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{{Short description|Early medieval petty kingdom in south-east Wales}}
{{use Welsh English|date=August 2019}}
{{use British English|date=August 2019}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{short description|kingdom in west Britain}}
{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
|native_name = ''Teyrnas Glywysing''
| native_name = {{native name|owl|Teyrnas Glywysing}}
|conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Glywysing
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Glywysing
|common_name = Glywysing
| common_name = Glywysing
| era = [[Middle Ages]]
|
|era = Middle Ages
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| life_span = 5th century–{{circa|1055}}<br />(intermittently in union with Gwent/in Morgannwg)
|government_type = Monarchy
| event_start = Formed after Roman withdrawal from Britain
|
| year_start = Late 5th century
|life_span = 5th century–c. 1055 <br />(intermittently in union with Gwent/in Morgannwg)
| event1 = Various unions with Gwent
|event_start = Formed after Roman withdrawal from Britain
| date_event1 = 6th century–{{circa|745}}
|year_start = Late 5th century
| event2 = Union in Morgannwg<br />(under [[Morgan Hen ab Owain]])
|event1 = Various unions with Gwent
| date_event2 = 942–974
|date_event1 = 6th century–c. 745
|event2 = Union in Morgannwg <br />(under [[Morgan Hen ab Owain]])
| event3 = Union as part of Wales <br />(under [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]], [[King of Wales]])
| date_event3 = 1055–1063
|date_event2 = 942–974
| event4 = Union in Morgannwg
|event3 = Union as part of Wales <br />(under [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]], [[King of Wales]])
| date_event4 = 1063–1074
|date_event3 = 1055-1063
|event4 = Union in Morgannwg
| event_end = Becomes Morgannwg <br />(under [[Caradog ap Gruffydd]])
| year_end = 1075
|date_event4 = 1063-1074
| p1 = Roman Britain
|event_end = Becomes Morgannwg <br />(under [[Caradog ap Gruffydd]])
| p2 = Kingdom of Morgannwg
|year_end = 1075
|p1 = Roman Britain
| s1 = Kingdom of Morgannwg
| image_map = Medieval_Wales.JPG
|flag_p1 = Roman SPQR banner.svg
| image_map_caption = Medieval kingdoms of Wales, showing Glywysing in the south
|p2 = Morgannwg
|s1 = Morgannwg
| capital = [[Cardiff]]
| common_languages = [[Old Welsh]]
|flag_s1 =
| religion = [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic&nbsp;Christianity]]
|image_coat =
| leader1 =
|symbol_type =
| year_leader1 =
|image_map = Medieval_Wales.JPG
| leader2 =
|image_map_caption = Medieval kingdoms of Wales, showing Glywysing in the south
|capital = [[Cardiff]]
| year_leader2 =
| leader3 =
|
| year_leader3 =
|common_languages = [[Old Welsh|Old&nbsp;Welsh]]
| leader4 =
|religion = [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic&nbsp;Christianity]]
|leader1 =
| year_leader4 =
| footnotes =
|year_leader1 =
|leader2 =
|year_leader2 =
|leader3 =
|year_leader3 =
|leader4 =
|year_leader4 =
| footnotes =
}}
{{Infobox country
|native_name = ''Teyrnas Morgannwg''
|conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Morgannwg
|common_name = Glamorgan
|
|era = Middle Ages
|government_type = Monarchy
|
|life_span = c. 7th/8th century-c. 745<br>942–974<br>1055/1063–1091
|event_start = Morgannwyg formed from Gwent and Glywysing <br />(under [[Morgan the Generous]])
|year_start = c. 7th/8th century
|event1 = Union disestablished
|date_event1 = c. 745
|event2 = Reunited <br />(under [[Morgan Hen ab Owain]])
|date_event2 = 942
|event3 = Union disestablished
|date_event3 = 974
|event4 = Reunited in Wales <br />(under [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]], [[King of Wales]])
|date_event4 = 1055
|event5 = Independent <br />
|date_event5 = 1063
|event_end = Conquered <br />(by the Norman lord, Robert Fitzhamon)
|year_end = 1091
|date_end =
|p1 = Kingdom of Gwent
|p2 = Kingdom of Glywysing
|s1 = Kingdom of Gwent
|s2 = Kingdom of Glywysing
|s3 = Lord of Glamorgan
|s4 = Welsh Marches
|
|image_flag =
|image_coat =
|symbol_type =
|capital = Various<ref>The three cantrefs composing Glywysing were based at [[Allt Wynllyw]] on [[Stow Hill]] (modern [[Newport, Wales|Newport]]); [[Nant Pawl]]; and [[Llaniltud Fawr]]. These were sometimes independent and sometimes controlled one another. Cf. ''The History Files'': "Celtic Kingdoms of the British Isles: [http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/CymruGlywyssing.htm Cernyw / Glywyssing]" (Accessed 14 Feb 2013).</ref>
|
|common_languages = Welsh
|leader1 = [[Morgan the Generous]]
|leader2 = [[Morgan Hen ab Owain]]
|year_leader2 = 942–974
|leader3 = [[Cadwgan ap Meurig]]
|year_leader3 = 1063–1074
|leader4 = [[Caradog ap Gruffyd]]
|year_leader4 = 1075–1081
|leader5 = [[Iestyn ap Gwrgan]]
|year_leader5 = 1081–1091
| footnotes = {{Note|1}}
}}
}}


