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{{Short description|Tuparian language of Brazil}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Wayoró
|name=Wayoró
|altname=Wayoro, Ajurú, Wajuru
|altname=Wayoro, Ajurú, Wajuru
|nativename=wayoro emẽto
|nativename=''wayoro emẽto''
|pronunciation={{IPA|[βajoˈɾo ɛmɛ̃ˈto]}}
|pronunciation={{IPA|[βajoˈɾo ɛmɛ̃ˈto]}}
|region=[[Rondônia]] ([[Brazil]])
|region=[[Rondônia]] ([[Brazil]])
Line 26: Line 27:
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
The consonantal inventory of Wayoró is as follows.<ref name="N19"/>{{rp|8}} The graphemes which correspond to each phoneme are given in [[Chevron (insignia)|chevrons]].
The graphemes which correspond to each phoneme are given in {{grapheme|brackets}}.

{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! [[Labial consonant|labial]] !! [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]] !! [[Postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]]/[[Palatal consonant|palatal]] !! [[Velar consonant|velar]] !! [[Labialized velar consonant|labiovelar]]
|+ Consonant inventory<ref name="N19"/>{{rp|8}}
!
! [[Labial consonant|labial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|velar]]
! [[Labialized velar consonant|labio-velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|glottal]]
|-
|-
! [[plosive]]
! [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]] [[obstruent]]s
| {{IPA link|p}} {{grapheme|p}}
| p ‹p› || t ‹t› || tʃ ‹tx› || k ‹k› || kʷ ‹kw›
| {{IPA link|t}} {{grapheme|t}}
| {{IPA link|tʃ}} {{grapheme|tx}}
| {{IPA link|k}} {{grapheme|k}}
| {{IPA link|kʷ}} {{grapheme|kw}}
| {{IPAblink|ʔ}} {{grapheme|’}}{{efn|Occurs in the onset position only (e.g. {{lang|wyr|o’uwa}} {{IPA|[oʔʉβa]}} ‘my pot’, {{lang|wyr|o’ega}} {{IPA|[oʔɛga]}} ‘my hiccup’, {{lang|wyr|apa’a}} {{IPA|[apaʔa]}} ‘to weave a hammock horizontally’). The phonological status is given as uncertain by Nogueira (2019).<ref name="N19"/>{{rp|11}}}}
|-
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|nasals]]
! [[Nasal consonant|nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m, mb}}
| m ‹m, mb› || n ‹n, nd› || ɲ ‹y, dj› || ŋ ‹ng, g› || ŋʷ ‹ngw, gw›
| {{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n, nd}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}} {{grapheme|y, dj}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}} {{grapheme|ng, g}}
| {{IPA link|ŋʷ}} {{grapheme|ngw, gw}}
|
|-
|-
! [[Oral consonant|oral]] [[sonorant]]s
! [[sonorant]]
| {{IPA link|β}} {{grapheme|w}}
| β ‹w› || ɾ ‹r› || || ||
| {{IPA link|ɾ}} {{grapheme|r}}
|
|
|
|
|}
|}
{{notelist}}


Underlying nasal consonants may be partially or fully oralized in oral environments. Nogueira (2019) describes the following allophones:
Underlying nasal consonants may be partially or fully oralized in oral environments. Nogueira (2019) describes the following allophones:
* /m/ → [m] ‹m›, [mb] ‹mb›
* /n/ → [n] ‹n›, [nd] ‹nd›
* /ɲ/ → [ɲ, j, j̃, j<sup>t</sup>] ‹y›, [ndʒ, dʒ] ‹dj›
* /ŋ/ → [ŋ, ŋg] ‹ng›, [g] ‹g›
* /ŋʷ/ → [ŋʷ, ŋgʷ] ‹ngw›, [gʷ] ‹gw›


* /m/ → {{IPA|[m]}} {{grapheme|m}}, {{IPA|[mb]}} {{grapheme|mb}}
The phonological status of the [[glottal stop]] [ʔ], which occurs in the onset position only (e.g. ''o’uwa'' [oʔʉβa] ‘my pot’, ''o’ega'' [oʔɛga] ‘my hiccup’, ''apa’a'' [apaʔa] ‘to weave a hammock horizontally’), is given as uncertain by Nogueira (2019).<ref name="N19"/>{{rp|11}}
* /n/ → {{IPA|[n]}} {{grapheme|n}}, {{IPA|[nd]}} {{grapheme|nd}}
* /ɲ/ → {{IPA|[ɲ, j, j̃, jᵗ]}} {{grapheme|y}}, {{IPA|[ndʒ, dʒ]}} {{grapheme|dj}}
* /ŋ/ → {{IPA|[ŋ, ŋg]}} {{grapheme|ng}}, {{IPA|[g]}} {{grapheme|g}}
* /ŋʷ/ → {{IPA|[ŋʷ, ŋgʷ]}} {{grapheme|ngw}}, {{IPA|[gʷ]}} {{grapheme|gw}}


