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{{Short description|Species of fungus}}
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{{Speciesbox
{{Taxobox
| image =
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| name = ''Exophiala pisciphila''
| image =
| image_alt =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
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| taxon = Exophiala pisciphila
| image_caption =
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| authority = McGinnis & Ajello (1974)
| regnum = [[Fungi]]
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| synonyms =
| divisio = [[Ascomycota]]
}}
| subdivisio = [[Pezizomycotina]]
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| classis = [[Eurotiomycetes]]
| ordo = [[Chaetothyriales]]
| familia = [[Herpotrichiellaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Exophiala]]''
| species = '''''E. pisciphila'''''
| binomial = ''Exophiala pisciphila''
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| binomial_authority = McGinnis & Ajello (1974)
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| synonyms = }}


'''''Exophiala pisciphila''''' is a [[mesophile|mesophillic]] [[black yeast]] and member of the [[dark septate endophytes]]. This [[saprotrophic]] fungus is found commonly in marine and soil environments. It is present abundantly in harsh environments like soil contaminated with heavy metals. ''E. pisciphila'' forms symbiotic relationships with various plants by colonizing on roots, conferring resistance to drought and heavy metal stress. It is an opportunistic pathogen that commonly causes infections in captive fish and amphibians, while rarely causing disease in humans. [[Secondary metabolites]] produced by this species have potential clinical applications such as antibiotic and antiretroviral.
'''''Exophiala pisciphila''''' is a [[mesophile|mesophilic]] [[black yeast]] and member of the [[dark septate endophytes]]. This [[saprotrophic]] fungus is found commonly in marine and soil environments. It is abundant in harsh environments like soil contaminated with heavy metals. ''E. pisciphila'' forms symbiotic relationships with various plants by colonizing on roots, conferring resistance to drought and heavy metal stress. It is an opportunistic pathogen that commonly causes infections in captive fish and amphibians, while rarely causing disease in [[Human|humans]]. [[Secondary metabolites]] produced by this species have potential clinical antibiotic and antiretroviral applications.


==History and taxonomy==
==History and taxonomy==
In 1969, Nikola Fijan first described a systemic [[mycosis]] outbreak in [[channel catfish]] from a pond in [[Alabama]] and identified it as ''Exophiala salmonis''.<ref name="fijan" /> In 1974, Michael McGinnis and Libero Ajello reevaluated the fungus and identified it as a new species ''Exophiala pisciphila''.<ref name="ajello" /> The [[specific epithet]] ''pisciphila'' is from the [[Latin]] word ''piscis'' meaning "fish" and [[Greek]] suffix ''-philos'' (φίλος) meaning "loving".<ref name="etymology" />
In 1969, Nikola Fijan first described a systemic [[mycosis]] outbreak in [[channel catfish]] from a pond in [[Alabama]] and identified it as ''Exophiala salmonis''.<ref name="fijan" /> In 1974, Michael McGinnis and Libero Ajello reevaluated the fungus and identified it as a new species ''Exophiala pisciphila''.<ref name="ajello" /> The [[specific epithet]] ''pisciphila'' is a linguistic [[Barbarism (linguistics)|barbarism]], combining the [[Latin]] word ''piscis'' meaning "fish" with the [[Greek language|Greek]] suffix ''-philos'' (φίλος) meaning "loving".<ref name="etymology" />
[[File:Dr Michael McGinnis 1973.jpg|thumb|Dr Michael McGinnis 1973]]


==Habitat and ecology==
==Habitat and ecology==
''Exophiala pisciphila'' is commonly found in soil<ref name="brady" />, plants<ref name="plant" /> and water<ref name="wang" /> in [[North America]], [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Australia]].<ref name= "black yeast" /> ''E. pisciphila'' occurs in cold-blooded vertebrae in fresh and sea water such as various commercially cultivated fish and amphibians with low host specificity.<ref name="hoog" /> This fungus can also be found in stressful environments like heavy metal polluted habitats due to its ability to defend against the toxicity of such metals.<ref name="stress" /> When this fungus colonizes in plant roots, it is able to protect the plant from heavy metal ions.<ref name="maize" /> [[symbiosis|Symbiotic]] relationships with host plants also allow for improved growth performance and plant survival rate in drought conditions.<ref name="environment" /><ref name="drought" />
''Exophiala pisciphila'' is commonly found in soil,<ref name="brady" /> plants<ref name="plant" /> and water<ref name="wang" /> in [[North America]], [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Australia]].<ref name= "black yeast" /> ''E. pisciphila'' occurs as a colonist or pathogen in cold-blooded vertebrates such as various commercially cultivated fish and amphibians.<ref name="hoog" /> It has low host specificity.<ref name="hoog" /> Captive fish are especially susceptible due to the confined space of aquariums and accumulation of fungal particles.<ref name="bladder" /> Decorative pieces, stones or contaminated food in aquariums can all be reservoirs of ''E. pisciphila''.<ref name="bladder" /> This fungus has a high tolerance to certain metals ions and has been encountered in harsh environments such as heavy metal polluted soils.<ref name="stress" /> When this fungus colonizes plant roots, it enhances plant tolerance to heavy metal ions.<ref name="maize" /> [[symbiosis|Symbiotic]] relationships with host plants also allow for improved growth performance and plant survival rate in drought conditions.<ref name="environment" /><ref name="drought" />


==Growth and morphology==
==Growth and morphology==
As is common amongst [[black yeast|black yeasts]], ''Exophiala pisciphila'' is an [[anamorphic]], [[filamentous fungi]].<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /> ''E. pisciphila'' forms slow growing colonies approximately 20-35 mm in size which is similar to other species in the genus,''E. salmonis'' and ''E. brunnea''.<ref name="ajello" /> The texture of the colony appears as dry and fluffy due to the formation on aerial [[hyphae]] in mature colonies.<ref name="ajello" /> The front color is grey to green black and black on the reserve.<ref name="hoog" />
''Exophiala pisciphila'' is an exclusively asexual fungus that exhibits both filamentous and yeast-like growth.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /> Due to its variable growth forms and the dark pigmentation of its cell walls, it is considered a member of the descriptive grouping of similar fungi known as the [[black yeast]]s.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /> ''E. pisciphila'' forms slow growing colonies approximately {{convert|20-35|mm|in}} in size which is similar to other species in the genus, ''E. salmonis'' and ''E. brunnea''.<ref name="ajello" /> The texture of the colony is dry and fluffy due to the formation on aerial [[hyphae]] in mature colonies.<ref name="ajello" /> The upper surface is grey to green black in colour while the reverse surface tends to be black.<ref name="hoog" />


