicated academic research centre^[9],^[10]

Periodization

One marketing standard chronology(Bartels, 1974;Dawson, 1969;Keith, 1960; Kotler and Keller, 2006)subdivides marketing history as follows:

Production orientation era
Product orientation era
Sales orientation era
Market orientation era
Customer orientation
Relationship orientation
Social/mobile marketing orientation

Production orientation

A production orientation dominated business thought from the beginning of capitalism^[when?] to the mid 1950s, and some^[who?] argue it still exists in some industries.^{[citation needed]} Business concerned itself primarily with production, manufacturing, and efficiency issues.^{[citation needed]} Say's Law encapsulated this viewpoint, stating: "Supply creates its own demand". To put it another way, "if somebody makes a product, somebody else will want to buy it". This orientation rose to prominence in an environment which had a shortage of manufactured goods relative to demand, so goods sold easily.^[11]

Implications of this orientation include:^{[citation needed]}

narrow product-line(s)
pricing based on the costs of production and distribution
research limited to technical product-research
packaging designed primarily to protect product
minimal promotion and advertising, limited to raising awareness of the existence of the product
consumers more interested in simply obtaining the product, and less in its quality

Some examples:

The early^[when?] car industry provides the classic example of production orientation, exemplified by the story of Henry Ford’s Model T. At this time^[when?] production orientation, an industry-wide philosophy, applied in many industries.^{[citation needed]}

As of 2009^[update] one sees examples of production-orientation marketing in individual companies rather than in whole industries because of increased competition.^{[citation needed]} One might argue^{[original research?]} that some elements of the production orientation appear in the electronics industry where firms manufacture large quantities of low-cost, low-price goods when they know that a market exists. As a possible^{[original research?]} supplementary factor, one can usually replace an electronic product much more cheaply than fixing it.^{[citation needed]}

Philip Kotler argues that assembly-line techniques have migrated to services like government benefits offices, in which they deal with people very efficiently, but without necessarily entailing full satisfaction on the part of the customer^{[citation needed]}

Relationship orientation

Starting in the 1990’s, a new stage of marketing emerged called relationship marketing. The focus of relationship marketing is on a long-term relationship that benefits both the company and the customer. ^[12] The relationship is based on trust and commitment, and both companies tend to shift their operating activities to be able to work more efficiently together. ^[13] One of the most prominent reasons for relationship marketing comes from Kotler’s idea that it costs about five times more to obtain a new customer than to maintain the relationship with an existing customer. ^[14]

Sales in relationship marketing should encompass the following: open communication, employee empowerment, customers and the planning process, and teamwork. ^[15] First, communication is essential in figuring out what the customers need and determining how the firm can satisfy those needs. With open communication, both sides can express what they are trying to do and can work out a way to make it work together. Second, employee empowerment is important so that the employees are able to satisfy customer needs. Without empowerment, they may be limited in their solutions and cannot creatively satisfy needs. Third, customers must be involved in the planning process. Customer input is invaluable, as the customer is the one who will be using the product. If the customer is not satisfied from the beginning, there is no way to gain approval after the product is incorporated. Lastly, relationship marketing must emphasize teamwork. Several people who can help solve customer problems should work together and use their talents to best serve the customers. ^[16]

While relationship marketing is largely held as the most recent stage of marketing, there is speculation that we are now entering into a new era of marketing called the social/mobile marketing era where companies are connected to customers 24/7. ^[17]

The societal marketing concept

Societal marketing emerged in the 1960s. The societal marketing concept deals with the needs, wants and demands of customers: how to satisfy them by producing superior value that should satisfy the customers and promote the well-being of society.^{[citation needed]} The producer should not produce products deemed hazardous to society.^{[citation needed]}

Societal marketing developed into sustainable marketing.