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
The vowel inventory of Wayoró is as follows.<ref name="N19"/>{{rp|9}}
|+ Vowel inventory<ref name="N19"/>{{rp|9}}

! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | [[front vowel|front]]
! !! [[Front vowel|front]] [[Unrounded vowel|unrounded]] !! [[Central vowel|central]] [[Rounded vowel|rounded]] !! [[Central vowel|central]] [[Unrounded vowel|unrounded]] !! [[Back vowel|back]] [[Rounded vowel|rounded]]
! colspan="2" | [[central vowel|central]]
! colspan="2" | [[back vowel|back]]
|-
|-
! {{small|short}} || {{small|[[Vowel length|long]]}}
! [[High vowel|high]]
! {{small|short}} || {{small|long}}
| i iː ĩ ĩː ‹i ii ĩ ĩi› || ʉ ʉː ʉ̃ ʉ̃ː ‹u uu ũ ũu› || ||
! {{small|short}} || {{small|long}}
|-
|-
! [[High-mid vowel|high-mid]]
! rowspan="2" | [[high vowel|high]]
! {{small|oral}}
| || || || o oː õ õː ‹o oo õ õo›
| {{IPA link|i}} {{grapheme|i}} || {{IPA|iː}} {{grapheme|ii}}
| {{IPA link|ʉ}} {{grapheme|u}} || {{IPA|ʉː}} {{grapheme|uu}}
| ||
|-
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|open-mid]]
! {{small|[[nasal vowel|nasal]]}}
| {{IPA|ĩ}} {{grapheme|ĩ}} || {{IPA|ĩː}} {{grapheme|ĩi}}
| ɛ ɛː ɛ̃ ɛ̃ː ‹e ee ẽ ẽe› || || ||
| {{IPA|ʉ̃}} {{grapheme|ũ}} || {{IPA|ʉ̃ː}} {{grapheme|ũu}}
| ||
|-
|-
! [[Low vowel|low]]
! rowspan="2" | [[mid vowel|mid]]
! {{small|oral}}
| || || a aː ã ãː ‹a aa ã ãa› ||
| {{IPA link|ɛ}} {{grapheme|e}} || {{IPA|ɛː}} {{grapheme|ee}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|o}} {{grapheme|o}} || {{IPA|oː}} {{grapheme|oo}}
|-
! {{small|nasal}}
| {{IPA|ɛ̃}} {{grapheme|ẽ}} || {{IPA|ɛ̃ː}} {{grapheme|ẽe}}
| ||
| {{IPA|õ}} {{grapheme|õ}} || {{IPA|õː}} {{grapheme|õo}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[low vowel|low]]
! {{small|oral}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|a}} {{grapheme|a}} || {{IPA|aː}} {{grapheme|aa}}
| ||
|-
! {{small|nasal}}
| ||
| {{IPA|ã}} {{grapheme|ã}} || {{IPA|ãː}} {{grapheme|ãa}}
| ||
|}
|}