Growth occurs on various media including malt extract agar (MA), oatmeal agar (OA), [[Sabourand's dextrose agar]] (SA), corn meal agar (CMA), [[Czapek medium|Czapeck's solution agar]], [[potato dextrose agar]] (PDA) and [[nutrient agar]] (NA). Optimal growth occurs on [[potato dextrose agar|PDA]] and MA with the most aerial hyphae presenting dome shaped colonies. Media with less optimal growth present as flat colonies.
Growth occurs on various media including malt extract agar (MA), oatmeal agar (OA), [[Sabourand's dextrose agar]] (SA), corn meal agar (CMA), [[Czapek medium|Czapeck's solution agar]], [[potato dextrose agar]] (PDA) and [[nutrient agar]] (NA).<ref name="cheung" /> Optimal growth occurs on [[potato dextrose agar|PDA]] and MA with the most aerial hyphae forming dome shaped colonies.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /><ref name="cheung" /> Media interpreted to be associated with less optimal growth result in the formation of flat colonies.<ref name="cheung" /> A distinguishing feature of this fungus from others in the genus is its ability to grow on [[arabitol|L-arabinitol]].<ref name="hoog" />


Ideal growth conditions for ''E. pisciphila'' occur between {{20-30|C|F}}
Ideal growth conditions for ''E. pisciphila'' occur between {{convert|20-30|C|F}}, where maximum growth occurs at {{convert|37|C|F}}.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /><ref name="ajello" /> This differentiates it from [[Exophiala jeanselmei|''E. jeanselmei'']] which has similar physiology otherwise.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" />


Reproduction for this species occurs asexually by [[conidiation]] which was observed to occur through various means in developing colonies.<ref name="hoog" /> The conidia are produced either by (1) pre-existing conidia, (2) mature hyphae or (3) the differentiation of the cell into a specialized conidium-producing cell called an annellide.<ref name="cheung" /> ''E. pisciphila'' have smooth-walled [[conidia]] with yellow-brown walls that characteristically differentiate into annelides.<ref name="brady" /> Annelides are bottle-shaped cells that give rise to conidia from a point at the tip of the bottle-neck, as it were. In this way, annelides are similar to [[phialide]]s but differ in that their necks incrementally elongate as each successive conidium is borne. The cell walls of this species contain the brown pigment [[melanin]] which is both a pathogenicity factor and a mechanism of enhancing cell survival during periods of stress.<ref name="melanin" /> The developing colonies also produce aerial hyphae that appear as hyphal strands that intertwine in a rope-like fashion.<ref name="cheung" /> The formation of aerial hyphae has been suggested as a means of enhancing survival during harsh growth conditions.<ref name="cheung" /> ''E. salmonis'' has single-celled conidia that are smaller than those of the otherwise morphologically the similar species, ''E. brunnea''.<ref name="hoog" />
*it differs from those species because those species produce [[didymospores]] and [[conidia]] that are larger that ''E. pisciphila''
*conidia are small, [[aseptate]], subglubose to obovoid shaped, single-celled, smooth, [[hyaline]]<ref name="brady" />
*the conidia have thick yellowish-brown wall<ref name="brady" />
*Conidiogenous cells can terminal or lateral on undifferentiated [[hyphae]], where an active region produces conidia successively and elongates creating percurrent growth<ref name="brady" />
*the main mode of [[conidiation]] is the growth of conidia from pre-existing conidia, where they appear to grow from the cytoplasm of the [[sporogenous cell]] and create [[slimy masses]]<ref name="cheung" />
*aerial hyphae also exist and are suspected to be a survival advantage in poor growth conditions<ref name="cheung" />
*physiology is very similar to [[Exophiala jeanselmei|''E. jeanselmei'']] except ''E. pisciphilia'' cannot grow above 37&deg;C <ref name="kwon-chung1992" />
*maximum growth temperature 37 &deg;C <ref name="kwon-chung1992" />
*grows moderately at 23&deg;C with colonies around 20-35mm<ref name="ajello" />
*melanin in the walls protecting from heavy metals<ref name="melanin" />
*grows best on Potato Dextrose Agar and Malt Agar<ref name="cheung" />