References

^ ^a ^b Hollander, Stanley C.; Rassuli, Kathleen M.; Jones, D. G. Brian; Dix, Laura Farlow (2005). "Periodization in Marketing History". Journal of Macromarketing. 25 (1): 32–41. doi:10.1177/0276146705274982.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
^ Jones, Brian D. G. (2006). "A History of Marketing Thought". Handbook of Marketing. Weitz, Barton A.; Wensley, Robin (editors). Sage. pp. 582 pages. ISBN 1412921201. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Bartels, Robert (1988). The History of Marketing Thought (3rd. ed.). Columbus: Publishing Horizons.
^ http://www.faculty.missouristate.edu/c/ChuckHermans/Bartels.htm
^ Jenkinson, A. (2006) Do organisations now understand the importance of information in providing excellent customer experience? Journal of Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management. v13 n4. p248-260
^ Schultz, D. E. (1991) Integrated Marketing Communications: The Status of Integrated Marketing Communications Programs in the US Today, Journal of Promotion Management, 1, 1, 99-104
^ Pickton, D. and Broderick, A., (2005, 2nd edn) Integrated Marketing Communications, Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Harlow, England
^ Chapter 1 in Payne, A. (2008) Handbook of CRM: Achieving Excellence in Customer Management. Butterworth Heinemann, Burlington, MA
^ See www.centreforintegratedmarketing.com at the University of Bedfordshire, England
^ Iacobucci, D., and Calder, B., (eds), (2003) Kellogg on Integrated Marketing, John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ
^ “Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control”, Philip Kotler, Prentice Hall, 1997 p.17
^ White, D. Steven. "The Evolution of Marketing". Retrieved 11 July 2011.
^ Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment of a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ McClintic Marion, Allison. "Marketing: Historical Perspectives". Retrieved 11 July 2011.
^ Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment of a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment o f a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ White, D. Steven. "The Evolution of Marketing". Retrieved 11 July 2011.

hiya

Category:Marketing

[Hollander_et_al._(2005)-1] Hollander, Stanley C.; Rassuli, Kathleen M.; Jones, D. G. Brian; Dix, Laura Farlow (2005). "Periodization in Marketing History". Journal of Macromarketing. 25 (1): 32–41. doi:10.1177/0276146705274982.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

[handbook-2] Jones, Brian D. G. (2006). "A History of Marketing Thought". Handbook of Marketing. Weitz, Barton A.; Wensley, Robin (editors). Sage. pp. 582 pages. ISBN 1412921201. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[Bartels88-3] Bartels, Robert (1988). The History of Marketing Thought (3rd. ed.). Columbus: Publishing Horizons.

[4] ttp://www.faculty.missouristate.edu/c/ChuckHermans/Bartels.htm

[5] Jenkinson, A. (2006) Do organisations now understand the importance of information in providing excellent customer experience? Journal of Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management. v13 n4. p248-260

[6] Schultz, D. E. (1991) Integrated Marketing Communications: The Status of Integrated Marketing Communications Programs in the US Today, Journal of Promotion Management, 1, 1, 99-104

[7] Pickton, D. and Broderick, A., (2005, 2nd edn) Integrated Marketing Communications, Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Harlow, England

[8] Chapter 1 in Payne, A. (2008) Handbook of CRM: Achieving Excellence in Customer Management. Butterworth Heinemann, Burlington, MA

[9] See www.centreforintegratedmarketing.com at the University of Bedfordshire, England

[10] Iacobucci, D., and Calder, B., (eds), (2003) Kellogg on Integrated Marketing, John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ

[11] “Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control”, Philip Kotler, Prentice Hall, 1997 p.17

[12] White, D. Steven. "The Evolution of Marketing". Retrieved 11 July 2011.

[13] Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment of a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[14] McClintic Marion, Allison. "Marketing: Historical Perspectives". Retrieved 11 July 2011.

