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'''Marketing Science Institute''' |
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[http://www.msi.org/about/index.cfm?id=70 member companies]{{Primarysources|date=July 2011}} |
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''This article discusses the '''history of marketing''' as a recognized discipline, along with concomitant changes in marketing theory and practice. (Marketing comprises all activities involved in the transfer of goods from the producer or seller to the consumer or buyer, including advertising, shipping, storing, and selling.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}}) |
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Founded in 1961, the '''Marketing Science Institute (MSI)''' is a corporate-membership-based organization dedicated to bridging the gap between marketing theory and business practice. Leading researchers from universities worldwide participate in MSI research programs. |
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The study of the history of marketing as an academic field emerged {{as of | 2008 | alt = only recently}}.{{When|date=February 2009}} Controversies and disputes abound in the field.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} The publication in 1976 of the book ''The History of Marketing Thought'', by [[Robert Bartels]] marks a turning-point{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} in marketing thought. Since then, academics specializing in marketing decided{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} to imitate [[economics]], distinguishing theory and practice. Two different fields of study emerged: |
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As a nonprofit institution, '''MSI''' financially supports academic research for the development—and practical translation—of marketing knowledge on topics of importance to business. Issues of key importance to business performance are identified by the Board of Trustees, which represents MSI corporations and the academic community. MSI supports studies by academics on these issues and disseminates the results through conferences and workshops, as well as through its publications series. |
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# the ''[[history of marketing thought]]'', giving theoretical accounts |
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MSI headquarters are located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The primary governing body of MSI is the Board of Trustees. MSI Executive Directors oversee the quality and content of MSI-sponsored research. |
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# ''marketing history'', focusing on the history of marketing practice |
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This division parallels the distinction between the [[history of economic thought]] and [[economic history]].<ref name="Hollander et al. (2005)"> |
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==History== |
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{{cite journal|year=2005|title=Periodization in Marketing History |
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In 1961, Scott Paper Company President [[Thomas B. McCabe]] founded the “Institute for Science in Marketing” with input from leading thinkers John Howard, Albert Wesley Frey, and [[Wroe Alderson]]. |
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|journal=Journal of Macromarketing|date=2005 |
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Twenty-nine companies responded to his membership appeal, establishing MSI as a nonprofit organization that would “contribute to the emergence of a definitive science of [[marketing]]” and “stimulate increased application of scientific techniques to the understand and solving or current marketing problems.” Offices were established in Philadelphia near the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School, and Wendell Smith became its first president.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Paul|title=Knowledge Development in Marketing: The MSI Experience|year=1987|publisher=D.C. Heath and Company|isbn=0-669-12581-4}}</ref> |
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|volume= 25|issue= 1|pages= 32–41|doi=10.1177/0276146705274982 |
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|last1=Hollander |
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|first1=Stanley C. |
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|last2=Rassuli |
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|first2=Kathleen M. |
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|last3=Jones |
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|first3=D. G. Brian |
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|last4=Dix |
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|first4=Laura Farlow |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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Practitioners of the ''history of marketing thought'' note that both practitioners and academics know relatively little about the field.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} But history has significance for academics because it helps to define the baselines upon which they can recognize change and evolve marketing theory.<ref name=handbook> |
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MSI's founding coincided with a period of booming growth in the U.S. marketing systems, fueled by pent-up demand from war years restrictions on production of consumer goods, and an explosion in population growth. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Wilkie|first=William L.|coauthors=Elizabeth S. Moore|title="Scholarly Research in Marketing: Exploring the "4 Eras" of Thought Development|journal=Journal of Public Policy & Marketing|year=2003|month=Fall|volume=22|issue=2|pages=116-146}}</ref>Key marketing concepts, such as the [[E. Jerome McCarthy|“4 Ps”]] (product, price, place, promotion) of marketing were introduced. Management science theory, methods, and tools were infused into marketing, and consumer behavior emerged as an area of study within marketing. |
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{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Brian D. G. |coauthors=Shaw, Eric H.|others=Weitz, Barton A.; Wensley, Robin (editors)|title=Handbook of Marketing|publisher=Sage|year=2006 |