==Pathology==
==Pathology==
Unlike closely related species such as [[Exophiala jeanselmei|''E. jeanselmei'']] and [[Exophiala dermatitidis|''E. dermatitidis'']], ''E. pisciphila'' rarely causes disease in humans primarily due to its inability to tolerate high temperatures.<ref name="hoog" /> One case of human disease has been reported in [[Brazil]] where a patient undergoing [[immunosupression|immunosuppressive]] therapy for a liver transplant became infected with this opportunistic fungus which caused skin [[papule|papules]].<ref name="human" /> The infection did not disseminate and was treated within a month.<ref name="human" /> Uncontrolled [[asthma|asthmatic]] patients may also be affected by a [[hypersensitivity]] to ''E. pisciphila'' [[antigens]] known as allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis.<ref name="allergies" /> This fungus is most pathogenic to marine animals such as freshwater and seawater fish with symptoms including skin lesions and nodules on [[organ (anatomy)|visceral organs]].<ref name="brady" />  It can cause deadly infections in [[Atlantic salmon]] where the hyphae will invade the [[cranial]] structures and cause chronic inflammation.<ref name="rasputin" /> Infections affecting the brain have been associated with abnormal swimming behaviours, depression and darkening of skin.<ref name="buller" /> It has been reported in non-salmonid fish such as [[smooth dogfish]]<ref name="melanin" />, [[channel catfish]]<ref name="rasputin" />, [[American sole]]<ref name="rasputin" />, [[Cardinal tetra]]<ref name="cardinal" />, [[cod]]<ref name="brady" /> , [[triggerfish]]<ref name="brady" /> , [[Japanese flounder]]<ref name="hoog" />, [[King George whiting]]<ref name="hoog" />, [[American plaice]]<ref name="hoog" />. Systemic, lethal infections have been described in captive sharks<ref name="melanin" /> including the [[zebra shark|zebra]]<ref name="rasputin" />, [[bonnethead]]<ref name="sharks" /> and [[hammerhead sharks]].<ref name="sharks" /> [[Elasmobranch]] infections are typically associated with severe tissue damage especially [[necrosis]] of the spleen and gills.<ref name="sharks" /> Other cold-blooded animals have also been affected turtles, crabs, sea horses and frogs.<ref name="hoog" /> ''E. pisciphila'' has been implicated as a minor egg pathogen due to it's ability to infect a small number of [[nematode]] larvae. <ref name="nematode" /> Isolates have been identified from tongue ulcers of various animals such as horses and dogs<ref name= "black yeast" />
Unlike closely related species such as ''[[Exophiala jeanselmei|E. jeanselmei]]'' and ''[[Exophiala dermatitidis|E. dermatitidis]]'', ''E. pisciphila'' rarely causes disease in humans primarily due to its inability to tolerate human body temperature.<ref name="hoog" /> One case of human disease was reported in [[Brazil]] where a person undergoing [[Immunosuppression|immunosuppressive]] therapy for a liver transplant developed a skin infection.<ref name="human" /> The infection did not disseminate and resolved with therapy within a month.<ref name="human" /> Uncontrolled [[asthma]]tics may manifest [[hypersensitivity]] to ''E. pisciphila'' [[antigens]].<ref name="allergies" /> This fungus is pathogenic to an array of aquatic animals most notably freshwater and seawater fish in which infection is associated with the development of skin lesions and nodules on [[organ (anatomy)|visceral organs]].<ref name="brady" /> It can cause deadly infections in [[Atlantic salmon]] where the hyphae invade the brain causing chronic inflammation.<ref name="rasputin" /> These infections are associated with abnormal swimming behaviours, depression and darkening of skin.<ref name="buller" /> Non-salmonid fish such as [[smooth dogfish]],<ref name="melanin" /> [[channel catfish]],<ref name="rasputin" /> [[American sole]],<ref name="rasputin" /> [[Cardinal tetra]],<ref name="cardinal" /> [[cod]],<ref name="brady" /> [[triggerfish]],<ref name="brady" /> [[Japanese flounder]],<ref name="hoog" /> [[King George whiting]],<ref name="hoog" /> [[American plaice]] are also susceptible.<ref name="hoog" /> Systemic, lethal infections have been described in captive sharks<ref name="melanin" /> including the [[zebra shark|zebra]],<ref name="rasputin" /> [[bonnethead]]<ref name="sharks" /> and [[hammerhead sharks]].<ref name="sharks" /> Infections of sharks, rays and skates are typically associated with severe tissue damage especially [[necrosis]] of the spleen and gills.<ref name="sharks" /> Other cold-blooded animals such as turtles, crabs, sea horses and frogs can be affected.<ref name="hoog" /> ''E. pisciphila'' has been implicated as a minor egg pathogen due to its ability to infect a small number of [[nematode]] larvae.<ref name="nematode" /> Isolates have been identified from tongue ulcers of various terrestrial animals such as horses and dogs.<ref name= "black yeast" />


==Uses==
==Uses==
''E. pisiciphila'' produces [[Exophilin A]], a [[secondary metabolite]] identified as a new [[antibiotic]] against [[Gram-positive bacteria]].<ref name="doshida" /> <ref name="chemistry" /> Another secondary metabolite produced by this species is a newly discovered [[polyketide]] compound 1-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-4-hydroxypentan-2-one which may have antimicrobial activity.<ref name="polyketide" /><ref name="polyketide2" /> A novel fungal metabolite, Exophillic acid, has been isolated which acts as an inhibitor of HIV-1 integrase, an enzyme critical for replication and spread of HIV virus. This exhibits its potential to be used for antiretroviral therapy.<ref name="HIV" />
''E. pisciphila'' produces Exophilin A, a [[secondary metabolite]] identified as a new [[antibiotic]] against [[Gram-positive bacteria]].<ref name="doshida" /><ref name="chemistry" /> Another secondary metabolite produced by this species is a newly discovered [[polyketide]] compound 1-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-4-hydroxypentan-2-one which may have antimicrobial activity.<ref name="polyketide" /><ref name="polyketide2" /> A novel fungal metabolite, Exophilic acid, has been isolated which acts as an inhibitor of HIV-1 integrase, an enzyme critical for replication and spread of HIV virus. This demonstrates its potential to be used for antiretroviral therapy.<ref name="HIV" />


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist | 30em | refs =
{{Reflist | 30em | refs =


<ref name=kwon-chung1992>{{cite book | last1 = Kwon-Chung | first1 = K. June | last2 = Bennett | first2 = Joan E. | title = Medical mycology | year = 1992 | publisher = Lea & Febiger | location = Philadelphia | isbn = 978-0812114638}}</ref>
<ref name=Uijhof>{{cite journal | last=Uijthof | first=J.M.J. | last2=Figge | first2=M.J. | last3=de Hoog | first3=G.S. | date=1997 | title=Molecular and Physiological Investigations of Exophiala Species Described from Fish | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0723202097800306 | journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology | volume=20 | issue=4 | pages=585–594 | doi=10.1016/s0723-2020(97)80030-6 | issn=0723-2020|via=}}</ref>


<ref name=kwon-chung1992>{{cite book | last1 = Kwon-Chung | first1 = K. June | last2 = Bennett | first2 = Joan E. | title = Medical mycology | year = 1992 | publisher = Lea & Febiger | location = Philadelphia | isbn = 0812114639}}</ref>
<ref name=hoog>{{cite journal | last1=de Hoog | first1=G.S. | last2=Vicente | first2=V.A. | last3=Najafzadeh | first3=M.J. | last4=Harrak | first4=M.J. | last5=Badali | first5=H. | last6=Seyedmousavi | first6=S. | date=2011-12-31 | title=Waterborne ''Exophiala'' species causing disease in cold-blooded animals | journal=Persoonia | volume=27 | issue=1 | pages=46–72 | doi=10.3767/003158511x614258 | pmid=22403476 | pmc=3251318 | issn=0031-5850}}</ref>


<ref name=doshida>{{Cite journal|last=Doshida|first=Junko|date=1996|title=Exophilin A, a New Antibiotic from a Marine Microorganism Exophiala pisciphila|journal=The Journal of Antibiotics|volume=49|issue=11|pages=1105–1109|doi=10.7164/antibiotics.49.1105|pmid=8982339|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name=hoog>{{cite journal | last=de Hoog | first=G.S. | last2=Vicente | first2=V.A. | last3=Najafzadeh | first3=M.J. | last4=Harrak | first4=M.J. | last5=Badali | first5=H. | last6=Seyedmousavi | first6=S. | date=2011-12-31 | title=Waterborne <I>Exophiala<I> species causing disease in cold-blooded animals | url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3767/003158511x614258 | journal=Persoonia - Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi | volume=27 | issue=1 | pages=46–72 | doi=10.3767/003158511x614258 | issn=0031-5850}}</ref>


