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{{Short description|Species of fungus}}
{{Taxobox
{{Speciesbox
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| name = ''Scutellinia scutellata'' {{italic title}}
| image = Scutellinia scutellata Dan Molter crop.jpg
| image = Scutellinia scutellata Dan Molter crop.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| image_alt = Two orangish-red colored, cup-shaped structures with dark-brown eyelashes growing on the outer rim. The two structures are sitting next to each other, growing on a piece of wood.
| image_alt = Two orangish-red colored, cup-shaped structures with dark-brown eyelashes growing on the outer rim. The two structures are sitting next to each other, growing on a piece of wood.
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| taxon = Scutellinia scutellata
| regnum = [[Fungus|Fungi]]
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| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte|Lamb.]] (1887)
| divisio = [[Ascomycota]]
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| synonyms = * ''Patella scutellata'' <small>(L.) [[Andrew Price Morgan|Morgan]] (1902)</small>
| classis = [[Pezizomycetes]]
}}
| ordo = [[Pezizales]]
{{ mycomorphbox
| familia = [[Pyronemataceae]]
| genus = ''[[Scutellinia]]''
| name = Scutellinia scutellata
| hymeniumType = smooth
| species = '''''S. scutellata'''''
| capShape = NA
| binomial = ''Scutellinia scutellata''
| whichGills = NA
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| binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte|Lamb.]]
| stipeCharacter = NA
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| synonyms = ''Patella scutellata'' <small>(L.) Morgan</small>
| sporePrintColor = white
| ecologicalType = saprotrophic
| howEdible = inedible
}}
}}
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'''''Scutellinia scutellata''''', [[common name|commonly known]] as the '''eyelash cup''', the '''Molly eye-winker''', the '''scarlet elf cap''', the '''eyelash fungus''' or the '''eyelash pixie cup''', is a small [[saprophyte|saprophytic]] [[fungus]] of the genus ''[[Scutellinia]]''. It is the [[type species]] of ''Scutellinia'', as well as being the most common and widespread. The [[fruiting body|fruiting bodies]] are small red cups with distinct long, dark hairs or "eyelashes". These eyelashes are the most distinctive feature and are easily visible with a magnifying glass. The species is common in North America and Europe, and has been recorded on every continent. ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' is found on rotting wood and in other damp habitats, typically growing in small groups, sometimes forming clusters. It is sometimes described as inedible, but its small size means it is not suitable for culinary use. Despite this, it is popular among mushroom hunters due to its unusual "eyelash" hairs, making it memorable and easy to identify.


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'''''Scutellinia scutellata''''', [[common name|commonly known]] as the '''eyelash pixie cup''',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arora |first1=David |title=Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi |date=1986 |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-89815-169-5 |edition=Second}}</ref> '''eyelash cup''', the '''Molly eye-winker''', the '''scarlet elf cap''', the '''eyelash fungus''' or the '''eyelash pixie cup''', is a small [[saprophyte|saprophytic]] [[fungus]] in the family [[Pyronemataceae]]. It is the [[type species]] of ''Scutellinia'', as well as being the most common and widespread. The [[fruiting body|fruiting bodies]] are small red cups with distinctive long, dark hairs or "eyelashes". These eyelashes are the most distinctive feature and are easily visible with a magnifying glass.
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== Taxonomy ==


The species is common in North America and Europe, and has been recorded on every continent. It is found on rotting wood and in other damp habitats, typically growing in small groups, sometimes forming clusters. It is sometimes described as inedible, with its small size also rendering it of no culinary interest. Despite this, it is popular among mushroom hunters due to its unusual "eyelash" hairs, making it memorable and easy to identify.
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''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' was first described in 1753 by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in his book ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' as ''Peziza scutellata'', and it was given its current name by [[Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte]] in ''Memoires societe royale des sciences de Liege'' in 1887. It was also named ''Patella scutellata'' in 1902.<ref name="Bi">{{cite book|title= The Macrofungus Flora of China's Guangdong Province|author1=Bi Z |author2=Zheng G |author3=Li T |year= 1993|publisher= Chinese University Press|isbn= 978-962-201-556-2|pages= 41–42}}</ref> The [[specific name (botany)|specific name]] ''scutellata'' is from the [[Latin]] for "like a small shield".<ref name="Evenson"/> [[Common name]]s include the eyelash fungus,<ref name="Phillips"/> the eyelash cup,<ref name="Evenson"/> the scarlet elf cap,<ref>{{cite book|author= Zwinger, A. H.|year=2002|isbn=978-1-55566-279-0|page=358|publisher=Johnson Books|location=Boulder, Colo.|title=Beyond the Aspen Grove}}</ref> the Molly eye-winker<ref>{{cite web |author= Emberger G|title= ''Scutellinia scutellata''|url= http://www.messiah.edu/Oakes/fungi_on_wood/cup%20and%20saucer/species%20pages/Scutellinia%20scutellata.htm|publisher= [[Messiah College]]|accessdate=1 July 2009}}</ref> and the eyelash pixie cup.<ref name="Arora"/>


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==Taxonomy==
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The genus ''[[Scutellinia]]'' is currently placed in the family [[Pyronemataceae]]. However, genera of the Pyronemataceae lack unifying macroscopic or microscopic characteristics; this lack of uniting characters has led various authors to propose a variety of classification schemes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kimbrough JW|year=1989 |title= Arguments towards restricting the limits of the ''Pyronemataceae'' (Ascomycetes, Pezizales)|journal=Memoirs of the New York Botanic Garden |volume=49 |pages=326–35}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Eckblad F-E|year=1968 |title=The genera of operculate ''Discomycetes''. A re-evaluation of their taxonomy, phylogeny and nomenclature |journal=Norwegian Journal of Botany |volume=15 |pages=1–191}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Korf RP|year=1972 |title=Synoptic key to the genera of ''Pezizales'' |journal=Mycologia |volume=64 |pages=937–94 |doi= 10.2307/3758070 |issue= 5 |jstor= 3758070}}</ref> A 1996 study of British specimens of ''Scutellinia'' revealed that the species ''S.&nbsp;crinita'', originally described as ''Peziza crinita'' in 1789 by French botanist [[Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard]], was [[synonym (taxonomy)|synonymous]] with ''S.&nbsp;scutellata''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yao YJ |author2=Spooner BM |year=1996 |title=Notes on British species of ''Scutellinia'' |journal=Mycological Research |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=859–65 |doi= 10.1016/S0953-7562(96)80035-9}}</ref>