'''Glywysing''' was, from the [[Sub-Roman Britain|sub-Roman]] period to the [[Early Middle Ages]], a [[petty kingdom]] in south-east [[Wales in the Early Middle Ages|Wales]]. Its people were descended from the [[Iron Age tribes in Britain|Iron Age tribe]] of the [[Silures]], and frequently in union with [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]], merging to form Morgannwg.
'''Glywysing''' was, from the [[Sub-Roman Britain|sub-Roman]] period to the [[Early Middle Ages]], a [[petty kingdom]] in south-east [[Wales in the Early Middle Ages|Wales]]. Its people were descended from the [[Iron Age tribes in Britain|Iron Age tribe]] of the [[Silures]], and frequently in union with [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]], merging to form Morgannwg.


==Name and Early History==
==Name and early history==
{{anchor|etymology}}
{{anchor|etymology}}
Glywysing is said to be named after [[Glywys]], a real or legendary early monarch, whose name may continue that of the Romano-British ''*Glevenses'', the territory and citizens of ''[[Glevum]]'' (modern [[Gloucester]]).<ref>Koch, John T. ''Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia'' ABC-CLIO Ltd (15 Mar 2006) {{ISBN|978-1-85109-440-0}} p.1312</ref> According to 12th-century sources, after the death of Glywys, the kingdom was divided into seven [[cantref]]s named for his sons:<ref>Carver, Martin ''The cross goes north: processes of conversion in northern Europe, AD 300-1300'' Boydell Press; New edition (26 Jan 2006) {{ISBN|978-1-84383-125-9}} p.125</ref> [[Cydweli]], [[Gwyr]], [[Margam]], [[Penychen]], [[Gwynllwg]], [[Gorfynydd]], and another. These were typically ruled together by the head of the family and sometimes treated as [[appenage]] subkingdoms.
Glywysing is said in medieval Welsh tradition to be named after [[Glywys]], supposedly an early king of the region. In reality, the name probably comes from ''[[Glevum]]'', the Roman name for what is now [[Gloucester]], via a Latin name *''Glevenses'' ('people of Glevum') or *''Glevensis'' ('person from Glevum'). Thus the name suggests that the kingdom was named after invaders or migrants, or a particular ruler, from Glevum.<ref>Koch, John T. ''Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia'' ABC-CLIO Ltd (15 March 2006) {{ISBN|978-1-85109-440-0}} p. 1312.</ref><ref>Patrick Sims-Williams, ''Religion and Literature in Western England 600-800'', Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon England, 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 24.</ref>

According to 12th-century sources, after the death of Glywys, the kingdom was divided into three [[cantref]]s named for his sons:<ref>Carver, Martin ''The cross goes north: processes of conversion in northern Europe, AD 300–1300'' Boydell Press; New edition (26 Jan 2006) {{ISBN|978-1-84383-125-9}} p. 125</ref> [[Penychen]], [[Gwynllwg]], and [[Gorfynydd]]. These were typically ruled together by the head of the family and sometimes treated as [[appenage]] subkingdoms.