[15] Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment of a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[16] Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment o f a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[17] White, D. Steven. "The Evolution of Marketing". Retrieved 11 July 2011.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+— {{User Sandbox}}
-<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bolton|first=Ruth|title="MSI 50: Years Ahead"|journal=Marketing Management|year=2011|month=Summer|pages=44-47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Paul|title=Knowledge Development in Marketing: The MSI Experience|year=1987|publisher=D.C. Heath and Company|isbn=0-669-12581-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wilkie|first=William L.|coauthors=Elizabeth S. Moore|title="Scholarly Research in Marketing: Exploring the "4 Eras" of Thought Development|journal=Journal of Public Policy & Marketing|year=2003|month=Fall|volume=22|issue=2|pages=116-146}}</ref>.<ref>{{cite web  | title = "About MSI"  | publisher = Marketing Science Institute| url = http://www.msi.org/about/ | accessdate = 2011-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web  | title = "MSI Community and Staff"  | publisher = Marketing Science Institute| url = http://www.msi.org/about/ | accessdate = 2011-07-28}}</ref>==External links==
+<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE -->
-* [http://www.msi.org/ MSI website]
+''This article discusses the '''history of marketing''' as a recognized discipline, along with concomitant changes in marketing theory and practice. (Marketing comprises all activities involved in the transfer of goods from the producer or seller to the consumer or buyer, including advertising, shipping, storing, and selling.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}})
+The study of the history of marketing as an academic field emerged {{as of | 2008 | alt = only recently}}.{{When|date=February 2009}} Controversies and disputes abound in the field.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} The publication in 1976 of the book ''The History of Marketing Thought'', by [[Robert Bartels]] marks a turning-point{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} in marketing thought. Since then, academics specializing in marketing decided{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} to imitate [[economics]], distinguishing theory and practice. Two different fields of study emerged:
+# the ''[[history of marketing thought]]'', giving theoretical accounts
+# ''marketing history'', focusing on the history of marketing practice
+This division parallels the distinction between the [[history of economic thought]] and [[economic history]].<ref name="Hollander et al. (2005)">
+{{cite journal|year=2005|title=Periodization in Marketing History
+|journal=Journal of Macromarketing|date=2005
+|volume= 25|issue= 1|pages= 32–41|doi=10.1177/0276146705274982
+|last1=Hollander
+|first1=Stanley C.
+|last2=Rassuli
+|first2=Kathleen M.
+|last3=Jones
+|first3=D. G. Brian
+|last4=Dix
+|first4=Laura Farlow
+}}
+</ref>
+Practitioners of the ''history of marketing thought'' note that both practitioners and academics know relatively little about the field.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} But history has significance for academics because it helps to define the baselines upon which they can recognize change and evolve marketing theory.<ref name=handbook>
-{{User Sandbox}}
+{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Brian D. G. |coauthors=Shaw, Eric H.|others=Weitz, Barton A.; Wensley, Robin (editors)|title=Handbook of Marketing|publisher=Sage|year=2006
-<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE -->
+|pages=582 pages|chapter=A History of Marketing Thought|isbn=1412921201}}
-'''Marketing Science Institute'''
+</ref>
-[http://www.msi.org/about/index.cfm?id=70 member companies]{{Primarysources|date=July 2011}}
+On the other hand, proponents of ''marketing history'' argue that one cannot fully compare the marketing field with economics and hence suggest the impracticality of divorcing theory and practice.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} First, marketing scholars seldom engage in the practice of marketing as much as economists engage in the development and execution of public policies. Second, [[business]] people innovate in the marketing field, and the history of marketing will remain incomplete if one dissociates academia from practitioners.<ref name="Hollander et al. (2005)" />
+The following sections discuss both approaches to the history of marketing, closing with a debate about the ''standard chronology'' of marketing, a widely-known hypothesis about the history of marketing, but one that historians in the marketing field have challenged.
+==History of marketing thought==