⚫
''Scutellinia scutellata'' was first [[species description|described]] in 1753 by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in his book ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' as ''Peziza scutellata'', and it was given its current name by [[Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte]] in ''Memoires societe royale des sciences de Liege'' in 1887. It was also named ''Patella scutellata'' in 1902.<ref name="Bi">{{cite book|title= The Macrofungus Flora of China's Guangdong Province|author1=Bi Z |author2=Zheng G |author3=Li T |year= 1993|publisher= Chinese University Press|isbn= 978-962-201-556-2|pages= 41–42}}</ref> The [[specific name (botany)|specific name]] ''scutellata'' is from the [[Latin]] for "like a small shield".<ref name="Evenson"/> [[Common name]]s include the eyelash fungus,<ref name="Phillips"/> the eyelash cup,<ref name="Evenson"/> the scarlet elf cap,<ref>{{cite book|author= Zwinger, A. H.|year=2002|isbn=978-1-55566-279-0|page=358|publisher=Johnson Books|location=Boulder, Colo.|title=Beyond the Aspen Grove}}</ref> the Molly eye-winker<ref>{{cite web |author= Emberger G|title= ''Scutellinia scutellata''|url= http://www.messiah.edu/Oakes/fungi_on_wood/cup%20and%20saucer/species%20pages/Scutellinia%20scutellata.htm|publisher= [[Messiah College]]|access-date=1 July 2009}}</ref> and the eyelash pixie cup.<ref name="Arora"/>
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== Description ==


⚫
The genus ''[[Scutellinia]]'' is currently placed in the family [[Pyronemataceae]]. However, genera of the Pyronemataceae lack unifying macroscopic or microscopic characteristics; this lack of uniting characters has led various authors to propose a variety of classification schemes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kimbrough JW|year=1989 |title= Arguments towards restricting the limits of the ''Pyronemataceae'' (Ascomycetes, Pezizales)|journal=Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden |volume=49 |pages=326–35}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Eckblad F-E|year=1968 |title=The genera of operculate ''Discomycetes''. A re-evaluation of their taxonomy, phylogeny and nomenclature |journal=Norwegian Journal of Botany |volume=15 |pages=1–191}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Korf RP|year=1972 |title=Synoptic key to the genera of ''Pezizales'' |journal=Mycologia |volume=64 |pages=937–94 |doi= 10.2307/3758070 |issue= 5 |jstor= 3758070}}</ref> A 1996 study of British specimens of ''Scutellinia'' revealed that the species ''S.&nbsp;crinita'', originally described as ''Peziza crinita'' in 1789 by French botanist [[Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard]], was [[synonym (taxonomy)|synonymous]] with ''S.&nbsp;scutellata''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yao YJ |author2=Spooner BM |year=1996 |title=Notes on British species of ''Scutellinia'' |journal=Mycological Research |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=859–65 |doi=10.1016/S0953-7562(96)80035-9}}</ref>
⚫
The [[fruiting body]] of ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' is a shallow disc shape, typically between {{convert|0.2|to|1|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name="Phillips"/> The youngest specimens are almost entirely spherical; the cups open up and expand to a disc during maturity.<ref name="Arora">{{cite book|author=Arora D| title=Mushrooms Demystified : a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi| year=1986| location=Berkeley, California| publisher=Ten Speed Press|isbn=0-89815-170-8|pages=838–839}}</ref> The inner surface of the cup (the fertile spore-bearing surface, known as the [[hymenium]]) is bright orange-red, while the outer surface (the sterile surface) is pale brown.<ref name="Kuo"/> The [[trama (mycology)|flesh]] is red and thin.<ref name=Schalkwijk-Barendsen1991>{{cite book |author=Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME|title=Mushrooms of Western Canada |publisher=Lone Pine Publishing |location=Edmonton |year=1991 |page=388 |isbn=0-919433-47-2}}</ref> The outer surface is covered in dark coloured, stiff hairs, measuring up to {{convert|1|cm|in|1}} in length. At the base, these hairs are up to {{convert|40|um|in|abbr=on}} thick, and they taper towards the pointed apices. The hairs form distinctive "eyelashes" on the margin of the cup that are visible to the naked eye.<ref name="Phillips">{{cite book |title= Mushrooms and Other Fungi of Great Britain and Europe|author= Phillips R|year= 1981|publisher= [[Pan Books]]|location= London|isbn= 0-330-26441-9|page=273}}</ref> or easily visible through a [[magnifying glass]].<ref name="McKnight"/> ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' is sessile&mdash;it does not have a [[stipe (mycology)|stalk]].<ref name="Arora"/>


''Scutellinia scutellata'' is the [[type species]] of the genus.<ref name="Bi" />
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=== Microscopic features ===