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<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bolton|first=Ruth|title="MSI 50: Years Ahead"|journal=Marketing Management|year=2011|month=Summer|pages=44-47}}</ref> |
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|pages=582 pages|chapter=A History of Marketing Thought|isbn=1412921201}} |
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</ref> |
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On the other hand, proponents of ''marketing history'' argue that one cannot fully compare the marketing field with economics and hence suggest the impracticality of divorcing theory and practice.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} First, marketing scholars seldom engage in the practice of marketing as much as economists engage in the development and execution of public policies. Second, [[business]] people innovate in the marketing field, and the history of marketing will remain incomplete if one dissociates academia from practitioners.<ref name="Hollander et al. (2005)" /> |
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The following sections discuss both approaches to the history of marketing, closing with a debate about the ''standard chronology'' of marketing, a widely-known hypothesis about the history of marketing, but one that historians in the marketing field have challenged. |
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In its first decade, MSI supported the development of new tools for marketers, such as [[multidimensional scaling]], stochastic modeling, causal modeling, and decision calculus marketing. It also provided the foundation for advances in [[new product development]]. In 1968, MSI moved to Cambridge and began a 15-year association with the Harvard Business School. |
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==History of marketing thought== |
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In the early 1970s, MSI launched and managed the [[Profit impact of marketing strategy|Profit Impact of Marketing Strategy]] project which, in conjunction with General Electric, created and analyzed a cross-sectional database that described marketing strategies and profitability across hundreds of business units. The results, widely reported, demonstrated the value of a scientific approach to marketing. The impact of marketing activities on firm performance (termed marketing ROI, marketing accountability, and [[return on marketing investment]]) has continued to be an area of MSI research interest. |
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The history of marketing thought deals with the evolution of theories in the field of marketing, from the ancient world . Marketing historians agree that the discipline branched out of at the turn of the twentieth century, |
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though some argue that scholars in the ancient and medieval ages had already studied marketing ideas. |
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===Periodization=== |
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In the late 1970s and early 1980s, MSI assembled teams to shape policy at the Federal Trade Commission and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. MSI also played an important role in introducing qualitative consumer research methods, including the Consumer Odyssey, a summer-long road trip that laid the foundation for the field of consumer [[ethnography]]. More recently, MSI has turned its attention to understanding how theory and methods from neuroscience can be used to understand consumer thinking and behavior. |
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Robert Bartels in ''The History of Marketing Thought' |
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categorised the development of marketing theory decade by decade from the beginning of the 20th century thus: |
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* 1900s: discovery of basic concepts and their exploration |
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* 1910s: conceptualisation, classification and definition of terms |
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* 1920s: integration on the basis of principles |
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* 1930s: development of specialisation and variation in theory |
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* 1940s: reappraisal in the light of new demands and a more scientific approach |
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* 1950s: reconceptualisation in the light of [[managerialism]], social development and quantitative approaches |
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* 1960s: differentiation on bases such as managerialism, [[holism]], [[environmentalism]], [[systems theory|system]]s, and [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]] |
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* 1970s: socialisation; the adaptation of marketing to social change |
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With the growth in importance of marketing departments and their associated [[marketing management|marketing manager]]s, the field has become ripe for the propagation of [[management fad]]s which do not always lend themselves to periodization. |
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and launched ground-breaking research programs in industrial salesforce management and consumer services marketing. |
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===Birth of marketing ideas=== |
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By the 1980s, services had become an important source of growth and profitability for many firms. The role of marketing in strategic planning received increased attention. MSI research introduced key concepts such as [[market orientation]] and marketing capabilities. |
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{{Expand section|date=December 2008}} |
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In pre-modern economies, the predominance of small enterprises militated against the recognition of [[marketing]] as a separate field of expertise. Changes in the patterns and intensity of economic activity, as well as the rise of [[economics]] as a science, particularly in the 19th century, paved the way for studies of marketing. |
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The conceptualization and measurement of [[brand equity]] originated in MSI-sponsored research in the early 1990s. |
