Propaganda in Augustan Rome: Difference between revisions

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27 BCE – 14 CE
	Augustus
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Roman Emperor Augustus employed various forms of propaganda as he ascended to power.

Augustus employed several forms of artwork and literature to boast the image of the enforcer of the Pax Romana ('Roman Peace', a.k.a. the Pax Augusta). He can be perceived as a historically important figure who effectively utilised propaganda in creating and maintaining his principate.^[1] Augustus’ wide range of propaganda targeted all aspects of Roman society: art, architecture and coinage to appeal to the general populace, and literature such as poetry and history for the wealthy upperclass.

The propaganda did not only exist as a form of media, but Augustus’ family, especially the women, played a pivotal role in helping to maintain the Principate. His family was essential in acting as examples of the ideal Roman citizen, this aspect is clearly enunciated through the responsibility of his wife.^[2] Moreover, one of his daughters, Julia the Elder was indispensable in solidifying Augustus' bloodline in future ruling generation, ensuring the continuation of Augustus' successful legacy.^[2]

Thus, Augustus’ multi-faceted approach allowed for him to dominate public and private sectors of daily Roman life. Archaeological evidence and scholarly interpretations demonstrate the effectiveness of Augustus’ propaganda.

The images that Augustus desired to project aimed to idolise him in all Roman aspects, from a military with successful triumphs, to a reliable religious leader through reinforcing his divine ancestry from Julius Caesar.^[3] Most importantly, Augustus aimed to stabilise Rome from civil strife as the city had been plagued by fight for power.

Literature

History

Res Gestae

The most common piece of Augustan literature is the Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of the Divine Augustus), a documentation written by Augustus soon before his death, listing out the accomplishments and recognitions he gained in his life.^[4] Thus, the text – despite influencing little of his reign – was crucial in carving the image of Augustus that was to remain after his passing. Augustus' intentions are clearly outlined in his first line:

A copy below of the deeds of the divine Augustus, by which he subjected the whole wide earth to the rule of the Roman people, and of the money which he spent for the state and Roman people...

Immediately Augustus establishes his religious power through the link of the title 'divine'.^[5] His importance and actions for the state are constantly referred to throughout the Res Gestae. Augustus demonstrates his military strength through anecdotes of his conquests, building upon how he had heroically avenged his adoptive father Julius Caesar by defeating his assassins.^[5] It is said Augustus intended the Res Gestae to be located on the external wall of his mausoleum however archaeologists have found copies in Galatia in Asia Minor and Antioch in Pisidia, reinforcing the idea the emperor had intended to glorify not just his lifetime achievements but Rome as a whole.

Though all events written in the Res Gestae can be corroborated, Augustus has chosen to omit information, for example such as Mark Antony's name.^[5]

Poetry

Aeneid

The most famous piece of poetry in Augustus' time was Virgil's Aeneid, essentially narrating the birth of Rome through their founder Aeneas, a surviving Trojan warrior. The poem is symbolic of the origin of the Roman people, and thus linking Augustus as a descendant of Aeneas, Virgil illustrated how Augustus had created a new thriving Rome and how integral he is to Roman culture.^[5] Furthermore Virgil provided credibility and reinforced the divinity in Augustus, representing the emperor as written:

Time and again you’ve heard his coming promised-Caesar Augustus! Son of a god [Julius Caesar], he will bring back the Age of Gold to the Latian fields where Saturn once held sway, expand his empire past Garamants [North African tribe] and the Indians to a land beyond the stars, beyond the wheel of the year, the course of the sun itself, where Atlas bears the skies and turns on his shoulder the heavens studded with flaming stars. Even now the Caspian and Maeotic kingdoms quake at his coming, oracles sound the alarm and the seven mouths of the Nile churn with fear. Not even Hercules himself could cross such a vast expanse of earth…^[6]

Metamorphoses

Additionally, another Roman author Ovid wrote a piece titled Metamorphoses, detailing the history until the deification of Caesar, which surprisingly includes a short section on Augustus. Ovid's piece strengthened the contributions Augustus provided for the Principate.^[7]

Seeing his son’s [Augustus] good works, Caesar [Julius] acknowledges they are greater than his own and delights at being surpassed by him.^[8]

This similarly alludes to Augustus' divine and religious ancestry, and once again refers to how Augustus managed to bring peace and prosperity to Rome. There are also similar references of Augustus' leadership was hinted in the Sibylline Books, Ovid undoubtedly accepting this fact.^[7] The fourth book especially, dedicated to Venus, a goddess Julius Caesar claimed he was a descendant of emphasised heavily on Augustus' divine heritage once again solidifying his position as the rightful ruler of Rome.