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==Description==
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[[File:Asci and ascospores of Scutellinia scutellata.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Ten numbered black and white sketches of various structures, including: cup-shaped objects, some with hairs, some with open tops and some closed; lines resembling thin filaments |[[Ascus|Asci]] and [[ascospores]] of ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'', drawn by [[Johann Hedwig]] in 1788.]]
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The [[fruiting body]] is a shallow disc shape, typically between {{convert|0.2|to|1|cm|abbr=off|frac=8}} in diameter.<ref name="Phillips"/> The youngest specimens are almost entirely spherical; the cups open up and expand to a disc during maturity.<ref name="Arora">{{cite book|author=Arora D| title=Mushrooms Demystified : a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi| year=1986| location=Berkeley, California| publisher=Ten Speed Press|isbn=0-89815-170-8|pages=838–839}}</ref> The inner surface of the cup (the fertile spore-bearing surface, known as the [[hymenium]]) is bright orange-red, while the outer surface (the sterile surface) is pale brown.<ref name="Kuo">{{cite web |last=Kuo |first=Michael |title=''Scutellinia scutellata'' |url=http://www.mushroomexpert.com/scutellinia_scutellata.html |access-date=1 July 2009 |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}</ref> The [[trama (mycology)|flesh]] is red and thin.<ref name=Schalkwijk-Barendsen1991>{{cite book |author=Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME |title=Mushrooms of Western Canada |publisher=Lone Pine Publishing |location=Edmonton |year=1991 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsofweste0000scha/page/388 388] |isbn=0-919433-47-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsofweste0000scha/page/388 }}</ref> The outer surface is covered in dark coloured, stiff hairs, measuring up to {{convert|1|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=8}} in length. At the base, these hairs are up to {{convert|40|um|in|lk=on|abbr=on|frac=512}} thick, and they taper towards the pointed apices. The hairs form distinctive "eyelashes" on the margin of the cup that are visible to the naked eye.<ref name="Phillips">{{cite book |title= Mushrooms and Other Fungi of Great Britain and Europe|author= Phillips R|year= 1981|publisher= [[Pan Books]]|location= London|isbn= 0-330-26441-9|page=273}}</ref> or easily visible through a [[magnifying glass]].<ref name="McKnight"/> ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' is sessile; it does not have a [[stipe (mycology)|stalk]].<ref name="Arora"/>
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''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' has [[Ascus|asci]] of approximately 300&nbsp;[[micrometre|µm]] by 25&nbsp;µm in size, and releases elliptical spores measuring 18 to 19&nbsp;µm by 10 to 12&nbsp;µm. The translucent ([[hyaline]])<ref name="McKnight">{{cite book |author=McKnight VB|title=A Field Guide to Mushrooms, North America |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |year=1987 |page=63 |isbn=0-395-91090-0}}</ref> [[ascospore]]s have a rough exterior, (with very small warts)<ref name="Arora"/> and contain small droplets of oil.<ref name="Phillips"/> They are white when present in large numbers, like a [[spore print]].<ref name="Evenson"/> The [[paraphyses]] are cylindrical in shape and feature [[septum|septa]] partitioning the [[hypha]] into distinct cells.<ref name="Jordan">{{cite book|author=Jordan M|year=1995|title=The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe|publisher=David & Charles|page=51|isbn=0-7153-0129-2}}</ref> [[Electron microscopy]] of the top of the ascus has revealed a roughly delimited [[Operculum (botany)|operculum]] (a flap-like covering of the ascus) and ascostome (a pore in the apex of the ascus), and a subapical ring.<ref>{{cite journal |author= VanBrummelen J|year=1993 |title=Ultrastructure of the ascus and the ascospore wall in ''Scutellinia'' (Pezizales, Ascomycotina) |journal=Persoonia |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=129–48}}</ref>


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===Microscopic features===
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== Edibility ==
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[[File:Asci and ascospores of Scutellinia scutellata.jpg|thumb|alt=Ten numbered black and white sketches of various structures, including: cup-shaped objects, some with hairs, some with open tops and some closed; lines resembling thin filaments |[[Ascus|Asci]] and [[ascospores]] of ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'', drawn by [[Johann Hedwig]] in 1788]]


⚫
''Scutellinia scutellata'' has [[Ascus|asci]] of approximately 300&nbsp;μm by 25&nbsp;μm in size, and releases elliptical spores measuring 18 to 19&nbsp;μm by 10 to 12&nbsp;μm. The translucent ([[hyaline]])<ref name="McKnight">{{cite book |author=McKnight VB|title=A Field Guide to Mushrooms, North America |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |year=1987 |page=63 |isbn=0-395-91090-0}}</ref> [[ascospore]]s have a rough exterior, (with very small warts)<ref name="Arora"/> and contain small droplets of oil.<ref name="Phillips"/> They are white when present in large numbers, like a [[spore print]].<ref name="Evenson"/> The [[paraphyses]] are cylindrical in shape and feature [[septum|septa]] partitioning the [[hypha]] into distinct cells.<ref name="Jordan">{{cite book|author=Jordan M|year=1995|title=The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe|publisher=David & Charles|page=51|isbn=0-7153-0129-2}}</ref> [[Electron microscopy]] of the top of the ascus has revealed a roughly delimited [[Operculum (botany)|operculum]] (a flap-like covering of the ascus) and ascostome (a pore in the apex of the ascus), and a subapical ring.<ref>{{cite journal |author= VanBrummelen J|year=1993 |title=Ultrastructure of the ascus and the ascospore wall in ''Scutellinia'' (Pezizales, Ascomycotina) |journal=Persoonia |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=129–48}}</ref>
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While some list ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' as inedible,<ref name="Phillips"/><ref name=Kibby1994>{{cite book|author=Kibby G|title=An Illustrated Guide to Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America|publisher=Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd|year=1994 |page=177|isbn=0-681-45384-2}}</ref> others list it as having an unknown edibility.<ref name=Orr1979/> [[David Arora]] considers it too small to be of any culinary interest,<ref name="Arora"/> and it lacks a distinctive smell or taste.<ref name="Jordan"/>