==Location==
==Location==
The borders changed over time, but it is generally thought that its lands originally lay between the [[Afon Llwyd]] and the [[River Towy]]. At times they expanded eastwards in union with both [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]] and [[Ergyng]]. Some time before the early 8th century, [[Cydweli]] and [[Gower (Lordship)|Gwyr (Gower)]] were lost to [[Kingdom of Dyfed|Dyfed]], although the Gower had returned to Glywysing by 928 prior to the reign of King [[Morgan the Old]].<ref name="caerwent">Ashley, Mike (1998) ''The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens '' (Carol & Graf)</ref>
The borders changed over time, but it is generally thought that its lands originally lay between the [[Afon Llwyd]] and either the [[River Loughor]], or the [[River Neath]]. At times they expanded eastwards in union with both [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]] and [[Ergyng]]. The Gower had either returned or was inherited from Dyfed to Glywysing by 928 prior to the reign of King [[Morgan the Old]].<ref name="caerwent">Ashley, Mike (1998) ''The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens '' (Carol & Graf)</ref>
Today the area of Glywysing is known as [[Glamorgan]].
Today the area of Glywysing is known as [[Glamorgan]].


==Morgannwg==
==Morgannwg==
{{Main|Kingdom of Morgannwg}}
First under King [[Morgan the Generous]] (fl. {{circa|lk=no|630-730}}) until the end of the reign of his descendant [[Ithel]] (d. c. 745), and later again under King [[Morgan the Old]] (r. 942-74), the kingdom merged with [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]] and changed its name to Morgannwg or Gwlad Morgan in honour of the Morgan Kings.<ref name="caerwent"/><ref>Lloyd, John E. ''A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest'', Vol. 1, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofwalesfr01lloyuoft#page/274/mode/2up p. 274]. Longmans, Green, & Co. (London), 1911. Accessed 22 Feb 2013.</ref> During such unions Glywysing and Gwent seem to have been together or occasional sub-kingdoms or principalities of the Kingdom of Morgannwg<ref name="caerwent"/>.
First under King [[Morgan the Generous]] (fl. {{circa|lk=no|630-730}}) until the end of the reign of his descendant [[Ithel]] (d. c. 745), and later again under King [[Morgan the Old]] (r. 942-74), the kingdom merged with [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]] and changed its name to Morgannwg or Gwlad Morgan in honour of the Morgan Kings.<ref name="caerwent"/><ref>Lloyd, John E. ''A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest'', Vol. 1, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofwalesfr01lloyuoft#page/274/mode/2up p. 274]. Longmans, Green, & Co. (London), 1911. Accessed 22 Feb 2013.</ref> During such unions Glywysing and Gwent seem to have been together or occasional sub-kingdoms or principalities of the Kingdom of Morgannwg.<ref name="caerwent"/>


After the death of Morgan the Old, Gwent and Glywysing were separated again from 974 to 1055, but Glywysing alone was often referred to as Morgannwg. Both areas were conquered by [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]] in about 1055, subsequently [[King of Wales]], but on Gruffydd's death in 1063, Glywysing was regained by the native lineage under [[Caradog ap Gruffudd]]<ref name="caerwent"/>. Morgannwg, the union between Gwent and Glywysing, was reconstituted. How this occurred is unclear; possibly the Kings of Glywysing were also Kings of Morgannwg and the Kings of Gwent were semi-independent under-Kings, or vice versa<ref name="caerwent"/>.
After the death of Morgan the Old, Gwent and Glywysing were separated again from 974 to 1055, but Glywysing alone was often referred to as Morgannwg. Both areas were conquered by [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]] in about 1055, subsequently [[King of Wales]], but on Gruffydd's death in 1063, Glywysing was regained by the native lineage under [[Caradog ap Gruffudd]].<ref name="caerwent"/> Morgannwg, the union between Gwent and Glywysing, was reconstituted. How this occurred is unclear; possibly the Kings of Glywysing were also Kings of Morgannwg and the Kings of Gwent were semi-independent under-Kings, or vice versa.<ref name="caerwent"/>


