Minor actinide: Difference between revisions

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Transmutation flow between ²³⁸Pu and ²⁴⁴Cm in LWR.^[1]
Fission percentage is 100 minus shown percentages.
Total rate of transmutation varies greatly by nuclide.
²⁴⁵Cm–²⁴⁸Cm are long-lived with negligible decay.

A minor actinide is an actinide, other than uranium or plutonium, found in spent nuclear fuel. The minor actinides include neptunium (element 93), americium (element 95), curium (element 96), berkelium (element 97), californium (element 98), einsteinium (element 99), and fermium (element 100).^[2] The most important isotopes of these elements in spent nuclear fuel are neptunium-237, americium-241, americium-243, curium-242 through -248, and californium-249 through -252.

Plutonium and the minor actinides will be responsible for the bulk of the radiotoxicity and heat generation of spent nuclear fuel in the long term (300 to 20,000 years in the future).^[3]

The plutonium from a power reactor tends to have a greater amount of plutonium-241 than the plutonium generated by the lower burnup operations designed to create weapons-grade plutonium. Because the reactor-grade plutonium contains so much ²⁴¹Pu, the presence of ²⁴¹Am makes the plutonium less suitable for making a nuclear weapon. The ingrowth of americium in plutonium is one of the methods for identifying the origin of an unknown sample of plutonium and the time since it was last separated chemically from the americium.

Americium is commonly used in industry as both an alpha particle source and as a low photon-energy gamma radiation source. For example, it is commonly used in smoke detectors. Americium can be formed by neutron capture of ²³⁹Pu and ²⁴⁰Pu, forming ²⁴¹Pu which then beta decays to ²⁴¹Am.^[4] In general, as the energy of the neutrons increases, the ratio of the fission cross section to the neutron capture cross section changes in favour of fission. Hence, if MOX is used in a thermal reactor such as a boiling water reactor (BWR) or pressurized water reactor (PWR) then more americium can be expected to be found in the spent fuel than in that from a fast neutron reactor.^[5]

Some of the minor actinides have been found in fallout from bomb tests. See Actinides in the environment for details.

Transuranics in LWR spent fuel (burnup 55 GWd_th/T) and mean neutron consumption via fission^[6]
Isotope	Fraction	D_LWR	D_fast	D_superthermal
²³⁷ Np	0.0539	1.12	−0.59	−0.46
²³⁸ Pu	0.0364	0.17	−1.36	−0.13
²³⁹ Pu	0.451	−0.67	−1.46	−1.07
²⁴⁰ Pu	0.206	0.44	−0.96	0.14
²⁴¹ Pu	0.121	−0.56	−1.24	−0.86
²⁴² Pu	0.0813	1.76	−0.44	1.12
²⁴¹ Am	0.0242	1.12	−0.62	−0.54
^242m Am	0.000088	0.15	−1.36	−1.53
²⁴³ Am	0.0179	0.82	−0.60	0.21
²⁴³ Cm	0.00011	−1.90	−2.13	−1.63
²⁴⁴ Cm	0.00765	−0.15	−1.39	−0.48
²⁴⁵ Cm	0.000638	−1.48	−2.51	−1.37
Weighted sum		−0.03	−1.16	−0.51

References

^ Sasahara, Akihiro; Matsumura, Tetsuo; Nicolaou, Giorgos; Papaioannou, Dimitri (April 2004). "Neutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO2 and MOX Spent Fuels". Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology. 41 (4): 448–456. doi:10.3327/jnst.41.448.
^ Moyer, Bruce A. (2009). Ion Exchange and Solvent Extraction: A Series of Advances, Volume 19. CRC Press. p. 120. ISBN 9781420059700.
^ Stacey, Weston M. (2007). Nuclear Reactor Physics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 240. ISBN 9783527406791.
^ Raj, Gurdeep (2008). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry Vol-1, 31st ed. Krishna Prakashan Media. p. 356. ISBN 9788187224037.
^ Berthou, V.; et al. (2003). "Transmutation characteristics in thermal and fast neutron spectra: application to americium" (PDF). Journal of Nuclear Materials. 320 (1–2): 156–162. Bibcode:2003JNuM..320..156B. doi:10.1016/S0022-3115(03)00183-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-26. Retrieved 2013-03-31.
^ Etienne Parent (2003). "Nuclear Fuel Cycles for Mid-Century Deployment" (PDF). MIT. p. 104. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-25.