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[[Carotenoids]] are [[pigment]]ed molecules found naturally in plants, and some types of fungi, including ''S.&nbsp;scutellata.'' A 1965 study reported the carotenoid composition of this fungus, found to contain a high proportion of monocyclic carotenes—carotenes with only one [[cyclohexene]] ring, such as [[beta-carotene]]. Also present were minor amounts of [[xanthophyll]], a molecule [[chemical structure|structurally]] related to the carotenes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jensen SL |year=1965 |title=On fungal carotenoids and the natural distribution of spirilloxanthin |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=925–31 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86270-6}}</ref>
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== Distribution and habitat ==


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===Similar species===
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Of more than a dozen species of ''Scutellinia'', ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' is the most common and widespread, though a microscope is required to differentiate between some of them.<ref name="McKnight" /> It is differentiated from most other ''Scutellinia'' by its larger size, and its distinctive "eyelashes".<ref name="Kuo" /> Although [[David Arora]] describes ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' as "easily recognizable",<ref name="Arora" /> it can be mistaken for ''[[Scutellinia umbrarum|S.&nbsp;umbrarum]]'' (which has a larger fruiting body and larger spores, as well as having shorter, less obvious hairs), ''[[Scutellinia erinaceus|S.&nbsp;erinaceus]]'' (which is slightly smaller, and orange to yellow in colour, with smooth spores), ''[[Cheilymenia crucipila]]'' (which is much smaller, with short, pale hairs and spores lacking oil droplets), and ''[[Melastiza chateri]]'' (which is bright orange with small brown hairs).<ref name="Arora" /> The "Pennsylvania eyelash cup" (''[[Scutellinia pennsylvanica|S.&nbsp;pennsylvanica]]'') is a smaller North American version that has smaller hairs and spores that are more coarsely warted than ''S.&nbsp;scutellata''.<ref name="Schalkwijk-Barendsen1991" /> ''S.&nbsp;barlae'' is very similar as well, and can only be reliably distinguished by its roughly spherical ascospores that are typically 17–23&nbsp;μm in diameter.<ref name="Douanla-Meli2005" /> Species from the genus ''[[Lamprospora]]'' are smaller and hairless.<ref name="Arora" /> Similar fungi that [[Coprophilous fungi|favour dung]] over rotting wood include ''[[Cheilymenia coprinaria]]'', ''[[Cheilymenia theleboides|C. theleboides]]'', and ''[[Coprobia granulata]]'' while species such as ''[[Anthracobia macrocystis]]'', ''[[Anthracobia melaloma|A.&nbsp;melaloma]]'', ''[[Trichophaea abundans]]'', ''[[Pyronema omphalodes]]'', ''[[Pulvinula carbonaria]]'' and ''[[Pulvinula archeri|P.&nbsp;archeri]]'' are cup fungi that favour burned-over ground.<ref name="Arora" /> Another similar species is ''[[Lachnellula arida]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=R. Michael |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/797915861 |title=Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America |last2=Sommer |first2=Robert |last3=Menge |first3=John A. |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-520-95360-4 |location=Berkeley |pages=399 |oclc=797915861}}</ref>

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==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Scutellinia scutellata 44944.jpg|thumb|right|alt=three larger, red cup-shaped structures with darker-colored eyelashes on the outer rim. Also present are several dozen smaller structures roughly resembling red-colored ball on sticks. Supporting all of these structures is a moist piece of wood with some moss on it.|''Scutellinia scutellata'' typically grows in groups on rotten wood.]]
[[File:Scutellinia scutellata 44944.jpg|thumb|right|alt=three larger, red cup-shaped structures with darker-colored eyelashes on the outer rim. Also present are several dozen smaller structures roughly resembling red-colored ball on sticks. Supporting all of these structures is a moist piece of wood with some moss on it.|''Scutellinia scutellata'' typically grows in groups on rotten wood.]]
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''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' is common in both Europe, where it can be found from late spring to late autumn,<ref name="Phillips"/> and North America, where it fruits in winter and spring.<ref name="Arora"/> It has also been collected in [[Cameroon]],<ref name=Douanla-Meli2005>{{cite journal |author1=Douanla-Meli C |author2=Langer E |year=2005 |title=Notes on Discomycetes (Helotiales, Pezizales): New species and new records from Cameroon |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=92 |pages=223–37}}</ref> [[Colombia]],<ref>{{cite journal |author= Tobon LE|year= 1991 |title=Ascomycetes of Colombia Discomycetes of the department of Antioquia|journal= Caldasia |volume=16 |issue=78 |pages=327–336|language=Spanish}}</ref> East Asia,<ref name="Bi"/><ref>{{cite journal |author= Chen Z-C|year=1975|title=Notes on new Formosan forest fungi part 2. Some lignicolous fungi |journal=Taiwania |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=201–212 |url=http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/taiwania/pdf/tai.1975.20.2.201.pdf}}</ref> India,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Batra LR |author2=Batra SWT |year=1963 |title=Indian Discomycetes |journal=University of Kansas Science Bulletin |volume=44 |issue=1/14 |pages=109–256}}</ref> [[Iceland]],<ref>{{cite journal |author= Hallgrimsonn|year=1989 |title=The genus ''Scutellinia'' Cooke Lamb. in Iceland |journal=Natturufraedingurinn |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=133–40 |language=Icelandic}}</ref> Israel,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nemlich H |author2=Avizoharhershenzon Z |year=1976 |title=Pezizales of Israel .4. Humariaceae (B) |journal=Israel Journal of Botany |volume=25 |issue=1–2 |pages=41–52}}</ref> [[New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Otani Y|year= 1971 |title=Mycological reports from New Guinea and the Solomon Islands part 3. Enumeration of the Sarcoscyphaceae and ''Scutellinia humariaceae''<tt></tt> |journal=Bulletin of the National Science Museum, Tokyo |volume= 14|issue=3 |pages=401–422}}</ref> Russia,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stepanova OA|year=1973|title=Fungi on felling debris in spruce forests of the Leningrad region. Part 1<tt></tt> |journal=Mikologiya i Fitopatologiya |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=386–91|language=Russian}}</ref> and Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dogan HH|year=2006|title=Macrofungi and their distribution in Karaman province, Turkey |journal=Turkish Journal of Botany |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=193–207}}</ref>