===Norman conquest===
===Norman conquest===
{{Main|Glamorgan}}
{{Main|Glamorgan}}
With Gwent increasingly overrun by the [[Norman conquest of Wales]], the last native King of Morgannwyg & Glywysing was [[Iestyn ap Gwrgan]] (1081-1090), who was subsequently deposed by [[Robert Fitzhamon]]. Iestyn's sons became Lords of [[River Afan|Afan]], while Owain ap Caradog ap Gruffudd contented himself with [[Gwynllwg]] and founded the line of the Lords of [[Caerleon]].<ref name="caerwent"/>
With Gwent increasingly overrun by the [[Norman conquest of Wales]], the last native King of Morgannwyg and Glywysing was [[Iestyn ap Gwrgan]] (1081–1090), who was subsequently deposed by [[Robert Fitzhamon]]. Iestyn's sons became Lords of [[River Afan|Afan]], while Owain ap Caradog ap Gruffudd contented himself with [[Gwynllwg]] and founded the line of the Lords of [[Caerleon]].<ref name="caerwent"/>

The name ''Morgannwg'' is still used in Wales for the former [[Marcher Lord]]ship and county of [[Glamorgan]] (itself a corruption of the term ''Gwlad Morgan'') and its successor counties

== List of rulers ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2022}}

=== Glywysing ===
{{anchor|Glywyssing}}

* [[Owain Finddu|Eugenius]], son of [[Magnus Maximus]] (c.383 - c.440)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Kessler |first=P. L. |title=Kingdoms of Cymru Celts - Cernyw / Glywyssing |url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/CymruGlywyssing.htm |access-date=2022-10-03 |website=The History Files |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Mor (Welsh king)|Marius]], son of Eugenius (c.440 - c.450s)<ref name=":0" />
* Congar, son of Marius (c. 450s)<ref name=":0" />
* [[Solar (Welsh king)|Solar]], son of Marius (fl c.470)<ref name=":0" />
* [[Glywys]], son of Solar (c. 470–c. 480), who gave his name to the kingdom<ref name=":0" />
** [[Gwynllyw]], son of Glywys, ruler of [[Gwynllwg]] (c. 480–523), cantref of Glywysing<ref name=":0" />
** [[Pawl (Welsh king)|Pawl]], son of Glywys, ruler of [[Penychen]] (c. 480–540), cantref of Glywysing<ref name=":0" />
** [[Mechwyn]], son of Glywys, ruler of [[Gorfynydd]] (c. 480–c.500), cantref of Glywysing<ref name=":0" />
** Edelig, son of Glywys, King of Edeligion, (fl c.480 - 500?)<ref name=":0" />
* [[Cadoc]], son of Gwynllyw, ruler of Gwynllwg (523–580) and Penychen (540–580), died without heirs

''Glywysing is ruled by the Kings of Gwent until Rhys ap Ithel''