Art

Artworks of Augustus also served as propaganda, and though there are not many of the paintings the sculptures of Augustus gave insight to how he wanted himself portrayed.

Sculptures

Type B - Early portraits^[9]

Classic Greek influence
Portrays a young man with dignity
Wavy neat hair, bony but even features, controlled expression reflects firm authority

Actium/Octavian Type Statues^[9]

Bronze
Depicted as a youthful ruler
Modified hellenistic features
Roman tradition seen in small eyes, pointed chin, knit brows, thin pressed lips
Wrinkled forehead suggests serious concern for Rome

Prima Porta Type^[9]

Egyptian type
Youthful leader
Majority of portraits found in this style
Sense of timelessness - removed from life but not deified
Fuller face, no wrinkles
Style consolidated his status as imperator Caesar divi filius

Forbes Type^[9]

Portrait
Lifelike, less abstract
Hair less styled
Proportions of the face more naturally created
Signs of bones and wrinkles
Portrays Augustus as princeps and pater patriae

Architecture and building programs

Through restoring Rome using his building program, Augustus could physically demonstrate the prosperity he created and thereby ensure loyalty from Roman citizens. Augustus mentions in the Res Gestae that he restored eighty-two temples and repaired bridges and aqueducts, including the Theatre of Pompey. In this way, Augustus could prove with these monuments that "Rome was rising again".^[10]

Furthermore, Augustus effectively used his building program to be perceived as an omnipotent restorer of a flourishing Rome. Through securing the city, by extension Augustus was reinforcing his image of the saviour of Rome and the bringer of prosperity and peace. Suetonius and Dio believe this entrapped the support of the senatorial and Equites classes as they were also encouraged to create monuments under their own names, garnering respect and unquestioning loyalty to Augustus.

Examples of notable buildings are the Forum of Augustus, Ara Pacis, Temple of Actian Apollo, and the Temple of Mars Ultor.

Coins

Andrew Wallace-Hadrill explains that there are two ways to interpret the use of Augustan coins. He uses the terms legalistic and charismatic to categorise the types of coins produced to consolidate Augustus' authority. Considering a majority of the Roman population was illiterate, the depiction of Augustus was paramount, especially since it would reach all corners of the empire. The coins were also another method to remind the citizens of their loyalty and service to the principate.

Legalistic

As an officially recognised coin provided by the Principate, Augustus' idealised image of himself was imbued throughout the currency. These were also known as imperial coins which have been used as a method to estimate how the emperor intended to see themselves.^[11] In this way, the emperor decided how he would be portrayed in contrast to the "biased representation of the historian".^[11] His most notable coin, Augustus continuing with his image as the avenging son, designed his coins with the phrase DIVI FILIUS, also known as son of the divine to pay homage to his adoptive father Julius Caesar.^[12]

Charismatic

This coin type, although not as significant as legalistic coinage, did have some effect in creating and maintaining the emperor's image.

An example of this is through Augustus' coin in celebration of his conquest of Egypt. The symbolic win over the so-called barbaric East was an establishment of Augustus' might and force as he was able to eliminate the civil strife that had continually plagued Rome after Caesar's death. This was a feature worth perpetuating through architecture, poetry, and coins, which would be distributed to every part of the empire.^[11]

Imperial family and women

The role of the imperial family in regards to the women, was to decorate and boast Augustus’s image and virtue.