+The history of marketing thought deals with the evolution of theories in the field of marketing, from the ancient world . Marketing historians agree that the discipline branched out of at the turn of the twentieth century,
+though some argue that scholars in the ancient and medieval ages had already studied marketing ideas.
+===Periodization===
+Robert Bartels in ''The History of Marketing Thought'
+categorised the development of marketing theory decade by decade from the beginning of the 20th century thus:
+* 1900s: discovery of basic concepts and their exploration
+* 1910s: conceptualisation, classification and definition of terms
+* 1920s: integration on the basis of principles
+* 1930s: development of specialisation and variation in theory
+* 1940s: reappraisal in the light of new demands and a more scientific approach
+* 1950s: reconceptualisation in the light of [[managerialism]], social development and quantitative approaches
+* 1960s: differentiation on bases such as managerialism, [[holism]], [[environmentalism]], [[systems theory|system]]s, and [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]]
+* 1970s: socialisation; the adaptation of marketing to social change
+With the growth in importance of marketing departments and their associated [[marketing management|marketing manager]]s, the field has become ripe for the propagation of [[management fad]]s which do not always lend themselves to periodization.
+===Birth of marketing ideas===
+{{Expand section|date=December 2008}}
+In pre-modern economies, the predominance of small enterprises militated against the recognition of [[marketing]] as a separate field of expertise. Changes in the patterns and intensity of economic activity, as well as the rise of [[economics]] as a science, particularly in the 19th century, paved the way for studies of marketing.
+The growth in size and scope of national and international economies in the course of the [[Industrial revolution]] led eventually to a transcendence of ''ad hoc'' [[retailing]] and [[advertising]] innovations and eventually to systematization. Marketing emerged as a separate technical field only in the late 19th century. The [[OED]] traces the abstract usage of the word only as far back as 1884.
+===Traditional schools===
+{{Expand section|date=December 2008}}
+Traditional authorities{{Who|date=May 2009}} on marketing concentrated on products and on the sale and purchase of goods and services. They paid little attention to areas like [[after-sale]]s service, and devoted even less attention to [[social responsibility]] or to [[social accountability]].
+===Modern schools===
+Marketing historians like Eric Shaw and Barton A. Weitz point to the publication of [[Wroe Alderson]]'s book, ''Marketing Behavior and Executive Action'' (1957), as a break-point in the history of marketing thought,<ref name=Bartels88>
+{{cite book|last=Bartels|first=Robert|title=The History of Marketing Thought
+|publisher=Publishing Horizons|location=Columbus|year=1988|edition=3rd.}}
+</ref> moving from the macro functions-institutions-commodities approach to a [[micromarketing]] [[management]] [[paradigm]].  After Alderson, marketing began to incorporate other fields of knowledge besides economics, notably [[behavioral science]], becoming a multidisciplinary field. For some scholars, Alderson's book marks the beginning of the ''Marketing Management Era''.
+Unlike economists, marketers have difficulty in organizing the different theories in their discipline into schools-of-thought.{{Clarify|date=December 2008}} However, some marketing historians like [[Jagdish Sheth]] have tried to identify the main concepts behind the work of scholars in the field, grouping their ideas into "marketing schools" such as the following:
+* the ''Managerial school'' emerged during the late 1950s and became arguably the predominant and most influential school of thought in the field
+* the ''Consumer/buyer behavior school'', which dominated the academic field in the second half of the twentieth century (apart from the Manageerial school), features theories emerging from behavioral science
+* the ''Social exchange school'', which focuses on exchange as the fundamental concept of marketing
+==Marketing history==
+{{Expand section|date=December 2008}}
+Much of traditional marketing practice prior to the twentieth century remained hidebound by rules-of-thumb and lack of information. [[Information technology]], especially since the mid-twentieth century, has given the marketeer new channels of communication as well as enhanced means of aggregating and analyzing marketing data. Specializations have emerged (especially [[sales]] versus marketing and [[advertising]] versus [[retailing]]) and re-combined ([[business development]]) over the years.
+===Timeline of innovation===
+* 1450: Gutenberg's metal movable type, leading eventually to mass-production of [[Flyer (pamphlet)|flyer]]s and [[brochure]]s
+* 1730s: emergence of magazines (a future vector of [[niche marketing]])
+* 1836: first paid advertising in a [[newspaper]] (in France)