* [[Rhys ap Ithel]]/[[Rhys ab Idwal]], son of the Kings of Gwent (c. 755–785), with brothers, [[Rhodri ab Idwal (Glywysing)|Rhodri]] and [[Meurig ab Ithel|Meurig]]
The name ''Morgannwg'' is still used in Wales for the former [[Marcher Lord]]ship and county of [[Glamorgan]] (itself a corruption of the term ''Gwlad Morgan'') and its successor counties.
* [[Arthfael Hen ap Rhys]] (Arthfael the Old) (785–c. 825) with [[Brochfael ap Rhys]]
* [[Rhys ap Arthfael]], (c. 830–c. 840)
* [[Hywel ap Rhys (Glywysing)|Hywel ap Rhys]], (c. 840–886)
* [[Owain ap Hywel (Gwent)|Owain ap Hywel]] (886–{{circa|930|lk=no}})
** [[Gruffydd ab Owain]] ({{circa|930|lk=no}}–934) King of Gower
** [[Cadwgan ab Owain]] ({{circa|930|lk=no}}–950) King of West Glywysing
* Morgan the Old ([[Morgan Hen ab Owain|Morgan Hen or Morgan ab Owain]] or Moragn Hen Fawr) (930–974) ''united the former kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]] and Glywysing in 942 under the name of Morgannwg, but they were broken up again immediately after his death, remaining separate until about 1055''
* Morgan the Old's son, Owain ap Morgan (974–c. 983)
* brothers of Owain ap Morgan (Idwallon, Hywel and Cadell) (dates unknown)
* his son, Rhys ab Owain (c. 990–c. 1000) ''who ruled Glywysing jointly with his brothers''
* Ithel the Black, son Idwallon (990)
** [[Hywel ab Owain]] (c. 990–c. 1043) ''and''
** Iestyn ab Owain (c. 990–c. 1015)
* his son, [[Rhydderch ap Iestyn]] (c. 1015–1033)
* his son, [[Gruffydd ap Rhydderch]] (1033–1055)
* Gwrgant ab Ithel the Black (1033 - 1070)
* [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]], invader and prince of Gwynedd (1055–1063)
* Gruffydd ap Rhydderch's son, [[Caradog ap Gruffydd]] (1063–1081) ''who was a subject of the King of Gwent and King of Morgannwg [[Cadwgan ap Meurig]] before he deposed him and took the kingdom for himself''
* [[Iestyn ap Gwrgant|Iestyn ap Gwrgan(t)]] (1081–1091)


''Iestyn was the last ruler of an independent Morgannwg, which was thereafter in the possession of the [[Norman dynasty|Normans]] and became the lordship of [[Glamorgan]]''
==See also==
* [[Kings of Glywysing]]


==References==
==References==
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{{coord|53|14|N|4|1|W|type:country|display=title}}
{{coord|53|14|N|4|1|W|type:country|display=title}}


[[Category:Glywysing| ]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Wales]]
[[Category:1091 disestablishments]]
[[Category:1091 disestablishments]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 940s]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 940s]]
[[Category:History of Glamorgan]]
[[Category:History of Glamorgan]]
[[Category:History of Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:History of Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Glywysing]]
[[Category:942 establishments]]
[[Category:942 establishments]]

Latest revision as of 14:55, 22 April 2024

Kingdom of Glywysing
Teyrnas Glywysing (Old Welsh)
5th century–c. 1055
(intermittently in union with Gwent/in Morgannwg)
Medieval kingdoms of Wales, showing Glywysing in the south
Medieval kingdoms of Wales, showing Glywysing in the south
CapitalCardiff
Common languagesOld Welsh
Religion
Celtic Christianity
GovernmentMonarchy
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Formed after Roman withdrawal from Britain
Late 5th century
• Various unions with Gwent
6th century–c. 745
• Union in Morgannwg
(under Morgan Hen ab Owain)
942–974
• Union as part of Wales
(under Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, King of Wales)
1055–1063
• Union in Morgannwg
1063–1074
• Becomes Morgannwg
(under Caradog ap Gruffydd)
1075
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Roman Britain
Kingdom of Morgannwg
Kingdom of Morgannwg

Glywysing was, from the sub-Roman period to the Early Middle Ages, a petty kingdom in south-east Wales. Its people were descended from the Iron Age tribe of the Silures, and frequently in union with Gwent, merging to form Morgannwg.

Name and early history

[edit]

Glywysing is said in medieval Welsh tradition to be named after Glywys, supposedly an early king of the region. In reality, the name probably comes from Glevum, the Roman name for what is now Gloucester, via a Latin name *Glevenses ('people of Glevum') or *Glevensis ('person from Glevum'). Thus the name suggests that the kingdom was named after invaders or migrants, or a particular ruler, from Glevum.[1][2]

According to 12th-century sources, after the death of Glywys, the kingdom was divided into three cantrefs named for his sons:[3] Penychen, Gwynllwg, and Gorfynydd. These were typically ruled together by the head of the family and sometimes treated as appenage subkingdoms.