This is evident in Livia's conduct. She was an idealistic portrayal of a traditional Roman woman due to her morals and ethics.^[2] Being a conservative traditionalist, Augustus proposed a series of moral reforms that reinforced the values of a woman being subservient and chaste.^[2] Portrayals of Livia in statues conceal her skin, representing a modest and conservative woman. It can be concluded that Livia's main contribution was to help Augustus uphold his moral reforms.^[2]

Julia was similarly essential in emphasising the importance of child-bearing and marriage, simply used as a tool for Augustus to advance his moral campaign. By extension, other imperial women were also expected to exhibit the same behaviour of Livia and Julia.^[2] However, after a series of marriages and divorces, Julia became known for her adulterous behaviour, clashing with Augustus' morals and was subsequently banished as she no longer conformed to the emperor's values.

References

^ Eck, Werner (2007). Age of Augustus. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Bauman, Richard (1992). Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge.
^ Zanker, Paul (1988). The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
^ Brunt, P.; Augustus; Moore, J. (1995). Res gestae Divi Augusti. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Pollok, Alexander (2017). Roman Propaganda in the Age of Augustus (Thesis). San Rafael, California: Dominican University.^{[better source needed]}
^ Virgil. Aeneid.
^ ^a ^b Allen, Katharine (1922). "The Fasti of Ovid and the Augustan Propaganda". The American Journal of Philology. 43 (3): 250–266. doi:10.2307/289371. JSTOR 289371.
^ Ovid's Metamorphoses. Translated by Anthony S. Kline. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Geracitano, M. "Images of Augustus". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Shotter, David (1991). Augustus Caesar. London: Routledge.
^ ^a ^b ^c Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (1986). Image and Authority in the Coinage of Augustus. pp. 66–87.
^ Kleiner, Diana (1992). Roman Sculpture. Yale University Press. p. 61.

[1] Eck, Werner (2007). Age of Augustus. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

[:2-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Bauman, Richard (1992). Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge.

[3] Zanker, Paul (1988). The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

[4] Brunt, P.; Augustus; Moore, J. (1995). Res gestae Divi Augusti. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

[:3-5] Pollok, Alexander (2017). Roman Propaganda in the Age of Augustus (Thesis). San Rafael, California: Dominican University.^{[better source needed]}

[6] Virgil. Aeneid.

[:6-7] Allen, Katharine (1922). "The Fasti of Ovid and the Augustan Propaganda". The American Journal of Philology. 43 (3): 250–266. doi:10.2307/289371. JSTOR 289371.

[8] Ovid's Metamorphoses. Translated by Anthony S. Kline. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)

[:4-9] Geracitano, M. "Images of Augustus". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[10] Shotter, David (1991). Augustus Caesar. London: Routledge.

[:1-11] Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (1986). Image and Authority in the Coinage of Augustus. pp. 66–87.

