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Saturated fat#Cardiovascular disease

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+#REDIRECT [[Saturated fat#Cardiovascular disease]]
-Whether [[Saturated Fat]] is a risk factor for [[Cardiovascular Disease]] (CVD) is a question with numerous views.  Although there is a scientific consensus in the heart-health and medical communities that saturated fat is a risk factor for CVD, individual studies produce conflicting results and notable authors have prepared opposing viewpoints.
-==Heart-health organizations==
-Consumption of saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in the view of the Canadian Heart and Stroke Foundation,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.heartandstroke.com/site/c.ikIQLcMWJtE/b.3484237/k.4695/Dietary_fats_oils_and__cholesterol.htm | title = Dietary fats, oils and cholesterol | accessdate = 2010-12-22}}</ref> the American Heart Association,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/Cholesterol/PreventionTreatmentofHighCholesterol/Know-Your-Fats_UCM_305628_Article.jsp | title = Know Your Fats | accessdate = 2010-12-22}}</ref> the British Heart Foundation,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.bhf.org.uk/heart-health/prevention/healthy-eating/saturated-fat.aspx | title = Saturated Fat | accessdate = 2010-12-22}}</ref> the National Heart Foundation of Australia,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.heartfoundation.org.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/Dietary%20Fats.pdf | title = 'Reduce saturated fat' urges Heart Foundation after major review | accessdate = 2010-12-22}}</ref> the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.heartfoundation.org.nz/files/National%20Dietitian/Dietary%20Fats_March1999.pdf | title = Dietary Fats:  An Evidence-Based Nutrition Statement from the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand's Nutrition Advisory Committee | last - Seddon MB. ChB. MPH. | first = M | date = March 1999 | accessdate = 2010-12-22}}</ref> and the World Heart Federation.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.worldheart.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors/ | title = Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors | accessdate = 2010-12-23}}</ref>
-==Medical establishments==
-The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) has concluded that saturated fats negatively affect cholesterol profiles, predisposing individuals to heart disease, and recommends avoiding saturated fats in order to reduce the risk of a cardiovascular disease.<ref>World Health Organization [http://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/en/cvd_atlas_06_lipids.pdf Risk factor: lipids]</ref><ref>World Health Organization [http://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/en/cvd_atlas_20_personal_choices.pdf Prevention: personal choices and actions]</ref>
-[[Mayo Clinic]] highlighted oils that are high in saturated fats include [[coconut oil|coconut]], [[palm oil]] and [[palm kernel oil]]. Those of lower amounts of saturated fats, and higher levels of unsaturated (preferably monounsaturated) fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier.<ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/fat/NU00262 Dietary fats: Know which types to choose] Mayo Clinic website</ref>
-==Notable authors==
-[[Gary Taubes]], a science writer specializing in controversy and three-time winner of the ''[[Science in Society Journalism Awards|Science in Society Award]]'' of the [[National Association of Science Writers]] concludes ''Dietary fat, whether saturated or not, is not a cause of obesity, heart disease, or any other chronic disease of civilization.''<ref name="Good Calorie, Bad Calories" >{{cite book|last=Taubes|first=Gary|title=Good Calories, Bad Calories: Google Book Preview, Page 454|year=2007|publisher=Knopf|pages=609|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=olfyVJLaa_YC&lpg=PA454&dq=%22%22&pg=PA454#v=onepage&q=%22%22&f=true|accessdate=2011-01-02}}</ref>  Writing in Men's Health Magazine, Nina Teicholz proposed that intake of saturated fat is only correlated with heart disease, "not a clear, causal link." <ref>men's health magazine "what if bad fat is actually good for you By Nina Teicholz, Photographs by Nikolai Golovanoff, Posted Date: October 10, 2007</ref> Further, Mary Enig of [[The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics]] asserts there is strong evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of saturated fats.<ref>The Truth About Saturated Fats by Mary Enig, PhD, and Sally Fallon</ref>
-==Individual studies==
-===Studies linking CVD to saturated fat===
-Some meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels,<ref>{{Cite journal|pmid=9006469 |year=1997 |last1=Clarke |first1=R |last2=Frost |last3=Collins |last4=Appleby |last5=Peto |title=Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies |volume=314 |issue=7074 |pages=112–7 |journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) |first2=C |first3=R |first4=P |first5=R |pmc=2125600}}</ref> and serum cholesterol levels and cardiovascular disease,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lewington S, Whitlock G, Clarke R, Sherliker P, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R | title = Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths | journal = Lancet | volume = 370 | issue = 9602 | pages = 1829–39 | year = 2007 | month = December | pmid = 18061058 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61778-4 | url = | issn = }}</ref> yet 11 of the 15 studies that measured the relationship between saturated fat and coronary heart disease in this meta-analysis were adjusted for serum lipids or other dietary lipids. The remaining 4 studies found a significant relationship between saturated fat and coronary heart disease.<ref name=Stamler2010>{{cite journal |author=Stamler J |title=Diet-heart: a problematic revisit.  |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=497–99 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20130097 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2010.29216 |url=http://www.canibaisereis.com/download/stamler-diet-heart-problematic-revisit.pdf}}</ref> Furthermore, a positive relationship between saturated fat and fatal coronary heart disease was found despite an over-adjustment for serum lipids.<ref name=Stamler2010 />
-It was found that substitution of the fat from one ounce of nuts for equivalent energy from saturated fat was associated with a 45% reduction in risk of coronary heart disease.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hu FB, Stampfer MJ |title= Nut consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: a review of epidemiologic evidence. |journal=Current Atherosclerosis Reports |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=204–209 |year=1999 |month=November |pmid=11122711 |doi=10.1007/s11883-999-0033-7}}</ref>