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The growth in size and scope of national and international economies in the course of the [[Industrial revolution]] led eventually to a transcendence of ''ad hoc'' [[retailing]] and [[advertising]] innovations and eventually to systematization. Marketing emerged as a separate technical field only in the late 19th century. The [[OED]] traces the abstract usage of the word only as far back as 1884. |
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===Traditional schools=== |
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==Current Research== |
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{{Expand section|date=December 2008}} |
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Technology advances and a culture informed by social media such as Facebook, twitter, and blogs are disrupting the decades-old pattern of marketing strategy and vocabulary. Web-based and mobile technologies have transformed marketing's role as the , and companies are redefining the role of marketing in achieving sustainable growth. In the past decade, MSI has fostered research on the implications of new media, channels, and platforms--including social media, mobile, and consumer-to-consumer interactions--for managing cusotmer relationships, mrketing communications, and branding. emergence of user-generated content have . To understand how new, evolving, and converging technologies provide value to customers and lead to long-term shifts in shpping and consumption behaviors. what is the role of traditional advertising vehicles (TV, print) in this new landscape? What conceptual frameworks from other disciplines--behaviorial economics, neuroscience, anthropology, network analysis, psychology, history--enhance traditonal methods of understanding consumer behavior? <ref>{{cite book|last=Marketing Science Institute|title=2010-12 Research Priorities|year=2010|publisher=Marketing Science Institute|location=Cambridge, Mass.}}</ref> |
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Traditional authorities{{Who|date=May 2009}} on marketing concentrated on products and on the sale and purchase of goods and services. They paid little attention to areas like [[after-sale]]s service, and devoted even less attention to [[social responsibility]] or to [[social accountability]]. |
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===Modern schools=== |
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==Executive Directors Council== |
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Marketing historians like Eric Shaw and Barton A. Weitz point to the publication of [[Wroe Alderson]]'s book, ''Marketing Behavior and Executive Action'' (1957), as a break-point in the history of marketing thought,<ref name=Bartels88> |
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{{cite book|last=Bartels|first=Robert|title=The History of Marketing Thought |
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|publisher=Publishing Horizons|location=Columbus|year=1988|edition=3rd.}} |
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</ref> moving from the macro functions-institutions-commodities approach to a [[micromarketing]] [[management]] [[paradigm]]. After Alderson, marketing began to incorporate other fields of knowledge besides economics, notably [[behavioral science]], becoming a multidisciplinary field. For some scholars, Alderson's book marks the beginning of the ''Marketing Management Era''. |
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Unlike economists, marketers have difficulty in organizing the different theories in their discipline into schools-of-thought.{{Clarify|date=December 2008}} However, some marketing historians like [[Jagdish Sheth]] have tried to identify the main concepts behind the work of scholars in the field, grouping their ideas into "marketing schools" such as the following: |
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Ruth N. Bolton, Marketing Science Institute<br /> |
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* the ''Managerial school'' emerged during the late 1950s and became arguably the predominant and most influential school of thought in the field |
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[[George S. Day]], University of Pennsylvania<br /> |
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* the ''Consumer/buyer behavior school'', which dominated the academic field in the second half of the twentieth century (apart from the Manageerial school), features theories emerging from behavioral science |
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* the ''Social exchange school'', which focuses on exchange as the fundamental concept of marketing |
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==Marketing history== |
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Rohit Deshpandé, Harvard Business School<br /> |
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{{Expand section|date=December 2008}} |
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Much of traditional marketing practice prior to the twentieth century remained hidebound by rules-of-thumb and lack of information. [[Information technology]], especially since the mid-twentieth century, has given the marketeer new channels of communication as well as enhanced means of aggregating and analyzing marketing data. Specializations have emerged (especially [[sales]] versus marketing and [[advertising]] versus [[retailing]]) and re-combined ([[business development]]) over the years. |
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John U. Farley, Dartmouth College<br /> |
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===Timeline of innovation=== |
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Stephen A. Greyser,Harvard Business School<br /> |
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* 1450: Gutenberg's metal movable type, leading eventually to mass-production of [[Flyer (pamphlet)|flyer]]s and [[brochure]]s |
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* 1730s: emergence of magazines (a future vector of [[niche marketing]]) |
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* 1836: first paid advertising in a [[newspaper]] (in France) |
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* 1839: [[poster]]s on private property banned in London |