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<ref name=human>{{Cite journal|last1=Sughayer|first1=Maher|last2=DeGirolami|first2=Paola C.|last3=Khettry|first3=Urmila|last4=Korzeniowski|first4=Denise|last5=Grumney|first5=Anne|last6=Pasarell|first6=Lester|last7=McGinnis|first7=Michael R.|date=1991-05-01|title=Human Infection Caused by ''Exophiala pisciphila'': Case Report and Review|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=13|issue=3|pages=379–382|doi=10.1093/clinids/13.3.379|pmid=1866539|issn=1537-6591}}</ref>
<ref name=Carmichael>{{cite journal | last=Carmichael | first=J.W. | date=1966 | title=Cerebral mycetoma of trout due to a Phialophora-like fungus | url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00362176785190211 | journal=Medical Mycology | volume=5 | issue=2 | pages=120–123 | doi=10.1080/00362176785190211 | issn=1369-3786|via=}}</ref>


<ref name=howard>{{cite book | url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/9066708 | title=Fungi pathogenic for humans and animals | last=F. | first=Howard, Dexter H., 1927- Howard, Lois | date=1983 | publisher=Dekker | year= | isbn=0824718755 | location= | pages= | oclc=9066708}}</ref>
<ref name=brady>{{cite journal |last1=Brady |first1=B |title=CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria No. 744 |journal=Bulletin of the Wildlife Disease Association |date=1975 |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=105–106}}</ref>


<ref name=ajello>{{cite journal |last1=Mcginnis |first1=M |last2=Ajello |first2=L |title=A New Species of Exophiala Isolated from Channel Catfish |journal=Mycologia |date=1974 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=518–520 |doi=10.1080/00275514.1974.12019633|pmid=4858287 }}</ref>
<ref name=atlas>{{cite book | url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46669547 | title=Atlas of clinical fungi | date=2000 | publisher=Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures | others=Hoog, G. S. de. | isbn=9070351439 | edition=2nd ed | location=Utrecht | oclc=46669547}}</ref>


<ref name=doshida>{{Cite journal|last=Doshida|first=Junko|date=1996|title=Exophilin A, a New Antibiotic from a Marine Microorganism Exophiala pisciphila|url=|journal=The Journal of Antibiotics|volume=49|pages=1105-1109|via=}}</ref>
<ref name=fijan>{{cite journal |last1=Fijan |first1=Nikola |title=Systemic Mycosis in Channel Catfish |journal= Bulletin of the Wildlife Disease Association|date=1969 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=109–110 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-5.2.109|pmid=5816092 |s2cid=20510874 }}</ref>


<ref name=cheung>{{cite journal |last1=Cheung |first1=P |last2=Gaskins |first2=J |title=''Exophilia psciphila'': A study of its development |journal=Mycopathologia |date=1986 |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=173–184|doi=10.1007/BF00443521 |pmid=3713799 |s2cid=22725393 }}</ref>
⚫
<ref name=human>{{Cite journal|last=Sughayer|first=Maher|last2=DeGirolami|first2=Paola C.|last3=Khettry|first3=Urmila|last4=Korzeniowski|first4=Denise|last5=Grumney|first5=Anne|last6=Pasarell|first6=Lester|last7=McGinnis|first7=Michael R.|date=1991-05-01|title=Human Infection Caused by Exophiala pisciphila: Case Report and Review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinids/13.3.379|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=13|issue=3|pages=379–382|doi=10.1093/clinids/13.3.379|issn=1537-6591}}</ref>


<ref name=brady>{{cite journal |last1=Brady |first1=B |title=CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria No. 744 |journal=Bulletin of the Wildlife Disease Association |date=1975 |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=105-106}}</ref>
<ref name= allergies>{{cite journal |last1=Kebbe |first1=Jad |last2=Mador |first2=M. Jeffery |title=Exophiala pisciphila : a novel cause of allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis |journal=Journal of Thoracic Disease |date=6 March 2016 |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=E538–E541 |issn=2077-6624|pmc=4958854 |doi=10.21037/jtd.2016.05.77 |pmid=27499992 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


<ref name=ajello>{{cite journal |last1=Mcginnis |first1=M |last2=Ajello |first2=L |title=A New Species of Exophiala Isolated from Channel Catfish |journal=Mycologia |date=1974 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=518-520}}</ref>
<ref name= maize>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=T. |last2=Liu |first2=M.J. |last3=Zhang |first3=X.T. |last4=Zhang |first4=H.B. |last5=Sha |first5=T. |last6=Zhao |first6=Z.W. |title=Improved tolerance of maize (Zea mays L.) to heavy metals by colonization of a dark septate endophyte (DSE) ''Exophiala pisciphila'' |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=February 2011 |volume=409 |issue=6 |pages=1069–1074 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.12.012|pmid=21195456 |bibcode=2011ScTEn.409.1069L }}</ref>


<ref name=fijan>{{cite journal |last1=Fijan |first1=Nikola |title=Systemic Mycosis in Channel Catfish |journal=Bull. Wildlife Disease Assoc |date=1969 |volume=5 |pages=109-110}}</ref>
<ref name= melanin>{{cite journal |last1=Zhan |first1=Fangdong |last2=He |first2=Yongmei |last3=Zu |first3=Yanqun |last4=Li |first4=Tao |last5=Zhao |first5=Zhiwei |title=Characterization of melanin isolated from a dark septate endophyte (DSE), ''Exophiala pisciphila'' |journal=World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology |date=13 March 2011 |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=2483–2489 |doi=10.1007/s11274-011-0712-8|s2cid=85195084 }}</ref>


<ref name=cheung>{{cite journal |last1=Cheung |first1=P |last2=Gaskins |first2=J |title=Exophilia psciphila: A study of its development |journal=Mycopathologia |date=1986 |volume=93 |pages=173-184}}</ref>
<ref name= chemistry>{{cite book |last1=Bartonn |first1=Sir Derek |last2=Nakanishi |first2=Kōji |last3=Mori |first3=Kenji |last4=Meth-Cohn |first4=Otto |title=Comprehensive natural products chemistry |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0080431604 |page=601 |edition=1st|year=1999 }}</ref>


<ref name= allergies>{{cite journal |last1=Kebbe |first1=Jad |last2=Mador |first2=M. Jeffery |title=Exophiala pisciphila : a novel cause of allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis |journal=Journal of Thoracic Disease |date=6 March 2016 |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=E538–E541 |url=http://jtd.amegroups.com/article/view/7832/7449 |language=en |issn=2077-6624}}</ref>
<ref name= rasputin>{{cite book |last1=Hurst |first1=Christon J. |title=The Rasputin effect : when commensals and symbionts become parasitic |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3319281704 |page=112}}</ref>