-===Studies not linking CVD to saturated fat===
-In 2010, a [[meta-analysis]] of prospective [[cohort study|cohort studies]] supported by the National Dairy Council including 348,000 subjects found no [[statistically significant]] relationship between [[cardiovascular disease]] and dietary saturated fat.<ref name=Siri-Tarino2010>{{cite journal |author=Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM |title=Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=535–46 |year=2010 |month=March |pmid=20071648 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27725 |pmc=2824152}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM |title=Saturated fat, carbohydrate, and cardiovascular disease |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=502–9 |year=2010 |month=March |pmid=20089734 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2008.26285 |pmc=2824150}}</ref>
-A scientific conference hosted by the University of Reading (UK) and organized and facilitated by the International Dairy Federation’s Standing Committee on Nutrition and Health found that despite the contribution of dairy products to the saturated fatty acid intake of the diet, there was not clear evidence that dairy food consumption is consistently associated with a higher risk of CVD.<ref>{{cite journal |author=German JB, Gibson RA, Krauss RM, ''et al.'' |title=A reappraisal of the impact of dairy foods and milk fat on cardiovascular disease risk |journal=European Journal of Nutrition |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=191–203 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19259609 |pmc=2695872 |doi=10.1007/s00394-009-0002-5}}</ref>
-In 2009, a [[systematic review]] of prospective cohort studies or randomized trials concluded that there was "insufficient evidence of association" between intake of saturated fatty acids and coronary heart disease, and pointed to strong evidence for protective factors such as vegetables and a [[Mediterranean diet]] and harmful factors such as [[trans fat]]s and foods with a high [[glycemic index]].<ref name=Mente2009>{{cite journal |author=Mente A, de Koning L, Shannon HS, Anand SS |title=A systematic review of the evidence supporting a causal link between dietary factors and coronary heart disease |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=169 |issue=7 |pages=659–69 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19364995 |doi=10.1001/archinternmed.2009.38 |url=}} [http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/169/7/659 Free full-text]</ref> However, this [[systematic review]] included studies that adjusted for serum lipids or other dietary lipids which were also included in the previously described meta-analysis.<ref name=Siri-Tarino2010 /><ref name=Mente2009 />
-A study published in the Lancet in 1994 found that how long-term dietary intake of essential fatty acids affects the fatty-acid content of aortic plaques is not clear.<ref>FELTON C. V. ; CROOK D. ; DAVIES M. J. ; OLIVER M. F. ; Lancet ISSN 0140-6736 CODEN LANCAO Source / Source 1994, vol. 344, no8931, pp. 1195-1196 (9 ref.)</ref>
-An evaluation of data from Harvard Nurses' Health Study found that "diets lower in carbohydrate and higher in protein and fat are not associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease in women. When vegetable sources of fat and protein are chosen, these diets may moderately reduce the risk of coronary heart disease."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Halton TL, Willett WC, Liu S, ''et al.'' |title=Low-carbohydrate-diet score and the risk of coronary heart disease in women |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=355 |issue=19 |pages=1991–2002 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17093250 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa055317}}</ref>
-Pacific island populations who obtain 30-60% of their total caloric intake from fully saturated coconut fat have low rates of cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Prior IA, Davidson F, Salmond CE, Czochanska Z |title=Cholesterol, coconuts, and diet on Polynesian atolls: a natural experiment: the Pukapuka and Tokelau island studies |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=34 |issue=8 |pages=1552–61 |year=1981 |month=August |pmid=7270479 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7270479}}</ref>
-Studies of dietary customs of certain ethnic groups may be confounded by other cultural customs. For example, [[Fulani]] of northern [[Nigeria]] get around 25% of energy from saturated fat, yet their lipid profile is indicative of a low risk of cardiovascular disease. However, this finding may be due to their high activity level and their low total energy intake.<ref name="pmid11722953">{{cite journal |author=Glew RH, Williams M, Conn CA, ''et al.'' |title=Cardiovascular disease risk factors and diet of Fulani pastoralists of northern Nigeria |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=730–6 |year=2001 |month=December |pmid=11722953 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11722953}}</ref>
-Saturated fat intakes may be monitored more closely than were total fat intakes, therefore ignoring the possibility that simply a larger fat intake may lead to a higher risk of coronary diseases. It also suggests that other parameters may be overlooked, such as carbohydrates intakes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Knopp RH, Retzlaff BM |title=Saturated fat prevents coronary artery disease? An American paradox |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=1102–3 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15531654 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15531654}}</ref>
-No randomized clinical trials of low-fat diets or low-saturated fat diets of sufficient duration have been carried out. The influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.<ref>{{cite journal |author=German JB, Dillard CJ |title=Saturated fats: what dietary intake? |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=550–9 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15321792 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15321792}}</ref>
-==References==
-{{Reflist}}
-==See also==
-{|
-*[[Lipid hypothesis]]
-*[[Diet and heart disease]]
-*[[Junk food]]
-*[[Fast food]]
-*[[Healthy diet]]
-|}
-[[Category:Nutrition]]
-[[Category:Prevention]]
-[[Category:Medical controversies]]
-[[Category:Diets]]