Line 71: Line 122:
As in other [[Tuparian languages|Tuparian]] languages, the main clauses of Wayoró follow the cross-linguistically rare [[Nominative–absolutive alignment|nominative–absolutive]] pattern. Person prefixes on the verb are [[Absolutive case|absolutive]], i.e., they index the sole [[Argument (linguistics)|argument]] of an [[intransitive verb]] (S) and the [[Patient (linguistics)|patient]] argument ('direct object') of a transitive verb (P). Person pronouns, which follow the verb (either cliticizing to it or not) are [[Nominative case|nominative]]: they may encode the sole [[Argument (linguistics)|argument]] of an [[intransitive verb]] (S) or the [[Agent (linguistics)|agent]] argument of a [[transitive verb]] (A), but not the patient of a transitive verb (P). This is exemplified below.<ref name="GN-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Galucio |first1=Ana Vilacy |last2=de Souza Nogueira |first2=Antônia Fernanda |title=From object nominalization to object focus: The innovative A-alignment in the Tuparian languages (Tupian family) |journal=Journal of Historical Linguistics |date=20 July 2018 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=95–127 |doi=10.1075/jhl.16025.gal}}</ref>{{rp|99}}
As in other [[Tuparian languages|Tuparian]] languages, the main clauses of Wayoró follow the cross-linguistically rare [[Nominative–absolutive alignment|nominative–absolutive]] pattern. Person prefixes on the verb are [[Absolutive case|absolutive]], i.e., they index the sole [[Argument (linguistics)|argument]] of an [[intransitive verb]] (S) and the [[Patient (linguistics)|patient]] argument ('direct object') of a transitive verb (P). Person pronouns, which follow the verb (either cliticizing to it or not) are [[Nominative case|nominative]]: they may encode the sole [[Argument (linguistics)|argument]] of an [[intransitive verb]] (S) or the [[Agent (linguistics)|agent]] argument of a [[transitive verb]] (A), but not the patient of a transitive verb (P). This is exemplified below.<ref name="GN-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Galucio |first1=Ana Vilacy |last2=de Souza Nogueira |first2=Antônia Fernanda |title=From object nominalization to object focus: The innovative A-alignment in the Tuparian languages (Tupian family) |journal=Journal of Historical Linguistics |date=20 July 2018 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=95–127 |doi=10.1075/jhl.16025.gal}}</ref>{{rp|99}}


<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
{{interlinear|indent=3|glossing2=no|glossing4=yes|glossing=link
V:verb
|Eamõjãn (en).
S:sole argument of an intransitive verb
P:patient argument of a transitive verb
A:agent argument of a transitive verb
TH:thematic vowel:thematic vowel
PL:pluractionality:pluractionality
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

{{interlinear |number=1) |glossing2=yes |glossing4=yes |glossing=link
|Eamõyãn (en).
|s-V (S)
|s-V (S)
|/e-amõc-a-t (ẽt)/
|/e-amõc-a-t (ẽt)/
|2-dance-{{gcl|TH|thematic vowel|thematic vowel}}-NFUT (2.NOM)
|2-dance-TH-NFUT (2.NOM)
|‘You danced.’}}
|‘You danced.’}}


{{interlinear|indent=3|glossing2=no|glossing4=yes|glossing=link
{{interlinear |number=2) |glossing2=yes |glossing4=yes |glossing=link
|Etopkwap nã on.
|Etopkwap nã on.
|p-V {} A
|p-V {} A
|/e-top-kʷ-a-p nã õt/
|/e-top-kʷ-a-p nã õt/
|2-see-{{gcl|PL|pluractionality|pluractionality}}-{{gcl|TH|thematic vowel|thematic vowel}}-''p'' FUT 1.NOM
|2-see-PL-TH-''p'' FUT 1.NOM
|‘I’ll see you every day.’}}
|‘I’ll see you every day.’}}


Revision as of 04:58, 20 March 2024

Wayoró
Wayoro, Ajurú, Wajuru
wayoro emẽto
Pronunciation[βajoˈɾo ɛmɛ̃ˈto]
RegionRondônia (Brazil)
EthnicityWajuru (ethnic population ~250, FUNASA/SESAI 2016)[1]: 3 
Native speakers
3 (+ 11 semispeakers) (2019)[1]: 3 
Dialects
  • Ngwayoroiat (Wayoroiat)
  • Kupndiiriat
Language codes
ISO 639-3wyr
Glottologwayo1238
ELPWayoró

Wayoró (also Wayoro, Ajurú, Wajuru; Wayoró: wayoro emẽto [βajoˈɾo ɛmɛ̃ˈto]) is a moribund Tuparian language (Tupian family), which is spoken in the state of Rondônia, in the Amazon region of Brazil. As of 2019, there were reported to be 3 speakers (all above 70 years old) and 11 semispeakers out of the ethnic population of approximately 250.[1]: 3 

Dialects

The Wajuru people is subdivided into three subgroups: the Ngwayoroiat (‘those from the Stone’), the Ngwãkũyãian (‘the Agouti ones’), and the Kupndiiriat (‘the Forest ones’). Some lexical and phonological differences have been reported between the varieties spoken by the Ngwayoroiat (Wayoroiat) and by the Kupndiiriat.