<ref name= maize>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=T. |last2=Liu |first2=M.J. |last3=Zhang |first3=X.T. |last4=Zhang |first4=H.B. |last5=Sha |first5=T. |last6=Zhao |first6=Z.W. |title=Improved tolerance of maize (Zea mays L.) to heavy metals by colonization of a dark septate endophyte (DSE) Exophiala pisciphila |journal=Science of The Total Environment |date=February 2011 |volume=409 |issue=6 |pages=1069–1074 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.12.012}}</ref>
<ref name= sharks>{{cite journal |last1=Marancik |first1=David P. |title=Disseminated fungal infection in two species of captive sharks |journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine |date=2011 |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=686–694 |language=en-ca |doi=10.1638/2010-0175.1|pmid=22204064 |s2cid=34699522 }}</ref>


⚫
<ref name= buller>{{cite book |last1=Buller |first1=Nicky B |title=Bacteria and fungi from fish and other aquatic animals : a practical identification manual |date=2014 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1845938055 |edition=2}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name= melanin>{{cite journal |last1=Zhan |first1=Fangdong |last2=He |first2=Yongmei |last3=Zu |first3=Yanqun |last4=Li |first4=Tao |last5=Zhao |first5=Zhiwei |title=Characterization of melanin isolated from a dark septate endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila |journal=World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology |date=13 March 2011 |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=2483–2489 |doi=10.1007/s11274-011-0712-8}}</ref>


<ref name= chemistry>{{cite book |last1=Bartonn |first1=Sir Derek |last2=Nakanishi |first2=Kōji |last3=Mori |first3=Kenji |last4=Meth-Cohn |first4=Otto |title=Comprehensive natural products chemistry |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=0080431607 |page=601 |edition=1st}}</ref>
<ref name = nematode>{{cite book |last1=Poinar |first1=George O. |title=Diseases Of Nematodes |date=2018 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781351088367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TrtHDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Exophiala+pisciphila%22 |language=en}}</ref>


<ref name= rasputin>{{cite book |last1=Hurst |first1=Christon J. |title=The Rasputin effect : when commensals and symbionts become parasitic |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=3319281704 |page=112}}</ref>
<ref name= environment>{{cite book |last1=Druzhinina |first1=Irina S. |last2=Kubicek |first2=Christian P. |title=Environmental and Microbial Relationships |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319295329 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQrNCwAAQBAJ&q=pisciphila |language=en}}</ref>


<ref name= sharks>{{cite journal |last1=Marancik |first1=David P. |title=Disseminated fungal infection in two species of captive sharks |journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine |date=2011 |volume=42 |issue=4 |page=686-694 |language=en-ca}}</ref>
<ref name="drought">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Q |last2=Gong |first2=M |last3=Yuan |first3=J |title=Dark Septate Endophyte Improves Drought Tolerance in Sorghum |journal=International Journal of Agriculture and Biology |date=2017 |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=53 |language=en-ca |doi=10.17957/ijab/15.0241|doi-access=free }}</ref>


⚫
<ref name="polyketide">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Cui-Cui |last2=Liu |first2=Hai-Zhou |last3=Liu |first3=Ming |last4=Zhang |first4=Yu-Yan |last5=Li |first5=Tian-Tian |last6=Lin |first6=Xiu-Kun |title=Cytotoxic Metabolites from the Soil-Derived Fungus ''Exophiala pisciphila'' |journal=Molecules |date=30 March 2011 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=2796–2801 |doi=10.3390/molecules16042796|pmid=21455093 |pmc=6260601 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
⚫
<ref name= buller>{{cite book |last1=Buller |first1=Nicky B |title=Bacteria and fungi from fish and other aquatic animals : a practical identification manual |date=2014 |publisher=CABI |isbn=1845938054 |edition=2}}</ref>


⚫
<ref name="polyketide2">{{cite book |last1=Tidgewell |first1=Kevin |last2=Clark |first2=Benjamin R. |last3=Gerwick |first3=William H. |title=The Natural Products Chemistry of Cyanobacteria |series=Comprehensive Natural Products II |date=2010 |pages=141–188 |doi=10.1016/b978-008045382-8.00041-1 |isbn=9780080453828 }}</ref>
<ref name = nematodes>{{cite book |last1=Poinar |first1=George O. |title=Diseases Of Nematodes |date=2018 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781351088367 |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=TrtHDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Exophiala+pisciphila%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s |language=en}}</ref>


<ref name= environment>{{cite book |last1=Druzhinina |first1=Irina S. |last2=Kubicek |first2=Christian P. |title=Environmental and Microbial Relationships |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319295329 |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=uQrNCwAAQBAJ&dq=pisciphila&source=gbs_navlinks_s |language=en}}</ref>
<ref name= "black yeast" >{{cite journal |last1=Hoog |first1=G.S. de |last2=Hermanides-Nijhof |first2=E.J. |title=The black yeasts and allied Hyphomycetes |journal=Studies in Mycology |date=1977 |volume=15}}</ref>


<ref name="drought">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Q |last2=Gong |first2=M |last3=Yuan |first3=J |title=Dark Septate Endophyte Improves Drought Tolerance in Sorghum |journal=International Journal of Agriculture and Biology |date=2017 |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=53-53 |language=en-ca}}</ref>
<ref name= HIV>{{cite journal |last1=Ondeyka |first1=John G |last2=Deborah |first2=Zink |title=Isolation, Structure and HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitory Activity of Exophillic Acid, a Novel Fungal Metabolite from ''Exophiala pisciphila'' |journal=Journal of Antibiotics |date=2003 |volume=56 |issue=12 |pages=1018–1023 |doi=10.7164/antibiotics.56.1018|pmid=15015729 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


<ref name="polyketide">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Cui-Cui |last2=Liu |first2=Hai-Zhou |last3=Liu |first3=Ming |last4=Zhang |first4=Yu-Yan |last5=Li |first5=Tian-Tian |last6=Lin |first6=Xiu-Kun |title=Cytotoxic Metabolites from the Soil-Derived Fungus Exophiala Pisciphila |journal=Molecules |date=30 March 2011 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=2796–2801 |doi=10.3390/molecules16042796}}</ref>
<ref name = cardinal>{{cite journal |last1=Řehulka |first1=J |last2=Kolařík |first2=M |last3=Hubka |first3=V |title=Disseminated infection due to ''E. pisciphila'' in Cardinal tetra |journal=Journal of Fish Diseases |date=August 2017 |volume=40 |issue=8 |pages=1015–1024 |doi=10.1111/jfd.12577|pmid=27982440 }}</ref>