[12] Kleiner, Diana (1992). Roman Sculpture. Yale University Press. p. 61.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|None}}
-{{Infobox historical era|name=Augustan Rome|start=27BC|end=14AD|image=Augustus of Rome.jpg|alt=|caption=Augustus|before=|including=|after=|monarch=|leaders=Augustus}}{{further|Propaganda}}The article highlights the forms of propaganda Roman Emperor [[Augustus]] employed as he ascended to power.
+{{Infobox historical era|name=Augustan Rome|start=27 BCE|end=14 CE|image=Augustus of Rome.jpg|alt=|caption=Augustus|before=|including=|after=|monarch=|leaders=Augustus}}
-Augustus employed several forms of artwork and literature to boast the image of the enforcer of the [[Pax Romana]] (Roman Peace), alternatively called Pax Augusta. He can be perceived as a historically important figure who effectively utilised propaganda in creating and maintaining his principate<ref>{{Cite book|title=Age of Augustus|last=Eck|first=Werner|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|year=2007|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>. Augustus’ wide range of propaganda targeted all aspects of Roman society, art and architecture to appeal to the population, coinage to represent himself to the masses, and finally literature such as poetry and history for the wealthy upperclass in order to exert power and to maintain peace and prosperity. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Jeffries|first=Kevin|date=2006|title=The Propaganda of Augustus Caesar|url=http://www.wou.edu/history/files/2015/08/Kevin-Jeffries.pdf|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>
+Roman Emperor [[Augustus]] employed various forms of [[propaganda]] as he ascended to power.
-The propaganda didn’t only exist as a form of media, but Augustus’ family, the women especially played a pivotal role in helping to maintain the principate. His family was essential in acting as examples of the ideal Roman citizen, this aspect is clearly enunciated through the responsibility of [[Livia|his wife]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Women and Politics in Ancient Rome|last=Bauman|first=Richard|publisher=Routledge|year=1992|isbn=|location=London|pages=}}</ref> Moreover, one of his daughters, [[Julia the Elder]] was indispensable in solidifying Augustus' bloodline in future ruling generation, ensuring the continuation of Augustus' successful legacy.<ref name=":2" />
+Augustus employed several forms of artwork and literature to boast the image of the enforcer of the ''[[Pax Romana]]'' ('Roman Peace', {{Aka}} the ''Pax Augusta''). He can be perceived as a historically important figure who effectively utilised propaganda in creating and maintaining his principate.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Age of Augustus|last=Eck|first=Werner|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|year=2007}}</ref> Augustus’ wide range of propaganda targeted all aspects of Roman society: art, architecture and coinage to appeal to the general populace, and literature such as poetry and history for the wealthy upperclass.
+The propaganda did not only exist as a form of media, but Augustus’ family, especially the women, played a pivotal role in helping to maintain the [[Principate]]. His family was essential in acting as examples of the ideal Roman citizen, this aspect is clearly enunciated through the responsibility of [[Livia|his wife]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Women and Politics in Ancient Rome|last=Bauman|first=Richard|publisher=Routledge|year=1992|location=London}}</ref> Moreover, one of his daughters, [[Julia the Elder]] was indispensable in solidifying Augustus' bloodline in future ruling generation, ensuring the continuation of Augustus' successful legacy.<ref name=":2" />
 Thus, Augustus’ multi-faceted approach allowed for him to dominate public and private sectors of daily Roman life. Archaeological evidence and scholarly interpretations demonstrate the effectiveness of Augustus’ propaganda.
-The images that Augustus desired to project aimed to idolise him in all Roman aspects, from a military with successful triumphs, to a reliable religious leader through reinforcing his divine Julian ancestry<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus|last=Zanker|first=Paul|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1988|isbn=|location=Michigan|pages=}}</ref>. However most importantly, Augustus aimed to stabilise Rome from civil strife as the city had been plagued by fight for power.
+The images that Augustus desired to project aimed to idolise him in all Roman aspects, from a military with successful triumphs, to a reliable religious leader through reinforcing his divine ancestry from  [[Julius Caesar]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus|last=Zanker|first=Paul|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1988|location=Michigan}}</ref> Most importantly, Augustus aimed to stabilise Rome from civil strife as the city had been plagued by fight for power.