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* 1864: earliest recorded use of the [[telegraph]] for mass unsolicited [[spam (electronic)|spam]] |
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* 1867: earliest recorded [[billboard]] rentals |
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* 1880s: early examples of [[trademark]]s as [[brand]]ing |
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* 1905: the University of Pennsylvania offered a course in "The Marketing of Products"<ref>http://www.faculty.missouristate.edu/c/ChuckHermans/Bartels.htm</ref> |
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* 1908: [[Harvard Business School]] opens |
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* 1922: [[radio advertising]] commences |
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* 1940s: electronic computers developed |
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* 1941: first recorded use of [[television advertising]] |
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* 1950s: systematization of [[telemarketing]] |
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* 1970s: [[E-commerce]] invented |
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* 1980s: development of [[database marketing]] as precursor to [[Customer relationship management|CRM]]<ref>Jenkinson, A. (2006) Do organisations now understand the importance of information in providing excellent customer experience? Journal of Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management. v13 n4. p248-260</ref> |
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* 1980s: emergence of [[relationship marketing]] |
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* 1980s: emergence of computer-oriented [[spam (electronic)|spam]] |
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* 1984: introduction of [[guerrilla marketing]] |
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* 1985: [[desktop publishing]] democratizes the production of print-advertising |
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1991: [[Integrated marketing communications]] gains academic status <ref>Schultz, D. E. (1991) Integrated Marketing Communications: The Status of Integrated Marketing Communications Programs in the US Today, Journal of Promotion Management, 1, 1, 99-104</ref> |
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* 1990s CRM and IMC (in various guises and names) gain dominance in promotions and marketing planning<ref>Pickton, D. and Broderick, A., (2005, 2nd edn) Integrated Marketing Communications, Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Harlow, England</ref>,<ref>Chapter 1 in Payne, A. (2008) Handbook of CRM: Achieving Excellence in Customer Management. Butterworth Heinemann, Burlington, MA</ref> |
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* 1995-2001: the [[Dot-com bubble]] temporarily re-defines{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} the future of marketing |
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* 1996: identification of [[viral marketing]] |
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* 2000s: [[Integrated marketing]] gains acceptance and in 2002 its first dedicated academic research centre<ref>See www.centreforintegratedmarketing.com at the University of Bedfordshire, England</ref>,<ref>Iacobucci, D., and Calder, B., (eds), (2003) Kellogg on Integrated Marketing, John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ</ref> |
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===Periodization=== |
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Dominique Hanssens, UCLA<br /> |
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One marketing standard chronology(Bartels, 1974;Dawson, 1969;Keith, 1960; Kotler and Keller, 2006)subdivides marketing history as follows: |
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Donald R. Lehmann, Columbia University<br /> |
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* Production orientation era |
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Leigh McAlister, University of Texas at Austin<br /> |
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* Product orientation era |
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* Sales orientation era |
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* Market orientation era |
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* Customer orientation |
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* Relationship orientation |
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* Social/mobile marketing orientation |
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====Production orientation==== |
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David B. Montgomery, Stanford University<br /> |
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A '''production orientation''' dominated business thought from the beginning of [[capitalism]]{{When|date=February 2009}} to the mid 1950s, and some{{Who|date=February 2009}} argue it still exists in some industries.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} [[Business]] concerned itself primarily with production, manufacturing, and efficiency issues.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} [[Say's Law]] encapsulated this viewpoint, stating: "Supply creates its own demand". To put it another way, "if somebody makes a product, somebody else will want to buy it". This orientation rose to prominence in an environment which had a shortage of manufactured goods relative to demand, so goods sold easily.<ref> |
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“Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control”, Philip Kotler, Prentice Hall, 1997 p.17 |
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</ref> |
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Implications of this orientation include:{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} |
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David J. Reibstein, University of Pennsylvania<br /> |
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* narrow product-line(s) |
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Richard Staelin, Duke University<br /> |
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* [[pricing]] based on the costs of [[Production, costs, and pricing|production]] and [[distribution (business)|distribution]] |
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* research limited to technical product-research |