⚫
''Scutellinia scutellata'' is common in both Europe, where it can be found from late spring to late autumn,<ref name="Phillips"/> and North America, where it fruits in winter and spring.<ref name="Arora"/> It has also been collected in [[Cameroon]],<ref name=Douanla-Meli2005>{{cite journal |author1=Douanla-Meli C |author2=Langer E |year=2005 |title=Notes on Discomycetes (Helotiales, Pezizales): New species and new records from Cameroon |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=92 |pages=223–37}}</ref> [[Colombia]],<ref>{{cite journal |author= Tobon LE|year= 1991 |title=Ascomycetes of Colombia Discomycetes of the department of Antioquia|journal= Caldasia |volume=16 |issue=78 |pages=327–336|language=Spanish}}</ref> East Asia,<ref name="Bi"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Chen Z-C |year=1975 |title=Notes on new Formosan forest fungi part 2. Some lignicolous fungi |journal=Taiwania |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=201–212 |url=http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/taiwania/pdf/tai.1975.20.2.201.pdf |access-date=2015-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110212931/http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/taiwania/pdf/tai.1975.20.2.201.pdf |archive-date=2015-01-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> India,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Batra LR |author2=Batra SWT |year=1963 |title=Indian Discomycetes |journal=University of Kansas Science Bulletin |volume=44 |issue=1/14 |pages=109–256}}</ref> [[Iceland]],<ref>{{cite journal |author= Hallgrimsonn|year=1989 |title=The genus ''Scutellinia'' Cooke Lamb. in Iceland |journal=Natturufraedingurinn |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=133–40 |language=Icelandic}}</ref> Israel,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nemlich H |author2=Avizoharhershenzon Z |year=1976 |title=Pezizales of Israel .4. Humariaceae (B) |journal=Israel Journal of Botany |volume=25 |issue=1–2 |pages=41–52}}</ref> [[New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Otani Y|year= 1971 |title=Mycological reports from New Guinea and the Solomon Islands part 3. Enumeration of the Sarcoscyphaceae and ''Scutellinia humariaceae'' |journal=Bulletin of the National Science Museum, Tokyo |volume= 14|issue=3 |pages=401–422}}</ref> Russia,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stepanova OA|year=1973|title=Fungi on felling debris in spruce forests of the Leningrad region. Part 1 |journal=Mikologiya i Fitopatologiya |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=386–91|language=Russian}}</ref> and Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dogan HH|year=2006|title=Macrofungi and their distribution in Karaman province, Turkey |journal=Turkish Journal of Botany |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=193–207}}</ref>
⚫
A [[saprobic]] species, it grows generally in [[subalpine]] regions,<ref name="Evenson">{{cite book |author=Evenson VS|title=Mushrooms of Colorado and the Southern Rocky Mountains |publisher=Westcliffe Publishers |location=Englewood, Colo |year=1997 |page=189 |isbn=1-56579-192-4}}</ref> fruiting on rotten wood and damp soil,<ref name="Phillips"/> and can also sometimes be found on ashes, wet leaves or [[bracket fungus|bracket fungi]].<ref name="Arora"/> In [[Alaska]] it has been found growing on [[humus]] in the [[tundra]].<ref name=Orr1979>{{cite book |author1=Orr DB |author2=Orr RT |title=Mushrooms of Western North America |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1979 |page=28 |isbn=0-520-03656-5}}</ref> A six-year study of the succession of fungal flora appearing on freshly cut stumps of [[Poplar trees]] (''[[Populus canadensis]]'') showed that ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' appeared roughly in the middle of the fungal succession (about 2&ndash;4 years after the tree had been cut), along with the species ''[[Ascocoryne sarcoides]]'', ''[[Scutellinia cervorum]]'', and ''[[Lasiosphaeria spermoides]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Runge A|year=1982 |title=Succession of fungi on Poplar ''Populus canadensis'' stumps |journal=Zeitschrift für Mykologie |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=133–40 |language=German}}</ref> When growing on wood, it is often obscured by surrounding moss.<ref name="Jordan"/> Though sometimes found alone, they typically fruit in groups,<ref name="Evenson"/> sometimes forming dense clusters on rotting wood or other plant detritus.<ref name="McKnight"/> Due to its small size, it is often overlooked,<ref name="Arora"/> but mycologist Vera Evenson has observed that "the discovery of the Eyelash Cup is always a great pleasure", due to "the beauty of the eyelashes".<ref name="Evenson"/> Vera McKnight describes it as "a most attractive little fungus", and claims it is easy to notice due to its bright colouration.<ref name="McKnight"/>


⚫
A [[saprobic]] species, it grows generally in [[subalpine]] regions,<ref name="Evenson">{{cite book |author=Evenson VS|title=Mushrooms of Colorado and the Southern Rocky Mountains |publisher=Westcliffe Publishers |location=Englewood, Colo |year=1997 |page=189 |isbn=1-56579-192-4}}</ref> fruiting on rotten wood and damp soil,<ref name="Phillips"/> and can also sometimes be found on ashes, wet leaves or [[bracket fungus|bracket fungi]].<ref name="Arora"/> In [[Alaska]] it has been found growing on [[humus]] in the [[tundra]].<ref name=Orr1979>{{cite book |author1=Orr DB |author2=Orr RT |title=Mushrooms of Western North America |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1979 |page=28 |isbn=0-520-03656-5}}</ref> A six-year study of the succession of fungal flora appearing on freshly cut stumps of [[poplar trees]] (''[[Populus canadensis]]'') showed that ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' appeared roughly in the middle of the fungal succession (about 2&ndash;4 years after the tree had been cut), along with the species ''[[Ascocoryne sarcoides]]'', ''[[Scutellinia cervorum]]'', and ''[[Lasiosphaeria spermoides]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Runge A|year=1982 |title=Succession of fungi on Poplar ''Populus canadensis'' stumps |journal=Zeitschrift für Mykologie |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=133–40 |language=German}}</ref> When growing on wood, it is often obscured by surrounding moss.<ref name="Jordan"/> Though sometimes found alone, they typically fruit in groups,<ref name="Evenson"/> sometimes forming dense clusters on rotting wood or other plant detritus.<ref name="McKnight"/> Due to its small size, it is often overlooked,<ref name="Arora"/> but mycologist Vera Evenson has observed that "the discovery of the Eyelash Cup is always a great pleasure", due to "the beauty of the eyelashes".<ref name="Evenson"/> Vera McKnight describes it as "a most attractive little fungus", and claims it is easy to notice due to its bright colouration.<ref name="McKnight"/>
== Carotenoids ==