⚫
<ref name= etymology>{{cite web |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/ |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="polyketide2">{{cite journal |last1=Tidgewell |first1=Kevin |last2=Clark |first2=Benjamin R. |last3=Gerwick |first3=William H. |title=The Natural Products Chemistry of Cyanobacteria |journal=Comprehensive Natural Products II |date=2010 |pages=141–188 |doi=10.1016/b978-008045382-8.00041-1 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008045382-8.00041-1 |publisher=Elsevier}}</ref>


<ref name= black yeast >{{cite journal |last1=Hoog |first1=G.S. de |last2=Hermanides-Nijhof |first2=E.J. |title=The black yeasts and allied Hyphomycetes |journal=Studies in Mycology |date=1977 |volume=15}}</ref>
<ref name= wang>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=L. |last2=Yokoyama |first2=K. |last3=Miyaji |first3=M. |last4=Nishimura |first4=K. |title=Identification, Classification, and Phylogeny of the Pathogenic Species ''Exophiala jeanselmei'' and Related Species by Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene Analysis |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |date=1 December 2001 |volume=39 |issue=12 |pages=4462–4467 |doi=10.1128/JCM.39.12.4462-4467.2001|pmid=11724862 |pmc=88566 }}</ref>


<ref name= HIV>{{cite journal |last1=Ondeyka |first1=John G |last2=Deborah |first2=Zink |title=Isolation, Structure and HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitory Activity of Exophillic Acid, a Novel Fungal Metabolite from Exophiala pisciphila |journal=Journal of Antibiotics |date=2003 |volume=56 |issue=12 |pages=1018-1023}}</ref>
<ref name= plant>{{cite journal |last1=Zhan |first1=Fangdong |last2=He |first2=Yongmei |last3=Li |first3=Tao |last4=Yang |first4=Yun-ya |last5=Toor |first5=Gurpal S. |last6=Zhao |first6=Zhiwei |title=Tolerance and Antioxidant Response of a Dark Septate Endophyte (DSE), ''Exophiala pisciphila'', to Cadmium Stress |journal=Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |date=17 October 2014 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=96–102 |doi=10.1007/s00128-014-1401-8|pmid=25323040 |s2cid=22294797 }}</ref>

<ref name = cardinal>{{cite journal |last1=Řehulka |first1=J |last2=Kolařík |first2=M |last3=Hubka |first3=V |title=Disseminated infection due to E. pisciphila in Cardinal tetra, |journal=Journal of Fish Diseases |date=August 2017 |volume=40 |issue=8 |pages=1015–1024 |doi=10.1111/jfd.12577}}</ref>

⚫
<ref name= etymology>{{cite web |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/ |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref>


<ref name= wang>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=L. |last2=Yokoyama |first2=K. |last3=Miyaji |first3=M. |last4=Nishimura |first4=K. |title=Identification, Classification, and Phylogeny of the Pathogenic Species Exophiala jeanselmei and Related Species by Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene Analysis |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |date=1 December 2001 |volume=39 |issue=12 |pages=4462–4467 |doi=10.1128/JCM.39.12.4462-4467.2001}}</ref>
<ref name="stress">{{cite journal |last1=Zhan |first1=Fangdong |last2=He |first2=Yongmei |last3=Li |first3=Yuan |last4=Li |first4=Tao |last5=Yang |first5=Yun-Ya |last6=Toor |first6=Gurpal S. |last7=Zhao |first7=Zhiwei |title=Subcellular distribution and chemical forms of cadmium in a dark septate endophyte (DSE), ''Exophiala pisciphila'' |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |date=14 July 2015 |volume=22 |issue=22 |pages=17897–17905 |doi=10.1007/s11356-015-5012-7|pmid=26165995 |s2cid=22794201 }}</ref>


<ref name= plant>{{cite journal |last1=Zhan |first1=Fangdong |last2=He |first2=Yongmei |last3=Li |first3=Tao |last4=Yang |first4=Yun-ya |last5=Toor |first5=Gurpal S. |last6=Zhao |first6=Zhiwei |title=Tolerance and Antioxidant Response of a Dark Septate Endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila, to Cadmium Stress |journal=Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |date=17 October 2014 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=96–102 |doi=10.1007/s00128-014-1401-8}}</ref>
<ref name="bladder">{{cite journal |last1=Řehulka |first1=J |last2=Kubátová |first2=A |last3=Hubka |first3=V |title= Swim bladder mycosis in pretty tetra (''Hemigrammus pulcher'') caused by ''Exophiala pisciphila'' and ''Phaeophleospora hymenocallidicola'', and experimental verification of pathogenicity|journal=Journal of Fish Diseases |date=March 2018 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=487–500 |doi=10.1111/jfd.12750|pmid=29159880 }}</ref>
}}


⚫
{{Taxonbar|from=Q10493091}}
<ref name="stress">{{cite journal |last1=Zhan |first1=Fangdong |last2=He |first2=Yongmei |last3=Li |first3=Yuan |last4=Li |first4=Tao |last5=Yang |first5=Yun-Ya |last6=Toor |first6=Gurpal S. |last7=Zhao |first7=Zhiwei |title=Subcellular distribution and chemical forms of cadmium in a dark septate endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |date=14 July 2015 |volume=22 |issue=22 |pages=17897–17905 |doi=10.1007/s11356-015-5012-7}}</ref> }}


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[[Category:Eurotiomycetes]]
⚫
{{taxobar | from = Q10493091}}
[[Category:Fungi described in 1974]]
[[Category:Fungus species]]

Latest revision as of 19:16, 10 February 2024

Exophiala pisciphila
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Chaetothyriales
Family: Herpotrichiellaceae
Genus: Exophiala
Species:
E. pisciphila
Binomial name
Exophiala pisciphila
McGinnis & Ajello (1974)

Exophiala pisciphila is a mesophilic black yeast and member of the dark septate endophytes. This saprotrophic fungus is found commonly in marine and soil environments. It is abundant in harsh environments like soil contaminated with heavy metals. E. pisciphila forms symbiotic relationships with various plants by colonizing on roots, conferring resistance to drought and heavy metal stress. It is an opportunistic pathogen that commonly causes infections in captive fish and amphibians, while rarely causing disease in humans. Secondary metabolites produced by this species have potential clinical antibiotic and antiretroviral applications.