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* packaging designed primarily to protect product |
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* minimal [[promotion (marketing)|promotion]] and [[advertising]], limited to raising awareness of the existence of the product |
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* consumers more interested in simply obtaining the product, and less in its quality |
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Some examples: |
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Louis W. Stern, Northwestern University<br /> |
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* The early{{When|date=February 2009}} [[car industry]] provides the classic example of production orientation, exemplified by the story of Henry Ford’s [[Ford Model T|Model T]]. At this time{{When|date=February 2009}} production orientation, an industry-wide philosophy, applied in many industries.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} |
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Frederick E. Webster, Jr., Dartmouth College<br /> |
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* {{As of | 2009}} one sees examples of production-orientation marketing in individual companies rather than in whole industries because of increased competition.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} One might argue{{Or|date=February 2009}} that some elements of the production orientation appear in the electronics industry where firms manufacture large quantities of low-cost, low-price goods when they know that a market exists. As a possible{{Or|date=February 2009}} supplementary factor, one can usually replace an electronic product much more cheaply than fixing it.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} |
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Russell S. Winer, New York University |
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* [[Philip Kotler]] argues that assembly-line techniques have migrated to services like government benefits offices, in which they deal with people very efficiently, but without necessarily entailing full satisfaction on the part of the customer{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} |
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====Relationship orientation==== |
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Starting in the 1990’s, a new stage of marketing emerged called relationship marketing. The focus of relationship marketing is on a long-term relationship that benefits both the company and the customer. <ref>{{cite web|last=White|first=D. Steven|title=The Evolution of Marketing|url=http://dstevenwhite.com/2010/06/18/the-evolution-of-marketing/|accessdate=11 July 2011}}</ref> The relationship is based on trust and commitment, and both companies tend to shift their operating activities to be able to work more efficiently together. <ref>{{cite book|title=Managment of a Sales Force|year=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Irwin|isbn=978-0-07-352977-6|author=Spiro, Roseann|edition=12th|coauthors=Gregory Rich, William Stanton}}</ref> One of the most prominent reasons for relationship marketing comes from Kotler’s idea that it costs about five times more to obtain a new customer than to maintain the relationship with an existing customer. <ref>{{cite web|last=McClintic Marion|first=Allison|title=Marketing: Historical Perspectives|url=http://www.enotes.com/business-finance-encyclopedia/marketing-historical-perspectives|accessdate=11 July 2011}}</ref> |
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Sales in relationship marketing should encompass the following: open communication, employee empowerment, customers and the planning process, and teamwork. <ref>{{cite book|title=Managment of a Sales Force|year=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Irwin|isbn=978-0-07-352977-6|author=Spiro, Roseann|edition=12th|coauthors=Gregory Rich, William Stanton}}</ref> First, communication is essential in figuring out what the customers need and determining how the firm can satisfy those needs. With open communication, both sides can express what they are trying to do and can work out a way to make it work together. Second, employee empowerment is important so that the employees are able to satisfy customer needs. Without empowerment, they may be limited in their solutions and cannot creatively satisfy needs. Third, customers must be involved in the planning process. Customer input is invaluable, as the customer is the one who will be using the product. If the customer is not satisfied from the beginning, there is no way to gain approval after the product is incorporated. Lastly, relationship marketing must emphasize teamwork. Several people who can help solve customer problems should work together and use their talents to best serve the customers. <ref>{{cite book|title=Managment o f a Sales Force|year=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Irwin|isbn=978-0-07-352977-6|author=Spiro, Roseann|edition=12th|coauthors=Gregory Rich, William Stanton}}</ref> |
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While relationship marketing is largely held as the most recent stage of marketing, there is speculation that we are now entering into a new era of marketing called the social/mobile marketing era where companies are connected to customers 24/7. <ref>{{cite web|last=White|first=D. Steven|title=The Evolution of Marketing|url=http://dstevenwhite.com/2010/06/18/the-evolution-of-marketing/|accessdate=11 July 2011}}</ref> |
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==The societal marketing concept== |
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{{Main| Societal marketing}} |
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Societal marketing emerged in the 1960s. The societal marketing concept deals with the needs, wants and demands of customers: how to satisfy them by producing superior [[Value (marketing)|value]] that should satisfy the customers and promote the well-being of society.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} The producer should not produce products deemed hazardous to society.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} |
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Societal marketing developed into [[sustainable marketing]]. |
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==See also== |