⚫
==Edibility==
⚫
The [[carotenoids]] are [[pigment]]ed molecules found naturally in plants, and some types of fungi, including ''S.&nbsp;scutellata.'' A 1965 study reported the carotenoid composition of this fungus, found to contain a high proportion of monocyclic carotenes—carotenes with only one [[cyclohexene]] ring, such as [[beta-carotene]]. Also present were minor amounts of [[xanthophyll]], a molecule [[chemical structure|structurally]] related to the carotenes.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Jensen SL|title=On fungal carotenoids and the natural distribution of spirilloxanthin |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=925–31 |doi= 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86270-6 |year= 1965}}</ref>
⚫
While some list ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' as inedible,<ref name="Phillips"/><ref name=Kibby1994>{{cite book|author=Kibby G|title=An Illustrated Guide to Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America|publisher=Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd|year=1994 |page=177|isbn=0-681-45384-2}}</ref> others list it as having an unknown edibility.<ref name=Orr1979/> [[David Arora]] considers it too small to be of any culinary interest,<ref name="Arora"/> and it lacks a distinctive smell or taste.<ref name="Jordan"/>

⚫
== Similar species ==

⚫
Of more than a dozen species of ''[[Scutellinia]]'', ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' is the most common and widespread, though a microscope is required to differentiate between some of them.<ref name="McKnight"/> It is also the [[type species]] of the genus.<ref name="Bi"/> It is differentiated from most other ''Scutellinia'' by its larger size, and its distinctive "eyelashes".<ref name="Kuo">{{cite web |last= Kuo|first= Michael|title= ''Scutellinia scutellata''|url= http://www.mushroomexpert.com/scutellinia_scutellata.html|publisher= MushroomExpert.com|accessdate=1 July 2009}}</ref> Although [[David Arora]] describes ''S.&nbsp;scutellata'' as "easily recognizable",<ref name="Arora"/> it can be mistaken for ''[[Scutellinia umbrarum|S.&nbsp;umbrarum]]'' (which has a larger fruiting body and larger spores, as well as having shorter, less obvious hairs) ''[[Scutellinia erinaceus|S.&nbsp;erinaceus]]'' (which is slightly smaller, and orange to yellow in colour, with smooth spores), ''[[Cheilymenia crucipila]]'' (which is much smaller, with short, pale hairs and spores lacking oil droplets) and ''[[Melastiza chateri]]'', which is bright orange with small brown hairs.<ref name="Arora"/> The "Pennsylvania eyelash cup" (''[[Scutellinia pennsylvanica|S.&nbsp;pennsylvanica]]'') is a smaller North American version that has smaller hairs and spores that are more coarsely warted than ''S.&nbsp;scutellata''.<ref name=Schalkwijk-Barendsen1991/> ''S.&nbsp;barlae'' is very similar as well, and can only be reliably distinguished by its roughly spherical ascospores that are typically 17–23&nbsp;&nbsp;µm in diameter.<ref name=Douanla-Meli2005/> Species from the genus ''[[Lamprospora]]'' are smaller and hairless.<ref name="Arora"/> Similar fungi that [[Coprophilous fungi|favour dung]] over rotting wood include ''[[Cheilymenia coprinaria]]'', ''[[Cheilymenia theleboides|C. theleboides]]'', and ''[[Coprobia granulata]]'' while species such as ''[[Anthracobia macrocystis]]'', ''[[Anthracobia melaloma]]'', ''[[Trichophaea abundans]]'', ''[[Pyronema omphalodes]]'', ''[[Pulvinula carbonaria]]'' and ''[[Pulvinula archeri]]'' are cup fungi that favour burned-over ground.<ref name="Arora"/>


== References ==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{Commons|Scutellinia scutellata}}
{{Commons-inline|Scutellinia scutellata}}


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{{Good article}}
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{{Taxonbar|from=Q651422}}


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[[Category:Eyelash]]
[[Category:Human eyelashes]]
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[[Category:Fungi of Iceland]]
[[Category:Fungi without expected TNC conservation status]]
[[Category:Fungus species]]

Latest revision as of 06:46, 19 May 2024

Scutellinia scutellata
Two orangish-red colored, cup-shaped structures with dark-brown eyelashes growing on the outer rim. The two structures are sitting next to each other, growing on a piece of wood.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Pezizomycetes
Order: Pezizales
Family: Pyronemataceae
Genus: Scutellinia
Species:
S. scutellata
Binomial name
Scutellinia scutellata
(L.) Lamb. (1887)
Synonyms
  • Patella scutellata (L.) Morgan (1902)
Scutellinia scutellata
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Smooth hymenium
Hymenium attachment is not applicable
Lacks a stipe
Spore print is white
Ecology is saprotrophic
Edibility is inedible

Scutellinia scutellata, commonly known as the eyelash pixie cup,[1] eyelash cup, the Molly eye-winker, the scarlet elf cap, the eyelash fungus or the eyelash pixie cup, is a small saprophytic fungus in the family Pyronemataceae. It is the type species of Scutellinia, as well as being the most common and widespread. The fruiting bodies are small red cups with distinctive long, dark hairs or "eyelashes". These eyelashes are the most distinctive feature and are easily visible with a magnifying glass.