+* 1839: [[poster]]s on private property banned in London
+* 1864: earliest recorded use of the [[telegraph]] for mass unsolicited [[spam (electronic)|spam]]
+* 1867: earliest recorded [[billboard]] rentals
+* 1880s: early examples of [[trademark]]s as [[brand]]ing
+* 1905: the University of Pennsylvania offered a course in "The Marketing of Products"<ref>http://www.faculty.missouristate.edu/c/ChuckHermans/Bartels.htm</ref>
+* 1908: [[Harvard Business School]] opens
+* 1922: [[radio advertising]] commences
+* 1940s: electronic computers developed
+* 1941: first recorded use of [[television advertising]]
+* 1950s: systematization of [[telemarketing]]
+* 1970s: [[E-commerce]] invented
+* 1980s: development of [[database marketing]] as precursor to [[Customer relationship management|CRM]]<ref>Jenkinson, A. (2006) Do organisations now understand the importance of information in providing excellent customer experience? Journal of Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management. v13 n4. p248-260</ref>
+* 1980s: emergence of [[relationship marketing]]
+* 1980s: emergence of computer-oriented [[spam (electronic)|spam]]
+* 1984: introduction of [[guerrilla marketing]]
+* 1985: [[desktop publishing]] democratizes the production of print-advertising
+: [[Integrated marketing communications]] gains academic status <ref>Schultz, D. E. (1991) Integrated Marketing Communications: The Status of Integrated Marketing Communications Programs in the US Today, Journal of Promotion Management, 1, 1, 99-104</ref>
+* 1990s CRM and IMC (in various guises and names) gain dominance in promotions and marketing planning<ref>Pickton, D. and Broderick, A., (2005, 2nd edn) Integrated Marketing Communications, Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Harlow, England</ref>,<ref>Chapter 1 in Payne, A. (2008) Handbook of CRM: Achieving Excellence in Customer Management. Butterworth Heinemann, Burlington, MA</ref>
+* 1995-2001: the [[Dot-com bubble]] temporarily re-defines{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} the future of marketing
+* 1996: identification of [[viral marketing]]
+* 2000s: [[Integrated marketing]] gains acceptance and in 2002 its first dedicated academic research centre<ref>See www.centreforintegratedmarketing.com at the University of Bedfordshire, England</ref>,<ref>Iacobucci, D., and Calder, B., (eds), (2003)  Kellogg on Integrated Marketing, John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ</ref>
+===Periodization===
+One marketing standard chronology(Bartels, 1974;Dawson, 1969;Keith, 1960; Kotler and Keller, 2006)subdivides marketing history as follows:
+* Production orientation era
+* Product orientation era
+* Sales orientation era
+* Market orientation era
+* Customer orientation
+* Relationship orientation
+* Social/mobile marketing orientation
+====Production orientation====
+A '''production orientation''' dominated business thought from the beginning of [[capitalism]]{{When|date=February 2009}} to the mid 1950s, and some{{Who|date=February 2009}} argue it still exists in some industries.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} [[Business]] concerned itself primarily with production, manufacturing, and efficiency issues.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} [[Say's Law]] encapsulated this viewpoint, stating: "Supply creates its own demand". To put it another way, "if somebody makes a product, somebody else will want to buy it". This orientation rose to prominence in an environment which had a shortage of manufactured goods relative to demand, so goods sold easily.<ref>
+“Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control”, Philip Kotler, Prentice Hall, 1997 p.17
+</ref>
+Implications of this orientation include:{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}
+* narrow product-line(s)
+* [[pricing]]  based on the costs of [[Production, costs, and pricing|production]] and [[distribution (business)|distribution]]
+* research limited to technical product-research
+* packaging designed primarily to protect product
+* minimal [[promotion (marketing)|promotion]] and [[advertising]], limited to raising awareness of the existence of the product
+* consumers more interested in simply obtaining the product, and less in its quality
+Some examples:
+* The early{{When|date=February 2009}} [[car industry]] provides the classic example of production orientation, exemplified by the story of Henry Ford’s [[Ford Model T|Model T]]. At this time{{When|date=February 2009}} production orientation, an industry-wide philosophy, applied in many industries.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}
-Founded in 1961, the '''Marketing Science Institute (MSI)''' is a learning organization dedicated to bridging the gap beween marketing theory and business practice. MSI is a corporate-membership-based organization. In addition, leading researchers from universities worldwide participate in MSI research programs.