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* [[Psychological pricing]] |
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* [[Wroe Alderson]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{ |
{{reflist}} |
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<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bolton|first=Ruth|title="MSI 50: Years Ahead"|journal=Marketing Management|year=2011|month=Summer|pages=44-47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Paul|title=Knowledge Development in Marketing: The MSI Experience|year=1987|publisher=D.C. Heath and Company|isbn=0-669-12581-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wilkie|first=William L.|coauthors=Elizabeth S. Moore|title="Scholarly Research in Marketing: Exploring the "4 Eras" of Thought Development|journal=Journal of Public Policy & Marketing|year=2003|month=Fall|volume=22|issue=2|pages=116-146}}</ref>.<ref>{{cite web | title = "About MSI" | publisher = Marketing Science Institute| url = http://www.msi.org/about/ | accessdate = 2011-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = "MSI Community and Staff" | publisher = Marketing Science Institute| url = http://www.msi.org/about/ | accessdate = 2011-07-28}}</ref> |
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hiya |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Marketing}} |
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[[:Category:Marketing]] |
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[[cs:Dějiny marketingu]] |
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==External links== |
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* [http://www.msi.org/ MSI website] |
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Latest revision as of 01:09, 2 August 2023
—
This article discusses the history of marketing as a recognized discipline, along with concomitant changes in marketing theory and practice. (Marketing comprises all activities involved in the transfer of goods from the producer or seller to the consumer or buyer, including advertising, shipping, storing, and selling.[citation needed])
The study of the history of marketing as an academic field emerged only recently[update].[when?] Controversies and disputes abound in the field.[citation needed] The publication in 1976 of the book The History of Marketing Thought, by Robert Bartels marks a turning-point[citation needed] in marketing thought. Since then, academics specializing in marketing decided[citation needed] to imitate economics, distinguishing theory and practice. Two different fields of study emerged:
- the history of marketing thought, giving theoretical accounts
- marketing history, focusing on the history of marketing practice
This division parallels the distinction between the history of economic thought and economic history.[1]
Practitioners of the history of marketing thought note that both practitioners and academics know relatively little about the field.[citation needed] But history has significance for academics because it helps to define the baselines upon which they can recognize change and evolve marketing theory.[2] On the other hand, proponents of marketing history argue that one cannot fully compare the marketing field with economics and hence suggest the impracticality of divorcing theory and practice.[citation needed] First, marketing scholars seldom engage in the practice of marketing as much as economists engage in the development and execution of public policies. Second, business people innovate in the marketing field, and the history of marketing will remain incomplete if one dissociates academia from practitioners.[1]
The following sections discuss both approaches to the history of marketing, closing with a debate about the standard chronology of marketing, a widely-known hypothesis about the history of marketing, but one that historians in the marketing field have challenged.
History of marketing thought
[edit]The history of marketing thought deals with the evolution of theories in the field of marketing, from the ancient world . Marketing historians agree that the discipline branched out of at the turn of the twentieth century, though some argue that scholars in the ancient and medieval ages had already studied marketing ideas.
Periodization
[edit]Robert Bartels in The History of Marketing Thought' categorised the development of marketing theory decade by decade from the beginning of the 20th century thus:
- 1900s: discovery of basic concepts and their exploration
- 1910s: conceptualisation, classification and definition of terms
- 1920s: integration on the basis of principles
- 1930s: development of specialisation and variation in theory
- 1940s: reappraisal in the light of new demands and a more scientific approach
- 1950s: reconceptualisation in the light of managerialism, social development and quantitative approaches
- 1960s: differentiation on bases such as managerialism, holism, environmentalism, systems, and internationalism
- 1970s: socialisation; the adaptation of marketing to social change
With the growth in importance of marketing departments and their associated marketing managers, the field has become ripe for the propagation of management fads which do not always lend themselves to periodization.
Birth of marketing ideas
[edit]![[icon]](/enwiki/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2008) |
In pre-modern economies, the predominance of small enterprises militated against the recognition of marketing as a separate field of expertise. Changes in the patterns and intensity of economic activity, as well as the rise of economics as a science, particularly in the 19th century, paved the way for studies of marketing. The growth in size and scope of national and international economies in the course of the Industrial revolution led eventually to a transcendence of ad hoc retailing and advertising innovations and eventually to systematization. Marketing emerged as a separate technical field only in the late 19th century. The OED traces the abstract usage of the word only as far back as 1884.
Traditional schools
[edit] | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2008) |
Traditional authorities[who?] on marketing concentrated on products and on the sale and purchase of goods and services. They paid little attention to areas like after-sales service, and devoted even less attention to social responsibility or to social accountability.