 == Literature ==
@@ Line 14: / Line 18: @@
 ==== Res Gestae ====
-The most common piece of Augustan literature is the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'', a documentation written by Augustus soon before his death, listing out the accomplishments and recognitions he gained in his life..<ref>{{Cite book|title=Res gestae Divi Augusti.|author=Brunt, P.|author2= Augustus |author3= Moore, J.|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|year=1995|isbn=|location=Oxford|pages=}}</ref> Thus the text, despite influencing little of his reign, was crucial in carving the image of Augustus that was to remain after his passing. Augustus' intentions are clearly outlined in his first line:<blockquote>"A copy below of the deeds of the divine Augustus, by which he subjected the whole wide earth to the rile of the Roman people, and of the money which he spent for the state and Roman people..."</blockquote> Immediately Augustus establishes his religious power through the link of the title 'divine'.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Pollok|first=Alexander|date=|title=Roman Propaganda in the Age of Augustus.|url=|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> His importance and actions for the state are constant referred to throughout the ''Res Gestae.'' Augustus demonstrates his military strength through anecdotes of his conquests, building upon how he had heroically avenged his father Julius Caesar by defeating his assassins.<ref name=":3" /> It is said Augustus intended the ''Res Gestae'' to be located on the external wall of his mausoleum however archaeologists have found copies in [[Galatia]] in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and [[Antioch]] in [[Pisidia]], reinforcing the idea the emperor had intended to glorify not just his lifetime achievements but Rome as a whole<ref name=":5" />
+The most common piece of Augustan literature is the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'' (The Deeds of the Divine Augustus), a documentation written by Augustus soon before his death, listing out the accomplishments and recognitions he gained in his life.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Res gestae Divi Augusti.|author=Brunt, P.|author2= Augustus |author3= Moore, J.|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|year=1995|location=Oxford}}</ref> Thus, the text – despite influencing little of his reign – was crucial in carving the image of Augustus that was to remain after his passing. Augustus' intentions are clearly outlined in his first line:<blockquote>A copy below of the deeds of the divine Augustus, by which he subjected the whole wide earth to the rule of the Roman people, and of the money which he spent for the state and Roman people...</blockquote> Immediately Augustus establishes his religious power through the link of the title 'divine'.<ref name=":3">{{Cite thesis|last=Pollok|first=Alexander|title=Roman Propaganda in the Age of Augustus|url=https://scholar.dominican.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=senior-theses|year=2017|publisher=Dominican University|location=San Rafael, California}}{{better source|reason=BA theses not generally reliable per WP:SCHOLARSHIP|date=July 2022}}</ref> His importance and actions for the state are constantly referred to throughout the ''Res Gestae.'' Augustus demonstrates his military strength through anecdotes of his conquests, building upon how he had heroically avenged his adoptive father [[Julius Caesar]] by defeating his assassins.<ref name=":3" /> It is said Augustus intended the ''Res Gestae'' to be located on the external wall of his mausoleum however archaeologists have found copies in [[Galatia]] in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and [[Antioch]] in [[Pisidia]], reinforcing the idea the emperor had intended to glorify not just his lifetime achievements but Rome as a whole.
 Though all events written in the ''Res Gestae'' can be corroborated, Augustus has chosen to omit information, for example such as [[Mark Antony]]'s name.<ref name=":3" />
@@ Line 21: / Line 25: @@
 ==== Aeneid ====
-The most famous piece of poetry in Augustus' time was [[Virgil|Virgil's]] ''[[Aeneid]]'', essentially narrating the birth of Rome through their founder [[Aeneas]], a surviving Trojan warrior. The poem is symbolic of the origin of the Roman people, and thus linking Augustus as a descendant of Aeneas, Virgil illustrated how Augustus had created a new thriving Rome and how integral he is to Roman culture.<ref name=":3" /> Furthermore Virgil provided credibility and reinforced the divinity in Augustus, representing the emperor as written:<blockquote>Time and again you’ve heard his coming promised-Caesar Augustus! Son of a god [Julius Caesar], he will bring back the Age of Gold to the Latian fields where Saturn once held sway, expand his empire past Garamants [North African tribe] and the Indians to a land beyond the stars, beyond the wheel of the year, the course of the sun itself , where Atlas bears the skies and turns on his shoulder the heavens studded with flaming stars. Even now the Caspian and Maeotic kingdoms quake at his coming, oracles sound the alarm and the seven mouths of the Nile churn with fear. Not even Hercules himself could cross such a vast expanse of earth…<ref>{{Cite book|title=Aeneid|title-link=Aeneid|author=Virgil|publisher=|date=|location=|pages=}}</ref></blockquote>