[1] Sasahara, Akihiro; Matsumura, Tetsuo; Nicolaou, Giorgos; Papaioannou, Dimitri (April 2004). "Neutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO2 and MOX Spent Fuels". Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology. 41 (4): 448–456. doi:10.3327/jnst.41.448.

[2] Moyer, Bruce A. (2009). Ion Exchange and Solvent Extraction: A Series of Advances, Volume 19. CRC Press. p. 120. ISBN 9781420059700.

[3] Stacey, Weston M. (2007). Nuclear Reactor Physics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 240. ISBN 9783527406791.

[4] Raj, Gurdeep (2008). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry Vol-1, 31st ed. Krishna Prakashan Media. p. 356. ISBN 9788187224037.

[5] Berthou, V.; et al. (2003). "Transmutation characteristics in thermal and fast neutron spectra: application to americium" (PDF). Journal of Nuclear Materials. 320 (1–2): 156–162. Bibcode:2003JNuM..320..156B. doi:10.1016/S0022-3115(03)00183-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-26. Retrieved 2013-03-31.

[6] Etienne Parent (2003). "Nuclear Fuel Cycles for Mid-Century Deployment" (PDF). MIT. p. 104. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-25.

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+{{Short description|Category of elements in spent nuclear fuel}}
 {{more citations needed|date=April 2009}}
 [[Image:Sasahara.svg|thumb|375px|Transmutation flow between <sup>238</sup>Pu and <sup>244</sup>Cm in LWR.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Neutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO2 and MOX Spent Fuels |journal=Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=448–456 |date=April 2004 |doi=10.3327/jnst.41.448 |author=Sasahara, Akihiro |last2=Matsumura |first2=Tetsuo |last3=Nicolaou |first3=Giorgos |last4=Papaioannou |first4=Dimitri |doi-access=free }}</ref><br/>Fission percentage is 100 minus shown percentages.<br/>Total rate of transmutation varies greatly by nuclide.<br/><sup>245</sup>Cm&ndash;<sup>248</sup>Cm are long-lived with negligible decay.]]
@@ Line 7: / Line 8: @@
 |{{periodic table (micro)|mark=U,Pu|title=Major actinides in the periodic table}}
 |}
-The '''minor actinides''' are the [[actinide]] elements in used [[nuclear fuel]] other than [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]], which are termed the [[major actinide]]s. The minor actinides include [[neptunium]] (element 93), [[americium]] (element 95), [[curium]] (element 96), [[berkelium]] (element 97), [[californium]] (element 98), [[einsteinium]] (element 99), and [[fermium]] (element 100).<ref>{{cite book|last=Moyer|first=Bruce A.|title=Ion Exchange and Solvent Extraction: A Series of Advances, Volume 19|year=2009|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781420059700|pages=120|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTgjUaLZiDsC&pg=PA120}}</ref> The most important isotopes of these elements in [[spent nuclear fuel]] are [[neptunium-237]], [[americium-241]], [[americium-243]], [[curium]]-242 through -248, and [[californium]]-249 through -252.
+A '''minor actinide''' is an [[actinide]], other than [[uranium]] or [[plutonium]], found in [[spent nuclear fuel]]. The minor actinides include [[neptunium]] (element 93), [[americium]] (element 95), [[curium]] (element 96), [[berkelium]] (element 97), [[californium]] (element 98), [[einsteinium]] (element 99), and [[fermium]] (element 100).<ref>{{cite book|last=Moyer|first=Bruce A.|title=Ion Exchange and Solvent Extraction: A Series of Advances, Volume 19|year=2009|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781420059700|pages=120|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTgjUaLZiDsC&pg=PA120}}</ref> The most important isotopes of these elements in [[spent nuclear fuel]] are [[neptunium-237]], [[americium-241]], [[americium-243]], [[curium]]-242 through -248, and [[californium]]-249 through -252.
-Plutonium and the minor [[actinide]]s will be responsible for the bulk of the [[radiotoxicity]] and heat generation of [[used nuclear fuel]] in the long term (300 to 20,000 years in the [[future]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Stacey|first=Weston M.|title=Nuclear Reactor Physics|year=2007|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9783527406791|pages=240|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1UgcgVSXSkC&pg=PA240}}</ref>
+Plutonium and the minor [[actinide]]s will be responsible for the bulk of the [[radiotoxicity]] and heat generation of [[spent nuclear fuel]] in the long term (300 to 20,000 years in the [[future]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Stacey|first=Weston M.|title=Nuclear Reactor Physics|year=2007|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9783527406791|pages=240|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1UgcgVSXSkC&pg=PA240}}</ref>