+* {{As of | 2009}} one sees examples of production-orientation marketing in individual companies rather than in whole industries because of increased competition.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} One might argue{{Or|date=February 2009}} that some elements of the production orientation appear in the electronics industry where firms manufacture large quantities of low-cost, low-price goods when they know that a market exists. As a possible{{Or|date=February 2009}} supplementary factor, one can usually replace an electronic product much more cheaply than fixing it.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}
-As a nonprofit institution, '''MSI''' financially supports academic research for the development—and practical translation—of marketing knowledge on topics of importance to business. Issues of key importance to business performance are identified by the Board of Trustees, which represents MSI corporations and the academic community. MSI supports studies by academics on these issues and disseminates the results through conferences and workshops, as well as through its publications series.
+* [[Philip Kotler]] argues that assembly-line techniques have migrated to services like government benefits offices, in which they deal with people very efficiently, but without necessarily entailing full satisfaction on the part of the customer{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}
-MSI headquarters are located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The primary governing body of MSI is the Board of Trustees, which is made up of representatives of each of MSI’s [http://www.msi.org/about/index.cfm?id=70 member companies.]MSI staff members are responsible for membership and research programs, conferences, publications, and all other operations.
+====Relationship orientation====
-History
-In 1961, Scott Paper Company President (soon-to-be chairman) [[Thomas B. McCabe]] founded the “Institute for Science in Marketing.” As chairman of the Federal Reserve Board under President Truman and a prominent member of the Business Council, he saw the need for an organization that would sponsor and conduct basic research in marketing. With leading thinkers John Howard, Albert Wesley Frey, and Wroe Alderson (Wendell Smith as its first president)
+Starting in the 1990’s, a new stage of marketing emerged called relationship marketing. The focus of relationship marketing is on a long-term relationship that benefits both the company and the customer. <ref>{{cite web|last=White|first=D. Steven|title=The Evolution of Marketing|url=http://dstevenwhite.com/2010/06/18/the-evolution-of-marketing/|accessdate=11 July 2011}}</ref> The relationship is based on trust and commitment, and both companies tend to shift their operating activities to be able to work more efficiently together. <ref>{{cite book|title=Managment of a Sales Force|year=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Irwin|isbn=978-0-07-352977-6|author=Spiro, Roseann|edition=12th|coauthors=Gregory Rich, William Stanton}}</ref> One of the most prominent reasons for relationship marketing comes from Kotler’s idea that it costs about five times more to obtain a new customer than to maintain the relationship with an existing customer. <ref>{{cite web|last=McClintic Marion|first=Allison|title=Marketing: Historical Perspectives|url=http://www.enotes.com/business-finance-encyclopedia/marketing-historical-perspectives|accessdate=11 July 2011}}</ref>
-Twenty-nine companies responded to his membership appeal, establishing MSI as a nonprofit organization that would “contribute to the emergence of a definitive science of marketing” and “stimulate increased application of scientific techniques to the understand and solving or current marketing problems.”  Offices were established in Philadelphia near the University of Pennsylanvia’s Wharton School.
+Sales in relationship marketing should encompass the following: open communication, employee empowerment, customers and the planning process, and teamwork. <ref>{{cite book|title=Managment of a Sales Force|year=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Irwin|isbn=978-0-07-352977-6|author=Spiro, Roseann|edition=12th|coauthors=Gregory Rich, William Stanton}}</ref> First, communication is essential in figuring out what the customers need and determining how the firm can satisfy those needs. With open communication, both sides can express what they are trying to do and can work out a way to make it work together. Second, employee empowerment is important so that the employees are able to satisfy customer needs. Without empowerment, they may be limited in their solutions and cannot creatively satisfy needs. Third, customers must be involved in the planning process. Customer input is invaluable, as the customer is the one who will be using the product. If the customer is not satisfied from the beginning, there is no way to gain approval after the product is incorporated. Lastly, relationship marketing must emphasize teamwork. Several people who can help solve customer problems should work together and use their talents to best serve the customers. <ref>{{cite book|title=Managment o f a Sales Force|year=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Irwin|isbn=978-0-07-352977-6|author=Spiro, Roseann|edition=12th|coauthors=Gregory Rich, William Stanton}}</ref>