+The most famous piece of poetry in Augustus' time was [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'', essentially narrating the birth of Rome through their founder [[Aeneas]], a surviving Trojan warrior. The poem is symbolic of the origin of the Roman people, and thus linking Augustus as a descendant of Aeneas, Virgil illustrated how Augustus had created a new thriving Rome and how integral he is to Roman culture.<ref name=":3" /> Furthermore Virgil provided credibility and reinforced the divinity in Augustus, representing the emperor as written:<blockquote>Time and again you’ve heard his coming promised-Caesar Augustus! Son of a god [Julius Caesar], he will bring back the Age of Gold to the Latian fields where Saturn once held sway, expand his empire past Garamants [North African tribe] and the Indians to a land beyond the stars, beyond the wheel of the year, the course of the sun itself, where Atlas bears the skies and turns on his shoulder the heavens studded with flaming stars. Even now the Caspian and Maeotic kingdoms quake at his coming, oracles sound the alarm and the seven mouths of the Nile churn with fear. Not even Hercules himself could cross such a vast expanse of earth…<ref>{{Cite book|title=Aeneid|title-link=Aeneid|author=Virgil}}</ref></blockquote>
 ==== Metamorphoses ====
-Additionally, another Roman author [[Ovid]] wrote a piece titled ''[[Metamorphoses]],'' detailing the history until the deification of Caesar, which surprisingly includes a short section on Augustus. Ovid's piece strengthened the contributions Augustus provided for the principate<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=Katharine|date=1922|title=The Fasti of Ovid and the Augustan Propaganda|journal=The American Journal of Philology|volume=43|issue=3|pages=250–266|doi=10.2307/289371|jstor=289371}}</ref>. <blockquote>Seeing his son’s [Augustus] good works, Caesar [Julius] acknowledges they are greater than his own and delights at being surpassed by him.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Ovhome.htm|title=Ovid's Metamorphoses|translator= Anthony S. Kline|author=|date=|website=ovid.lib.virginia.edu|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref></blockquote>This similarly alludes to Augustus' divine and religious ancestry, and once again refers to how Augustus managed to bring peace and prosperity to Rome. There are also similar references of Augustus' leadership was hinted in the [[Sibylline Books]], Ovid undoubtedly accepting this fact <ref name=":6" />. The fourth book especially, dedicated to Venus, a goddess Julius Caesar claimed he was a descendant of emphasised heavily on Augustus' divine heritage once again solidifying his position as the rightful ruler of Rome.
+Additionally, another Roman author [[Ovid]] wrote a piece titled ''[[Metamorphoses]],'' detailing the history until the deification of Caesar, which surprisingly includes a short section on Augustus. Ovid's piece strengthened the contributions Augustus provided for the Principate.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=Katharine|date=1922|title=The Fasti of Ovid and the Augustan Propaganda|journal=The American Journal of Philology|volume=43|issue=3|pages=250–266|doi=10.2307/289371|jstor=289371}}</ref> <blockquote>Seeing his son’s [Augustus] good works, Caesar [Julius] acknowledges they are greater than his own and delights at being surpassed by him.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Ovhome.htm|title=Ovid's Metamorphoses|translator= Anthony S. Kline|website=ovid.lib.virginia.edu}}</ref></blockquote>This similarly alludes to Augustus' divine and religious ancestry, and once again refers to how Augustus managed to bring peace and prosperity to Rome. There are also similar references of Augustus' leadership was hinted in the [[Sibylline Books]], Ovid undoubtedly accepting this fact.<ref name=":6" /> The fourth book especially, dedicated to Venus, a goddess Julius Caesar claimed he was a descendant of emphasised heavily on Augustus' divine heritage once again solidifying his position as the rightful ruler of Rome.
 == Art ==
 Artworks of Augustus also served as propaganda, and though there are not many of the paintings the sculptures of Augustus gave insight to how he wanted himself portrayed.
 === Sculptures ===
-==== Type B - Early portraits<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Geracitano|first=M|date=|title=Images of Augustus|url=|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> ====