Phonology

Consonants

The graphemes which correspond to each phoneme are given in ⟨brackets⟩.

Consonant inventory[1]: 8 
labial alveolar palatal velar labio-velar glottal
plosive p ⟨p⟩ t ⟨t⟩ tʃ ⟨tx⟩ k ⟨k⟩ kʷ ⟨kw⟩ [ʔ] ⟨’⟩[a]
nasal m ⟨m, mb⟩ n ⟨n, nd⟩ ɲ ⟨y, dj⟩ ŋ ⟨ng, g⟩ ŋʷ ⟨ngw, gw⟩
sonorant β ⟨w⟩ ɾ ⟨r⟩
  1. ^ Occurs in the onset position only (e.g. o’uwa [oʔʉβa] ‘my pot’, o’ega [oʔɛga] ‘my hiccup’, apa’a [apaʔa] ‘to weave a hammock horizontally’). The phonological status is given as uncertain by Nogueira (2019).[1]: 11 

Underlying nasal consonants may be partially or fully oralized in oral environments. Nogueira (2019) describes the following allophones:

  • /m/ → [m] ⟨m⟩, [mb] ⟨mb⟩
  • /n/ → [n] ⟨n⟩, [nd] ⟨nd⟩
  • /ɲ/ → [ɲ, j, j̃, jᵗ] ⟨y⟩, [ndʒ, dʒ] ⟨dj⟩
  • /ŋ/ → [ŋ, ŋg] ⟨ng⟩, [g] ⟨g⟩
  • /ŋʷ/ → [ŋʷ, ŋgʷ] ⟨ngw⟩, [gʷ] ⟨gw⟩

Vowels

Vowel inventory[1]: 9 
front central back
short long short long short long
high oral i ⟨i⟩ iː ⟨ii⟩ ʉ ⟨u⟩ ʉː ⟨uu⟩
nasal ĩ ⟨ĩ⟩ ĩː ⟨ĩi⟩ ʉ̃ ⟨ũ⟩ ʉ̃ː ⟨ũu⟩
mid oral ɛ ⟨e⟩ ɛː ⟨ee⟩ o ⟨o⟩ oː ⟨oo⟩
nasal ɛ̃ ⟨ẽ⟩ ɛ̃ː ⟨ẽe⟩ õ ⟨õ⟩ õː ⟨õo⟩
low oral a ⟨a⟩ aː ⟨aa⟩
nasal ã ⟨ã⟩ ãː ⟨ãa⟩

Syntax

As in other Tuparian languages, the main clauses of Wayoró follow the cross-linguistically rare nominative–absolutive pattern. Person prefixes on the verb are absolutive, i.e., they index the sole argument of an intransitive verb (S) and the patient argument ('direct object') of a transitive verb (P). Person pronouns, which follow the verb (either cliticizing to it or not) are nominative: they may encode the sole argument of an intransitive verb (S) or the agent argument of a transitive verb (A), but not the patient of a transitive verb (P). This is exemplified below.[2]: 99 

V:verb S:sole argument of an intransitive verb P:patient argument of a transitive verb A:agent argument of a transitive verb TH:thematic vowel:thematic vowel PL:pluractionality:pluractionality

1)

Eamõyãn

s-V

/e-amõc-a-t

2-dance-TH-NFUT

(en).

(S)

(ẽt)/

(2.NOM)

Eamõyãn (en).

s-V (S)

/e-amõc-a-t (ẽt)/

2-dance-TH-NFUT (2.NOM)

‘You danced.’

2)

Etopkwap

p-V

/e-top-kʷ-a-p

2-see-PL-TH-p

nã

 

nã

FUT

on.

A

õt/

1.NOM

Etopkwap nã on.

p-V {} A

/e-top-kʷ-a-p nã õt/

2-see-PL-TH-p FUT 1.NOM

‘I’ll see you every day.’

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Nogueira, Antônia Fernanda de Souza (2019). Predicação na língua Wayoro (Tupi): propriedades de finitude (PDF) (Thesis). São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo.
  2. ^ Galucio, Ana Vilacy; de Souza Nogueira, Antônia Fernanda (20 July 2018). "From object nominalization to object focus: The innovative A-alignment in the Tuparian languages (Tupian family)". Journal of Historical Linguistics. 8 (1): 95–127. doi:10.1075/jhl.16025.gal.
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