-The plutonium from a power reactor tends to have a greater amount of [[plutonium-241]] than the plutonium generated by the lower [[burnup]] operations designed to create [[weapons-grade plutonium]]. Because the [[reactor-grade plutonium]] contains so much <sup>241</sup>Pu, the presence of americium-241 makes the plutonium less suitable for making a [[nuclear weapon]]. The ingrowth of americium in plutonium is one of the methods for identifying the origin of an unknown sample of plutonium and the time since it was last separated chemically from the americium.
+The plutonium from a power reactor tends to have a greater amount of [[plutonium-241]] than the plutonium generated by the lower [[burnup]] operations designed to create [[weapons-grade plutonium]]. Because the [[reactor-grade plutonium]] contains so much <sup>241</sup>Pu, the presence of <sup>241</sup>Am makes the plutonium less suitable for making a [[nuclear weapon]]. The ingrowth of americium in plutonium is one of the methods for identifying the origin of an unknown sample of plutonium and the time since it was last separated chemically from the americium.
-Americium is commonly used in industry as both an [[alpha particle]] source and as a low [[photon]]-energy [[gamma radiation]] source. For example, it is commonly used in [[smoke detector]]s. Americium can be formed by neutron capture of <sup>239</sup>Pu and <sup>240</sup>Pu, forming <sup>241</sup>Pu which then beta decays to <sup>241</sup>Am.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raj|first=Gurdeep|title=Advanced Inorganic Chemistry Vol-1, 31st ed.|year=2008|publisher=Krishna Prakashan Media|isbn=9788187224037|pages=356|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0uwDTrxyaB8C&pg=PA356}}</ref> In general, as the energy of the neutrons increases, the ratio of the fission cross section to the neutron capture cross section changes in favour of [[Nuclear fission|fission]]. Hence, if [[MOX]] is used in a [[thermal reactor]] such as a [[boiling water reactor]] (BWR) or [[pressurized water reactor]] (PWR) then more americium can be expected in the used fuel than that from a [[fast neutron reactor]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Berthou|first=V.|title=Transmutation characteristics in thermal and fast neutron spectra: application to americium|journal=Journal of Nuclear Materials|year=2003|volume=320|issue=1–2|pages=156–162|doi=10.1016/S0022-3115(03)00183-1|url=http://nucleonica.com/TC/TC0406/relevant_papers/Transmutation_characteristics.pdf|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2003JNuM..320..156B|access-date=2013-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126005554/http://nucleonica.com/TC/TC0406/relevant_papers/Transmutation_characteristics.pdf|archive-date=2016-01-26|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+Americium is commonly used in industry as both an [[alpha particle]] source and as a low [[photon]]-energy [[gamma radiation]] source. For example, it is commonly used in [[smoke detector]]s. Americium can be formed by neutron capture of <sup>239</sup>Pu and <sup>240</sup>Pu, forming <sup>241</sup>Pu which then beta decays to <sup>241</sup>Am.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raj|first=Gurdeep|title=Advanced Inorganic Chemistry Vol-1, 31st ed.|year=2008|publisher=Krishna Prakashan Media|isbn=9788187224037|pages=356|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0uwDTrxyaB8C&pg=PA356}}</ref> In general, as the energy of the neutrons increases, the ratio of the fission cross section to the neutron capture cross section changes in favour of [[Nuclear fission|fission]]. Hence, if [[MOX]] is used in a [[thermal reactor]] such as a [[boiling water reactor]] (BWR) or [[pressurized water reactor]] (PWR) then more americium can be expected to be found in the spent fuel than in that from a [[fast neutron reactor]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Berthou|first=V.|title=Transmutation characteristics in thermal and fast neutron spectra: application to americium|journal=Journal of Nuclear Materials|year=2003|volume=320|issue=1–2|pages=156–162|doi=10.1016/S0022-3115(03)00183-1|url=http://nucleonica.com/TC/TC0406/relevant_papers/Transmutation_characteristics.pdf|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2003JNuM..320..156B|access-date=2013-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126005554/http://nucleonica.com/TC/TC0406/relevant_papers/Transmutation_characteristics.pdf|archive-date=2016-01-26|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 Some of the minor actinides have been found in [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] from bomb tests. See [[Actinides in the environment]] for details.