The species is common in North America and Europe, and has been recorded on every continent. It is found on rotting wood and in other damp habitats, typically growing in small groups, sometimes forming clusters. It is sometimes described as inedible, with its small size also rendering it of no culinary interest. Despite this, it is popular among mushroom hunters due to its unusual "eyelash" hairs, making it memorable and easy to identify.

Taxonomy

[edit]

Scutellinia scutellata was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in his book Species Plantarum as Peziza scutellata, and it was given its current name by Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte in Memoires societe royale des sciences de Liege in 1887. It was also named Patella scutellata in 1902.[2] The specific name scutellata is from the Latin for "like a small shield".[3] Common names include the eyelash fungus,[4] the eyelash cup,[3] the scarlet elf cap,[5] the Molly eye-winker[6] and the eyelash pixie cup.[7]

The genus Scutellinia is currently placed in the family Pyronemataceae. However, genera of the Pyronemataceae lack unifying macroscopic or microscopic characteristics; this lack of uniting characters has led various authors to propose a variety of classification schemes.[8][9][10] A 1996 study of British specimens of Scutellinia revealed that the species S. crinita, originally described as Peziza crinita in 1789 by French botanist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard, was synonymous with S. scutellata.[11]

Scutellinia scutellata is the type species of the genus.[2]

Description

[edit]

The fruiting body is a shallow disc shape, typically between 0.2 to 1 centimetre (1⁄8 to 3⁄8 inch) in diameter.[4] The youngest specimens are almost entirely spherical; the cups open up and expand to a disc during maturity.[7] The inner surface of the cup (the fertile spore-bearing surface, known as the hymenium) is bright orange-red, while the outer surface (the sterile surface) is pale brown.[12] The flesh is red and thin.[13] The outer surface is covered in dark coloured, stiff hairs, measuring up to 1 cm (3⁄8 in) in length. At the base, these hairs are up to 40 μm (1⁄512 in) thick, and they taper towards the pointed apices. The hairs form distinctive "eyelashes" on the margin of the cup that are visible to the naked eye.[4] or easily visible through a magnifying glass.[14] S. scutellata is sessile; it does not have a stalk.[7]

Microscopic features

[edit]
Ten numbered black and white sketches of various structures, including: cup-shaped objects, some with hairs, some with open tops and some closed; lines resembling thin filaments
Asci and ascospores of S. scutellata, drawn by Johann Hedwig in 1788

Scutellinia scutellata has asci of approximately 300 μm by 25 μm in size, and releases elliptical spores measuring 18 to 19 μm by 10 to 12 μm. The translucent (hyaline)[14] ascospores have a rough exterior, (with very small warts)[7] and contain small droplets of oil.[4] They are white when present in large numbers, like a spore print.[3] The paraphyses are cylindrical in shape and feature septa partitioning the hypha into distinct cells.[15] Electron microscopy of the top of the ascus has revealed a roughly delimited operculum (a flap-like covering of the ascus) and ascostome (a pore in the apex of the ascus), and a subapical ring.[16]

Carotenoids are pigmented molecules found naturally in plants, and some types of fungi, including S. scutellata. A 1965 study reported the carotenoid composition of this fungus, found to contain a high proportion of monocyclic carotenes—carotenes with only one cyclohexene ring, such as beta-carotene. Also present were minor amounts of xanthophyll, a molecule structurally related to the carotenes.[17]

Similar species

[edit]

Of more than a dozen species of Scutellinia, S. scutellata is the most common and widespread, though a microscope is required to differentiate between some of them.[14] It is differentiated from most other Scutellinia by its larger size, and its distinctive "eyelashes".[12] Although David Arora describes S. scutellata as "easily recognizable",[7] it can be mistaken for S. umbrarum (which has a larger fruiting body and larger spores, as well as having shorter, less obvious hairs), S. erinaceus (which is slightly smaller, and orange to yellow in colour, with smooth spores), Cheilymenia crucipila (which is much smaller, with short, pale hairs and spores lacking oil droplets), and Melastiza chateri (which is bright orange with small brown hairs).[7] The "Pennsylvania eyelash cup" (S. pennsylvanica) is a smaller North American version that has smaller hairs and spores that are more coarsely warted than S. scutellata.[13] S. barlae is very similar as well, and can only be reliably distinguished by its roughly spherical ascospores that are typically 17–23 μm in diameter.[18] Species from the genus Lamprospora are smaller and hairless.[7] Similar fungi that favour dung over rotting wood include Cheilymenia coprinaria, C. theleboides, and Coprobia granulata while species such as Anthracobia macrocystis, A. melaloma, Trichophaea abundans, Pyronema omphalodes, Pulvinula carbonaria and P. archeri are cup fungi that favour burned-over ground.[7] Another similar species is Lachnellula arida.[19]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
three larger, red cup-shaped structures with darker-colored eyelashes on the outer rim. Also present are several dozen smaller structures roughly resembling red-colored ball on sticks. Supporting all of these structures is a moist piece of wood with some moss on it.
Scutellinia scutellata typically grows in groups on rotten wood.