+==== Type B - Early portraits<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Geracitano|first=M|title=Images of Augustus}}</ref> ====
 * Classic Greek influence
@@ Line 63: / Line 67: @@
 * Portrays Augustus as ''princeps'' and ''pater patriae''
-== Architecture and Building Programs ==
+== Architecture and building programs ==
+[[File:20140804 Forum of Augustus Rome 0679.jpg|thumb|left|[[Forum of Augustus]]]]
-Through restoring Rome using his building program, Augustus could physically demonstrate the prosperity he created and thereby ensure loyalty from Roman citizens. Augustus mentions in the Res Gestae that he restored eighty-two temples and repaired bridges and aqueducts, including the [[Theatre of Pompey]]. In this way, Augustus could prove with these monuments that 'Rome was rising again'<ref>{{Cite book|title=Augustus Caesar|last=Shotter|first=David|publisher=Routledge|year=1991|isbn=|location=London|pages=}}</ref>. Furthermore, Augustus effectively used his building program to be perceived as an omnipotent restorer of a flourishing Rome. Through securing the city, by extension Augustus was reinforcing his image of the saviour of Rome and the bringer of prosperity and peace. [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio|Dio]] believe this entrapped the support of the Senatorial and Equites classes as they were also encouraged to create monuments under their own names, garnering respect and unquestioning loyalty to Augustus.
+Through restoring Rome using his building program, Augustus could physically demonstrate the prosperity he created and thereby ensure loyalty from Roman citizens. Augustus mentions in the ''Res Gestae'' that he restored eighty-two temples and repaired bridges and aqueducts, including the [[Theatre of Pompey]]. In this way, Augustus could prove with these monuments that "Rome was rising again".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Augustus Caesar|last=Shotter|first=David|publisher=Routledge|year=1991|location=London}}</ref>
+Furthermore, Augustus effectively used his building program to be perceived as an omnipotent restorer of a flourishing Rome. Through securing the city, by extension Augustus was reinforcing his image of the saviour of Rome and the bringer of prosperity and peace. [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio|Dio]] believe this entrapped the support of the senatorial and Equites classes as they were also encouraged to create monuments under their own names, garnering respect and unquestioning loyalty to Augustus.
-=== Notable Buildings ===
+Examples of notable buildings are the [[Forum of Augustus]], [[Ara Pacis]], [[Temple of Apollo Palatinus|Temple of Actian Apollo]], and the [[Temple of Mars Ultor]].
-* [[Ara Pacis]]
-* [[Temple of Apollo Palatinus|Temple of Actian Apollo]]
-* [[Temple of Mars Ultor]]
-* [[Forum of Augustus|Augustan Forum]]
 == Coins ==
-[[Andrew Wallace-Hadrill|Wallace-Hadrill]] explains that there are two ways to interpret the use of Augustan coins. He uses the terms legalistic and charismatic to categorise the types of coins produced to consolidate Augustus' authority. Considering a majority of the Roman population was illiterate, the depiction of Augustus was paramount, especially since it would reach all corners of the empire. The coins were also another method to remind the citizens of their loyalty and service to the principate.<ref name=":5" />
+[[Andrew Wallace-Hadrill]] explains that there are two ways to interpret the use of Augustan coins. He uses the terms legalistic and charismatic to categorise the types of coins produced to consolidate Augustus' authority. Considering a majority of the Roman population was illiterate, the depiction of Augustus was paramount, especially since it would reach all corners of the empire. The coins were also another method to remind the citizens of their loyalty and service to the principate.
 === Legalistic ===
-As an officially recognised coin provided by the principate, Augustus' idealised image of himself was imbued throughout the currency. These were also known as imperial coins which have been used as a method to estimate how the emperor intended to see themselves. <ref name=":1" /> In this way, the emperor decided how he would be portrayed in contrast to the "biased representation of the historian"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Image and Authority in the Coinage of Augustus|last=Wallace-Hadrill|first=Andrew|publisher=|year=1986|isbn=|location=|pages=66–87}}</ref>. His most notable coin, Augustus continuing with his image as the avenging son, designed his coins with the phrase DIVI FILIUS, also known as son of the divine to pay homage to his adoptive father Julius Caesar <ref>{{Cite book|title=Roman Sculpture|last=Kleiner|first=Diana|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1992|isbn=|location=|pages=61}}</ref>.