Location

[edit]

The borders changed over time, but it is generally thought that its lands originally lay between the Afon Llwyd and either the River Loughor, or the River Neath. At times they expanded eastwards in union with both Gwent and Ergyng. The Gower had either returned or was inherited from Dyfed to Glywysing by 928 prior to the reign of King Morgan the Old.[4] Today the area of Glywysing is known as Glamorgan.

Morgannwg

[edit]
Main article: Kingdom of Morgannwg

First under King Morgan the Generous (fl. c. 630-730) until the end of the reign of his descendant Ithel (d. c. 745), and later again under King Morgan the Old (r. 942-74), the kingdom merged with Gwent and changed its name to Morgannwg or Gwlad Morgan in honour of the Morgan Kings.[4][5] During such unions Glywysing and Gwent seem to have been together or occasional sub-kingdoms or principalities of the Kingdom of Morgannwg.[4]

After the death of Morgan the Old, Gwent and Glywysing were separated again from 974 to 1055, but Glywysing alone was often referred to as Morgannwg. Both areas were conquered by Gruffydd ap Llywelyn in about 1055, subsequently King of Wales, but on Gruffydd's death in 1063, Glywysing was regained by the native lineage under Caradog ap Gruffudd.[4] Morgannwg, the union between Gwent and Glywysing, was reconstituted. How this occurred is unclear; possibly the Kings of Glywysing were also Kings of Morgannwg and the Kings of Gwent were semi-independent under-Kings, or vice versa.[4]

Norman conquest

[edit]
Main article: Glamorgan

With Gwent increasingly overrun by the Norman conquest of Wales, the last native King of Morgannwyg and Glywysing was Iestyn ap Gwrgan (1081–1090), who was subsequently deposed by Robert Fitzhamon. Iestyn's sons became Lords of Afan, while Owain ap Caradog ap Gruffudd contented himself with Gwynllwg and founded the line of the Lords of Caerleon.[4]

The name Morgannwg is still used in Wales for the former Marcher Lordship and county of Glamorgan (itself a corruption of the term Gwlad Morgan) and its successor counties

List of rulers

[edit]

Glywysing

[edit]

  • Eugenius, son of Magnus Maximus (c.383 - c.440)[6]
  • Marius, son of Eugenius (c.440 - c.450s)[6]
  • Congar, son of Marius (c. 450s)[6]
  • Solar, son of Marius (fl c.470)[6]
  • Glywys, son of Solar (c. 470–c. 480), who gave his name to the kingdom[6]
    • Gwynllyw, son of Glywys, ruler of Gwynllwg (c. 480–523), cantref of Glywysing[6]
    • Pawl, son of Glywys, ruler of Penychen (c. 480–540), cantref of Glywysing[6]
    • Mechwyn, son of Glywys, ruler of Gorfynydd (c. 480–c.500), cantref of Glywysing[6]
    • Edelig, son of Glywys, King of Edeligion, (fl c.480 - 500?)[6]
  • Cadoc, son of Gwynllyw, ruler of Gwynllwg (523–580) and Penychen (540–580), died without heirs

Glywysing is ruled by the Kings of Gwent until Rhys ap Ithel

Iestyn was the last ruler of an independent Morgannwg, which was thereafter in the possession of the Normans and became the lordship of Glamorgan

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Koch, John T. Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia ABC-CLIO Ltd (15 March 2006) ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0 p. 1312.
  2. ^ Patrick Sims-Williams, Religion and Literature in Western England 600-800, Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon England, 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 24.
  3. ^ Carver, Martin The cross goes north: processes of conversion in northern Europe, AD 300–1300 Boydell Press; New edition (26 Jan 2006) ISBN 978-1-84383-125-9 p. 125
  4. ^ a b c d e f Ashley, Mike (1998) The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens (Carol & Graf)
  5. ^ Lloyd, John E. A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest, Vol. 1, p. 274. Longmans, Green, & Co. (London), 1911. Accessed 22 Feb 2013.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kessler, P. L. "Kingdoms of Cymru Celts - Cernyw / Glywyssing". The History Files. Retrieved 3 October 2022.

53°14′N 4°1′W / 53.233°N 4.017°W / 53.233; -4.017

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