Modern schools
[edit]Marketing historians like Eric Shaw and Barton A. Weitz point to the publication of Wroe Alderson's book, Marketing Behavior and Executive Action (1957), as a break-point in the history of marketing thought,[3] moving from the macro functions-institutions-commodities approach to a micromarketing management paradigm. After Alderson, marketing began to incorporate other fields of knowledge besides economics, notably behavioral science, becoming a multidisciplinary field. For some scholars, Alderson's book marks the beginning of the Marketing Management Era.
Unlike economists, marketers have difficulty in organizing the different theories in their discipline into schools-of-thought.[clarification needed] However, some marketing historians like Jagdish Sheth have tried to identify the main concepts behind the work of scholars in the field, grouping their ideas into "marketing schools" such as the following:
- the Managerial school emerged during the late 1950s and became arguably the predominant and most influential school of thought in the field
- the Consumer/buyer behavior school, which dominated the academic field in the second half of the twentieth century (apart from the Manageerial school), features theories emerging from behavioral science
- the Social exchange school, which focuses on exchange as the fundamental concept of marketing
Marketing history
[edit] | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2008) |
Much of traditional marketing practice prior to the twentieth century remained hidebound by rules-of-thumb and lack of information. Information technology, especially since the mid-twentieth century, has given the marketeer new channels of communication as well as enhanced means of aggregating and analyzing marketing data. Specializations have emerged (especially sales versus marketing and advertising versus retailing) and re-combined (business development) over the years.
Timeline of innovation
[edit]- 1450: Gutenberg's metal movable type, leading eventually to mass-production of flyers and brochures
- 1730s: emergence of magazines (a future vector of niche marketing)
- 1836: first paid advertising in a newspaper (in France)
- 1839: posters on private property banned in London
- 1864: earliest recorded use of the telegraph for mass unsolicited spam
- 1867: earliest recorded billboard rentals
- 1880s: early examples of trademarks as branding
- 1905: the University of Pennsylvania offered a course in "The Marketing of Products"[4]
- 1908: Harvard Business School opens
- 1922: radio advertising commences
- 1940s: electronic computers developed
- 1941: first recorded use of television advertising
- 1950s: systematization of telemarketing
- 1970s: E-commerce invented
- 1980s: development of database marketing as precursor to CRM[5]
- 1980s: emergence of relationship marketing
- 1980s: emergence of computer-oriented spam
- 1984: introduction of guerrilla marketing
- 1985: desktop publishing democratizes the production of print-advertising
1991: Integrated marketing communications gains academic status [6]
- 1990s CRM and IMC (in various guises and names) gain dominance in promotions and marketing planning[7],[8]
- 1995-2001: the Dot-com bubble temporarily re-defines[citation needed] the future of marketing
- 1996: identification of viral marketing
- 2000s: Integrated marketing gains acceptance and in 2002 its first dedicated academic research centre[9],[10]
Periodization
[edit]One marketing standard chronology(Bartels, 1974;Dawson, 1969;Keith, 1960; Kotler and Keller, 2006)subdivides marketing history as follows:
- Production orientation era
- Product orientation era
- Sales orientation era
- Market orientation era
- Customer orientation
- Relationship orientation
- Social/mobile marketing orientation
Production orientation
[edit]A production orientation dominated business thought from the beginning of capitalism[when?] to the mid 1950s, and some[who?] argue it still exists in some industries.[citation needed] Business concerned itself primarily with production, manufacturing, and efficiency issues.[citation needed] Say's Law encapsulated this viewpoint, stating: "Supply creates its own demand". To put it another way, "if somebody makes a product, somebody else will want to buy it". This orientation rose to prominence in an environment which had a shortage of manufactured goods relative to demand, so goods sold easily.[11]
Implications of this orientation include:[citation needed]
- narrow product-line(s)
- pricing based on the costs of production and distribution
- research limited to technical product-research
- packaging designed primarily to protect product
- minimal promotion and advertising, limited to raising awareness of the existence of the product
- consumers more interested in simply obtaining the product, and less in its quality
Some examples:
- The early[when?] car industry provides the classic example of production orientation, exemplified by the story of Henry Ford’s Model T. At this time[when?] production orientation, an industry-wide philosophy, applied in many industries.[citation needed]