Scutellinia scutellata is common in both Europe, where it can be found from late spring to late autumn,[4] and North America, where it fruits in winter and spring.[7] It has also been collected in Cameroon,[18] Colombia,[20] East Asia,[2][21] India,[22] Iceland,[23] Israel,[24] New Guinea and the Solomon Islands,[25] Russia,[26] and Turkey.[27]

A saprobic species, it grows generally in subalpine regions,[3] fruiting on rotten wood and damp soil,[4] and can also sometimes be found on ashes, wet leaves or bracket fungi.[7] In Alaska it has been found growing on humus in the tundra.[28] A six-year study of the succession of fungal flora appearing on freshly cut stumps of poplar trees (Populus canadensis) showed that S. scutellata appeared roughly in the middle of the fungal succession (about 2–4 years after the tree had been cut), along with the species Ascocoryne sarcoides, Scutellinia cervorum, and Lasiosphaeria spermoides.[29] When growing on wood, it is often obscured by surrounding moss.[15] Though sometimes found alone, they typically fruit in groups,[3] sometimes forming dense clusters on rotting wood or other plant detritus.[14] Due to its small size, it is often overlooked,[7] but mycologist Vera Evenson has observed that "the discovery of the Eyelash Cup is always a great pleasure", due to "the beauty of the eyelashes".[3] Vera McKnight describes it as "a most attractive little fungus", and claims it is easy to notice due to its bright colouration.[14]

Edibility

[edit]

While some list S. scutellata as inedible,[4][30] others list it as having an unknown edibility.[28] David Arora considers it too small to be of any culinary interest,[7] and it lacks a distinctive smell or taste.[15]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi (Second ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-0-89815-169-5.
  2. ^ a b c Bi Z; Zheng G; Li T (1993). The Macrofungus Flora of China's Guangdong Province. Chinese University Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-962-201-556-2.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Evenson VS (1997). Mushrooms of Colorado and the Southern Rocky Mountains. Englewood, Colo: Westcliffe Publishers. p. 189. ISBN 1-56579-192-4.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Phillips R (1981). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of Great Britain and Europe. London: Pan Books. p. 273. ISBN 0-330-26441-9.
  5. ^ Zwinger, A. H. (2002). Beyond the Aspen Grove. Boulder, Colo.: Johnson Books. p. 358. ISBN 978-1-55566-279-0.
  6. ^ Emberger G. "Scutellinia scutellata". Messiah College. Retrieved 1 July 2009.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Arora D (1986). Mushrooms Demystified : a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp. 838–839. ISBN 0-89815-170-8.
  8. ^ Kimbrough JW (1989). "Arguments towards restricting the limits of the Pyronemataceae (Ascomycetes, Pezizales)". Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden. 49: 326–35.
  9. ^ Eckblad F-E (1968). "The genera of operculate Discomycetes. A re-evaluation of their taxonomy, phylogeny and nomenclature". Norwegian Journal of Botany. 15: 1–191.
  10. ^ Korf RP (1972). "Synoptic key to the genera of Pezizales". Mycologia. 64 (5): 937–94. doi:10.2307/3758070. JSTOR 3758070.
  11. ^ Yao YJ; Spooner BM (1996). "Notes on British species of Scutellinia". Mycological Research. 100 (7): 859–65. doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(96)80035-9.
  12. ^ a b Kuo, Michael. "Scutellinia scutellata". MushroomExpert.com. Retrieved 1 July 2009.
  13. ^ a b Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME (1991). Mushrooms of Western Canada. Edmonton: Lone Pine Publishing. p. 388. ISBN 0-919433-47-2.
  14. ^ a b c d e McKnight VB (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms, North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 63. ISBN 0-395-91090-0.
  15. ^ a b c Jordan M (1995). The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe. David & Charles. p. 51. ISBN 0-7153-0129-2.
  16. ^ VanBrummelen J (1993). "Ultrastructure of the ascus and the ascospore wall in Scutellinia (Pezizales, Ascomycotina)". Persoonia. 15 (2): 129–48.
  17. ^ Jensen SL (1965). "On fungal carotenoids and the natural distribution of spirilloxanthin". Phytochemistry. 4 (6): 925–31. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86270-6.
  18. ^ a b Douanla-Meli C; Langer E (2005). "Notes on Discomycetes (Helotiales, Pezizales): New species and new records from Cameroon". Mycotaxon. 92: 223–37.
  19. ^ Davis, R. Michael; Sommer, Robert; Menge, John A. (2012). Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 399. ISBN 978-0-520-95360-4. OCLC 797915861.
  20. ^ Tobon LE (1991). "Ascomycetes of Colombia Discomycetes of the department of Antioquia". Caldasia (in Spanish). 16 (78): 327–336.
  21. ^ Chen Z-C (1975). "Notes on new Formosan forest fungi part 2. Some lignicolous fungi" (PDF). Taiwania. 20 (2): 201–212. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-01-10. Retrieved 2015-01-10.
  22. ^ Batra LR; Batra SWT (1963). "Indian Discomycetes". University of Kansas Science Bulletin. 44 (1/14): 109–256.
  23. ^ Hallgrimsonn (1989). "The genus Scutellinia Cooke Lamb. in Iceland". Natturufraedingurinn (in Icelandic). 59 (3): 133–40.
  24. ^ Nemlich H; Avizoharhershenzon Z (1976). "Pezizales of Israel .4. Humariaceae (B)". Israel Journal of Botany. 25 (1–2): 41–52.
  25. ^ Otani Y (1971). "Mycological reports from New Guinea and the Solomon Islands part 3. Enumeration of the Sarcoscyphaceae and Scutellinia humariaceae". Bulletin of the National Science Museum, Tokyo. 14 (3): 401–422.
  26. ^ Stepanova OA (1973). "Fungi on felling debris in spruce forests of the Leningrad region. Part 1". Mikologiya i Fitopatologiya (in Russian). 7 (5): 386–91.
  27. ^ Dogan HH (2006). "Macrofungi and their distribution in Karaman province, Turkey". Turkish Journal of Botany. 30 (3): 193–207.
  28. ^ a b Orr DB; Orr RT (1979). Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-520-03656-5.
  29. ^ Runge A (1982). "Succession of fungi on Poplar Populus canadensis stumps". Zeitschrift für Mykologie (in German). 48 (1): 133–40.
  30. ^ Kibby G (1994). An Illustrated Guide to Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America. Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd. p. 177. ISBN 0-681-45384-2.
[edit]

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