History and taxonomy

[edit]

In 1969, Nikola Fijan first described a systemic mycosis outbreak in channel catfish from a pond in Alabama and identified it as Exophiala salmonis.[1] In 1974, Michael McGinnis and Libero Ajello reevaluated the fungus and identified it as a new species Exophiala pisciphila.[2] The specific epithet pisciphila is a linguistic barbarism, combining the Latin word piscis meaning "fish" with the Greek suffix -philos (φίλος) meaning "loving".[3]

Habitat and ecology

[edit]

Exophiala pisciphila is commonly found in soil,[4] plants[5] and water[6] in North America, Netherlands, United Kingdom, and Australia.[7] E. pisciphila occurs as a colonist or pathogen in cold-blooded vertebrates such as various commercially cultivated fish and amphibians.[8] It has low host specificity.[8] Captive fish are especially susceptible due to the confined space of aquariums and accumulation of fungal particles.[9] Decorative pieces, stones or contaminated food in aquariums can all be reservoirs of E. pisciphila.[9] This fungus has a high tolerance to certain metals ions and has been encountered in harsh environments such as heavy metal polluted soils.[10] When this fungus colonizes plant roots, it enhances plant tolerance to heavy metal ions.[11] Symbiotic relationships with host plants also allow for improved growth performance and plant survival rate in drought conditions.[12][13]

Growth and morphology

[edit]

Exophiala pisciphila is an exclusively asexual fungus that exhibits both filamentous and yeast-like growth.[14] Due to its variable growth forms and the dark pigmentation of its cell walls, it is considered a member of the descriptive grouping of similar fungi known as the black yeasts.[14] E. pisciphila forms slow growing colonies approximately 20–35 millimetres (0.79–1.38 in) in size which is similar to other species in the genus, E. salmonis and E. brunnea.[2] The texture of the colony is dry and fluffy due to the formation on aerial hyphae in mature colonies.[2] The upper surface is grey to green black in colour while the reverse surface tends to be black.[8]

Growth occurs on various media including malt extract agar (MA), oatmeal agar (OA), Sabourand's dextrose agar (SA), corn meal agar (CMA), Czapeck's solution agar, potato dextrose agar (PDA) and nutrient agar (NA).[15] Optimal growth occurs on PDA and MA with the most aerial hyphae forming dome shaped colonies.[14][15] Media interpreted to be associated with less optimal growth result in the formation of flat colonies.[15] A distinguishing feature of this fungus from others in the genus is its ability to grow on L-arabinitol.[8]

Ideal growth conditions for E. pisciphila occur between 20–30 °C (68–86 °F), where maximum growth occurs at 37 °C (99 °F).[14][2] This differentiates it from E. jeanselmei which has similar physiology otherwise.[14]

Reproduction for this species occurs asexually by conidiation which was observed to occur through various means in developing colonies.[8] The conidia are produced either by (1) pre-existing conidia, (2) mature hyphae or (3) the differentiation of the cell into a specialized conidium-producing cell called an annellide.[15] E. pisciphila have smooth-walled conidia with yellow-brown walls that characteristically differentiate into annelides.[4] Annelides are bottle-shaped cells that give rise to conidia from a point at the tip of the bottle-neck, as it were. In this way, annelides are similar to phialides but differ in that their necks incrementally elongate as each successive conidium is borne. The cell walls of this species contain the brown pigment melanin which is both a pathogenicity factor and a mechanism of enhancing cell survival during periods of stress.[16] The developing colonies also produce aerial hyphae that appear as hyphal strands that intertwine in a rope-like fashion.[15] The formation of aerial hyphae has been suggested as a means of enhancing survival during harsh growth conditions.[15] E. salmonis has single-celled conidia that are smaller than those of the otherwise morphologically the similar species, E. brunnea.[8]

Pathology

[edit]

Unlike closely related species such as E. jeanselmei and E. dermatitidis, E. pisciphila rarely causes disease in humans primarily due to its inability to tolerate human body temperature.[8] One case of human disease was reported in Brazil where a person undergoing immunosuppressive therapy for a liver transplant developed a skin infection.[17] The infection did not disseminate and resolved with therapy within a month.[17] Uncontrolled asthmatics may manifest hypersensitivity to E. pisciphila antigens.[18] This fungus is pathogenic to an array of aquatic animals most notably freshwater and seawater fish in which infection is associated with the development of skin lesions and nodules on visceral organs.[4] It can cause deadly infections in Atlantic salmon where the hyphae invade the brain causing chronic inflammation.[19] These infections are associated with abnormal swimming behaviours, depression and darkening of skin.[20] Non-salmonid fish such as smooth dogfish,[16] channel catfish,[19] American sole,[19] Cardinal tetra,[21] cod,[4] triggerfish,[4] Japanese flounder,[8] King George whiting,[8] American plaice are also susceptible.[8] Systemic, lethal infections have been described in captive sharks[16] including the zebra,[19] bonnethead[22] and hammerhead sharks.[22] Infections of sharks, rays and skates are typically associated with severe tissue damage especially necrosis of the spleen and gills.[22] Other cold-blooded animals such as turtles, crabs, sea horses and frogs can be affected.[8] E. pisciphila has been implicated as a minor egg pathogen due to its ability to infect a small number of nematode larvae.[23] Isolates have been identified from tongue ulcers of various terrestrial animals such as horses and dogs.[7]

Uses

[edit]