-The world of marketing was dealing with an exploding mass market, driven by pent-up demand from the war years restrictions on production of consumer goods, and an explosion in population growth. There were also significant infrastructure developments for distribution (such as the interstate highway system), a shift to suburban living (with implications for the retailing sector) and the development of television and a national audience for advertisers. Its founding coincided with the arrival of mass marketing dominance adn a period of booming growth in the U.S. marketing systems. "The study of marketing as an interesting subject to think about and reflect on gave way to a much more action-oriented view of the training of potential marketing managers."
+While relationship marketing is largely held as the most recent stage of marketing, there is speculation that we are now entering into a new era of marketing called the social/mobile marketing era where companies are connected to customers 24/7. <ref>{{cite web|last=White|first=D. Steven|title=The Evolution of Marketing|url=http://dstevenwhite.com/2010/06/18/the-evolution-of-marketing/|accessdate=11 July 2011}}</ref>
-The 1960s was a decade of tremendous intellectual ferment among marketers.  Key marketing concepts, such as the “4 Ps” (product, price, place, promotion) of marketing were introduced. Management science theory, methods, and tools were infused into marketing, and consumer behavior emerged  as an area of study within marketing.
+==The societal marketing concept==
-In its first decade, MSI supported the development of new tools for marketers, such as multidimensional scaling, stochastic modeling, causal modeling, and decision calculus marketing. It also provided the foundation for advances in new product development.
+{{Main| Societal marketing}}
+Societal marketing emerged in the 1960s. The societal marketing concept deals with the needs,  wants and demands of customers: how to satisfy them by producing superior [[Value (marketing)|value]] that should satisfy the customers and promote the well-being of society.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} The producer should not produce products deemed hazardous to society.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}
-In 1968, MSI moved to Cambridge and begain a 15-year association with the Harvard Business School.
+Societal marketing developed into [[sustainable marketing]].
-In the 1970s, MSI launched and managed a Profit Impact of Marketing Strategies project, which in conjunction with General Electric, created and analyzed a cross-sectional database that described marketing strategies and profitability across hundreds of business units. This initiative revealed new insights about the drivers of profitability, and sparked a large number of studies. The financial consequences of marketing continue to be an area of
+==See also==
-Often it did so by funding research, but sometimes it did so by supporting ventures that developed the ideas. For example, MSI brokered the multi-company PIMS (Profit Impact of Market Strategy) database, assembled teams to shape policy at the Federal Trade Commission and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, conceived of and nurtured a Research Priorities process, and sponsored the Consumer Odyssey, a summer-long road trip that was foundational to the rise of qualitative consumer research.
+* [[Psychological pricing]]
-By the 1980s, services had become an important source of growth and profitability for many firms. The role of marketing in strategic planning received increased attention. MSI research introduced key concepts, such as market orientation and marketing capabilities.
+* [[Wroe Alderson]]
+==References==
-The conceptualization and measurement of brand equity originated in MSI-sponsored research in the early 1990s.  MSI also played an important role in introducing qualitative research methods to help marketers better understand consumers.  MSI took an early interset in physiological measures, and has more recently turned its attention to understanding how theory and methods from neuroscience can be used to understand consumer thinking an behavior.
+{{reflist}}
+hiya
+{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Marketing}}
+[[:Category:Marketing]]
+[[cs:Dějiny marketingu]]
-Recently the role of marketing has shifted due to globalization of marketing systems, technology advances, and unanticipated shifts in consumer preferences, behavior and values.