+As an officially recognised coin provided by the Principate, Augustus' idealised image of himself was imbued throughout the currency. These were also known as imperial coins which have been used as a method to estimate how the emperor intended to see themselves.<ref name=":1" /> In this way, the emperor decided how he would be portrayed in contrast to the "biased representation of the historian".<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Image and Authority in the Coinage of Augustus|last=Wallace-Hadrill|first=Andrew|year=1986|pages=66–87}}</ref> His most notable coin, Augustus continuing with his image as the avenging son, designed his coins with the phrase DIVI FILIUS, also known as son of the divine to pay homage to his adoptive father Julius Caesar.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Roman Sculpture|last=Kleiner|first=Diana|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1992|pages=61}}</ref>
 === Charismatic ===
-[[File:Octavianus_Aegypto_capta_90020164.jpg|thumb|AEGYPTO CAPTA]]
+[[File:Octavianus_Aegypto_capta_90020164.jpg|thumb|left|AEGYPTO CAPTA]]
-These coin types of not as significant as legalistic coinage however they did have some effect in creating and maintaining the emperor's image.
+This coin type, although not as significant as legalistic coinage,  did have some effect in creating and maintaining the emperor's image.
-An example of this is through Augustus' coin in celebration of his conquest of Egypt. The symbolic win over the so-called barbaric East was an establishment of Augustus' might and force as he was able to eliminate the civil strife that had continually plagued Rome after Caesar's death. This was a feature worth perpetuating through architect, poetry and coins which would be distributed to every part of the empire.<ref name=":1" />
+An example of this is through Augustus' coin in celebration of his conquest of Egypt. The symbolic win over the so-called barbaric East was an establishment of Augustus' might and force as he was able to eliminate the civil strife that had continually plagued Rome after Caesar's death. This was a feature worth perpetuating through architecture, poetry, and coins, which would be distributed to every part of the empire.<ref name=":1" />
+[[File:Great Cameo of France CdM Paris Bab264 white background.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Cameo of France]] with an allegory of Augustus and his family]]
 == Imperial family and women ==
-[[File:Livia_Boscoreale_villa_Misteri_Pompeii.jpg|thumb|267x267px|Livia, wife of Augustus]]
-The role of the imperial family-in regards to the women, was to decorate and boast Augustus’s image and virtue. This is evident in Livia’s conduct. She was an idealistic portrayal of a traditional Roman woman due to her morals and ethics.<ref name=":2" /> Being a conservative traditionalist, Augustus proposed a series of moral reforms that reinforced the values of a women being subservient and chaste.<ref name=":2" /> Portrayals of Livia in statues conceal her skin, representing a modest and conservative woman. It can be concluded that Livia's main contribution was to help Augustus uphold his moral reforms.<ref name=":2" />
+The role of the imperial family in regards to the women, was to decorate and boast Augustus’s image and virtue.
-[[Julia the Elder|Julia]] was similarly essential in emphasising the importance of child-bearing and marriage, simply used as a tool for Augustus to advance his moral campaign. By extension, other imperial women were also expected to exhibit the same behaviour of Livia and Julia.<ref name=":2" /> However after a series of marriages and divorces, Julia became known for her adulterous behaviour, clashing with Augustus' morals and was subsequently banished as she no longer conformed to the emperor's values.
+This is evident in [[Livia]]'s conduct. She was an idealistic portrayal of a traditional Roman woman due to her morals and ethics.<ref name=":2" /> Being a conservative traditionalist, Augustus proposed a series of moral reforms that reinforced the values of a woman being subservient and chaste.<ref name=":2" /> Portrayals of Livia in statues conceal her skin, representing a modest and conservative woman. It can be concluded that Livia's main contribution was to help Augustus uphold his moral reforms.<ref name=":2" />
+[[Julia the Elder|Julia]] was similarly essential in emphasising the importance of child-bearing and marriage, simply used as a tool for Augustus to advance his moral campaign. By extension, other imperial women were also expected to exhibit the same behaviour of Livia and Julia.<ref name=":2" /> However, after a series of marriages and divorces, Julia became known for her adulterous behaviour, clashing with Augustus' morals and was subsequently banished as she no longer conformed to the emperor's values.
 == References ==
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 {{reflist}}
+{{Augustus}}
 [[Category:Augustus]]