- As of 2009[update] one sees examples of production-orientation marketing in individual companies rather than in whole industries because of increased competition.[citation needed] One might argue[original research?] that some elements of the production orientation appear in the electronics industry where firms manufacture large quantities of low-cost, low-price goods when they know that a market exists. As a possible[original research?] supplementary factor, one can usually replace an electronic product much more cheaply than fixing it.[citation needed]
- Philip Kotler argues that assembly-line techniques have migrated to services like government benefits offices, in which they deal with people very efficiently, but without necessarily entailing full satisfaction on the part of the customer[citation needed]
Relationship orientation
[edit]Starting in the 1990’s, a new stage of marketing emerged called relationship marketing. The focus of relationship marketing is on a long-term relationship that benefits both the company and the customer. [12] The relationship is based on trust and commitment, and both companies tend to shift their operating activities to be able to work more efficiently together. [13] One of the most prominent reasons for relationship marketing comes from Kotler’s idea that it costs about five times more to obtain a new customer than to maintain the relationship with an existing customer. [14]
Sales in relationship marketing should encompass the following: open communication, employee empowerment, customers and the planning process, and teamwork. [15] First, communication is essential in figuring out what the customers need and determining how the firm can satisfy those needs. With open communication, both sides can express what they are trying to do and can work out a way to make it work together. Second, employee empowerment is important so that the employees are able to satisfy customer needs. Without empowerment, they may be limited in their solutions and cannot creatively satisfy needs. Third, customers must be involved in the planning process. Customer input is invaluable, as the customer is the one who will be using the product. If the customer is not satisfied from the beginning, there is no way to gain approval after the product is incorporated. Lastly, relationship marketing must emphasize teamwork. Several people who can help solve customer problems should work together and use their talents to best serve the customers. [16]
While relationship marketing is largely held as the most recent stage of marketing, there is speculation that we are now entering into a new era of marketing called the social/mobile marketing era where companies are connected to customers 24/7. [17]
The societal marketing concept
[edit]Societal marketing emerged in the 1960s. The societal marketing concept deals with the needs, wants and demands of customers: how to satisfy them by producing superior value that should satisfy the customers and promote the well-being of society.[citation needed] The producer should not produce products deemed hazardous to society.[citation needed]
Societal marketing developed into sustainable marketing.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b
Hollander, Stanley C.; Rassuli, Kathleen M.; Jones, D. G. Brian; Dix, Laura Farlow (2005). "Periodization in Marketing History". Journal of Macromarketing. 25 (1): 32–41. doi:10.1177/0276146705274982.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^
Jones, Brian D. G. (2006). "A History of Marketing Thought". Handbook of Marketing. Weitz, Barton A.; Wensley, Robin (editors). Sage. pp. 582 pages. ISBN 1412921201.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Bartels, Robert (1988). The History of Marketing Thought (3rd. ed.). Columbus: Publishing Horizons.
- ^ http://www.faculty.missouristate.edu/c/ChuckHermans/Bartels.htm
- ^ Jenkinson, A. (2006) Do organisations now understand the importance of information in providing excellent customer experience? Journal of Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management. v13 n4. p248-260
- ^ Schultz, D. E. (1991) Integrated Marketing Communications: The Status of Integrated Marketing Communications Programs in the US Today, Journal of Promotion Management, 1, 1, 99-104
- ^ Pickton, D. and Broderick, A., (2005, 2nd edn) Integrated Marketing Communications, Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Harlow, England
- ^ Chapter 1 in Payne, A. (2008) Handbook of CRM: Achieving Excellence in Customer Management. Butterworth Heinemann, Burlington, MA
- ^ See www.centreforintegratedmarketing.com at the University of Bedfordshire, England
- ^ Iacobucci, D., and Calder, B., (eds), (2003) Kellogg on Integrated Marketing, John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ
- ^ “Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control”, Philip Kotler, Prentice Hall, 1997 p.17
- ^ White, D. Steven. "The Evolution of Marketing". Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- ^ Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment of a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ McClintic Marion, Allison. "Marketing: Historical Perspectives". Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- ^ Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment of a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Spiro, Roseann (2008). Managment o f a Sales Force (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-352977-6.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ White, D. Steven. "The Evolution of Marketing". Retrieved 11 July 2011.
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