E. pisciphila produces Exophilin A, a secondary metabolite identified as a new antibiotic against Gram-positive bacteria.[24][25] Another secondary metabolite produced by this species is a newly discovered polyketide compound 1-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-4-hydroxypentan-2-one which may have antimicrobial activity.[26][27] A novel fungal metabolite, Exophilic acid, has been isolated which acts as an inhibitor of HIV-1 integrase, an enzyme critical for replication and spread of HIV virus. This demonstrates its potential to be used for antiretroviral therapy.[28]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Fijan, Nikola (1969). "Systemic Mycosis in Channel Catfish". Bulletin of the Wildlife Disease Association. 5 (2): 109–110. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-5.2.109. PMID 5816092. S2CID 20510874.
  2. ^ a b c d Mcginnis, M; Ajello, L (1974). "A New Species of Exophiala Isolated from Channel Catfish". Mycologia. 66 (3): 518–520. doi:10.1080/00275514.1974.12019633. PMID 4858287.
  3. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com.
  4. ^ a b c d e Brady, B (1975). "CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria No. 744". Bulletin of the Wildlife Disease Association. 75 (2): 105–106.
  5. ^ Zhan, Fangdong; He, Yongmei; Li, Tao; Yang, Yun-ya; Toor, Gurpal S.; Zhao, Zhiwei (17 October 2014). "Tolerance and Antioxidant Response of a Dark Septate Endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila, to Cadmium Stress". Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 94 (1): 96–102. doi:10.1007/s00128-014-1401-8. PMID 25323040. S2CID 22294797.
  6. ^ Wang, L.; Yokoyama, K.; Miyaji, M.; Nishimura, K. (1 December 2001). "Identification, Classification, and Phylogeny of the Pathogenic Species Exophiala jeanselmei and Related Species by Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene Analysis". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 39 (12): 4462–4467. doi:10.1128/JCM.39.12.4462-4467.2001. PMC 88566. PMID 11724862.
  7. ^ a b Hoog, G.S. de; Hermanides-Nijhof, E.J. (1977). "The black yeasts and allied Hyphomycetes". Studies in Mycology. 15.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k de Hoog, G.S.; Vicente, V.A.; Najafzadeh, M.J.; Harrak, M.J.; Badali, H.; Seyedmousavi, S. (2011-12-31). "Waterborne Exophiala species causing disease in cold-blooded animals". Persoonia. 27 (1): 46–72. doi:10.3767/003158511x614258. ISSN 0031-5850. PMC 3251318. PMID 22403476.
  9. ^ a b Řehulka, J; Kubátová, A; Hubka, V (March 2018). "Swim bladder mycosis in pretty tetra (Hemigrammus pulcher) caused by Exophiala pisciphila and Phaeophleospora hymenocallidicola, and experimental verification of pathogenicity". Journal of Fish Diseases. 41 (3): 487–500. doi:10.1111/jfd.12750. PMID 29159880.
  10. ^ Zhan, Fangdong; He, Yongmei; Li, Yuan; Li, Tao; Yang, Yun-Ya; Toor, Gurpal S.; Zhao, Zhiwei (14 July 2015). "Subcellular distribution and chemical forms of cadmium in a dark septate endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 22 (22): 17897–17905. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5012-7. PMID 26165995. S2CID 22794201.
  11. ^ Li, T.; Liu, M.J.; Zhang, X.T.; Zhang, H.B.; Sha, T.; Zhao, Z.W. (February 2011). "Improved tolerance of maize (Zea mays L.) to heavy metals by colonization of a dark septate endophyte (DSE) Exophiala pisciphila". Science of the Total Environment. 409 (6): 1069–1074. Bibcode:2011ScTEn.409.1069L. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.12.012. PMID 21195456.
  12. ^ Druzhinina, Irina S.; Kubicek, Christian P. (2016). Environmental and Microbial Relationships. Springer. ISBN 9783319295329.
  13. ^ Zhang, Q; Gong, M; Yuan, J (2017). "Dark Septate Endophyte Improves Drought Tolerance in Sorghum". International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 19 (1): 53. doi:10.17957/ijab/15.0241.
  14. ^ a b c d e Kwon-Chung, K. June; Bennett, Joan E. (1992). Medical mycology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. ISBN 978-0812114638.
  15. ^ a b c d e f Cheung, P; Gaskins, J (1986). "Exophilia psciphila: A study of its development". Mycopathologia. 93 (3): 173–184. doi:10.1007/BF00443521. PMID 3713799. S2CID 22725393.
  16. ^ a b c Zhan, Fangdong; He, Yongmei; Zu, Yanqun; Li, Tao; Zhao, Zhiwei (13 March 2011). "Characterization of melanin isolated from a dark septate endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila". World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 27 (10): 2483–2489. doi:10.1007/s11274-011-0712-8. S2CID 85195084.
  17. ^ a b Sughayer, Maher; DeGirolami, Paola C.; Khettry, Urmila; Korzeniowski, Denise; Grumney, Anne; Pasarell, Lester; McGinnis, Michael R. (1991-05-01). "Human Infection Caused by Exophiala pisciphila: Case Report and Review". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 13 (3): 379–382. doi:10.1093/clinids/13.3.379. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 1866539.
  18. ^ Kebbe, Jad; Mador, M. Jeffery (6 March 2016). "Exophiala pisciphila : a novel cause of allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis". Journal of Thoracic Disease. 8 (7): E538–E541. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.05.77. ISSN 2077-6624. PMC 4958854. PMID 27499992.
  19. ^ a b c d Hurst, Christon J. (2016). The Rasputin effect : when commensals and symbionts become parasitic. Springer. p. 112. ISBN 978-3319281704.
  20. ^ Buller, Nicky B (2014). Bacteria and fungi from fish and other aquatic animals : a practical identification manual (2 ed.). CABI. ISBN 978-1845938055.
  21. ^ Řehulka, J; Kolařík, M; Hubka, V (August 2017). "Disseminated infection due to E. pisciphila in Cardinal tetra". Journal of Fish Diseases. 40 (8): 1015–1024. doi:10.1111/jfd.12577. PMID 27982440.
  22. ^ a b c Marancik, David P. (2011). "Disseminated fungal infection in two species of captive sharks". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 42 (4): 686–694. doi:10.1638/2010-0175.1. PMID 22204064. S2CID 34699522.
  23. ^ Poinar, George O. (2018). Diseases Of Nematodes. CRC Press. ISBN 9781351088367.
  24. ^ Doshida, Junko (1996). "Exophilin A, a New Antibiotic from a Marine Microorganism Exophiala pisciphila". The Journal of Antibiotics. 49 (11): 1105–1109. doi:10.7164/antibiotics.49.1105. PMID 8982339.
  25. ^ Bartonn, Sir Derek; Nakanishi, Kōji; Mori, Kenji; Meth-Cohn, Otto (1999). Comprehensive natural products chemistry (1st ed.). Elsevier. p. 601. ISBN 978-0080431604.
  26. ^ Wang, Cui-Cui; Liu, Hai-Zhou; Liu, Ming; Zhang, Yu-Yan; Li, Tian-Tian; Lin, Xiu-Kun (30 March 2011). "Cytotoxic Metabolites from the Soil-Derived Fungus Exophiala pisciphila". Molecules. 16 (4): 2796–2801. doi:10.3390/molecules16042796. PMC 6260601. PMID 21455093.
  27. ^ Tidgewell, Kevin; Clark, Benjamin R.; Gerwick, William H. (2010). The Natural Products Chemistry of Cyanobacteria. Comprehensive Natural Products II. pp. 141–188. doi:10.1016/b978-008045382-8.00041-1. ISBN 9780080453828.
  28. ^ Ondeyka, John G; Deborah, Zink (2003). "Isolation, Structure and HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitory Activity of Exophillic Acid, a Novel Fungal Metabolite from Exophiala pisciphila". Journal of Antibiotics. 56 (12): 1018–1023. doi:10.7164/antibiotics.56.1018. PMID 15015729.
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