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{{Short description|Bantu language spoken in southeast Africa}}
{{Unreferenced|date=October 2007}}
{{about|the African language|the group of Southeast Asian languages|Mienic languages|the extinct language of Trinidad|Yao language (Trinidad)}}
'''Yao''' (ChiYao, Achawa, Adsawa, Adsoa, Ajawa, Ayawa, Ayo, Ayao, Djao, Haiao, Hiao, Hyao, Jao, Veiao, WaJao - SIL code [yao]) is a [[Bantu language]] in [[Africa]] with approximately 1 million speakers in [[Malawi]], half a million in [[Tanzania]], and around 450,000 in [[Mozambique]]. There are also some speakers in [[Zambia]], made up mainly of contracted labourers who live semi-nomadically. In Malawi, the main dialect is Mangoche, mostly around Lake Malawi. In Mozambique, the main dialects are Makale and Massaninga.


{{Infobox language
Though the Yao have had a history of cultural abuse at the hands of [[Arab]], [[UK|British]], [[Germany|German]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colonists, the tribe is at last gaining recognition as having one of the most important languages in the region, and dictionaries and grammars have been written.
|name = Yao
|nativename = {{lang|yao|chiYao}}
|pronunciation =
|states = [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Tanzania]]
|region =
| minority = {{flag|Malawi}}
| ethnicity = [[Yao people (East Africa)|Yao]]
|speakers = {{sigfig|3.728000|2}} million
|date = 2017–2020
|ref = e26
|familycolor = Niger-Congo
|fam2 = [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]
|fam3=[[Volta-Congo]]
|fam4 = [[Benue–Congo languages|Benue–Congo]]
|fam5 = [[Bantoid languages|Bantoid]]
|fam6=[[Southern Bantoid]]
|fam7 = [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]
|fam8 = [[Rufiji–Ruvuma languages|Rufiji–Ruvuma]]
|fam9 = [[Rufiji–Ruvuma languages|Ruvuma]]
|fam10 = [[Rufiji–Ruvuma languages|Yao]]–[[Mwera language|Mwera]]
|iso2 = yao
|iso3 = yao
|glotto=yaoo1241
|glottorefname=Yao
|guthrie=P.21
|script = [[Latin script|Latin]]
|notice = IPA
}}
{{Infobox Bantu name|'Myao|[[Yao people (East Africa)|WaYao]]|chiYao|Uyao<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MPMRAAAAYAAJ&q=waYao+chiyao&pg=PR143|title=The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|date=25 April 1872|publisher=Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|via=Google Books}}</ref>}}


'''Yao''' is a [[Bantu language]] in [[Africa]] with approximately two million speakers in [[Malawi]], and half a million each in [[Tanzania]] and [[Mozambique]]. There are also some speakers in [[Zambia]]. In Malawi, the main dialect is Mangochi, mostly spoken around [[Lake Malawi]]. In Mozambique, the main dialects are Makale and Massaninga. The language has also gone by several other names in English, including chiYao or ciYao (the prefixed form), Achawa, Adsawa, Adsoa, Ajawa, Ayawa, Ayo, Ayao, Djao, Haiao, Hiao, Hyao, Jao, Veiao, and waJao.<ref name=e26/>
== Phonetics and Orthography ==


In Malawi, most Yao speakers live in the Southern Region near the southeast tip of [[Lake Malawi]] and bordering [[Mozambique]] to the east. In Mozambique most speakers live in [[Niassa Province]] from the eastern shore of Lake Malawi ({{lang|pt-MQ|Lago Niassa}}) to the [[Lugenda River]] up to where it meets the [[Rovuma River]]. In [[Tanzania]] most speakers live in the south central, [[Mtwara Region]], Masasi district and in the Ruvuma Region, [[Tunduru]] district, east of Lake Malawi along the Mozambican border.
As in English, unvoiced [[plosives]] are breathed and voiced [[plosives]] are not. The five main South and Central Bantu vowels (pure a, e, i, o, u) apply. However, there is more variation than usual in vowel length.


In common with very many vernacular languages in Africa, it has historically enjoyed little official recognition, and literary work in the region where Yao is spoken has taken place in such languages as Arabic, English, German and Portuguese.
In each of the main three countries where Yao is spoken, the [[orthography]] differs widely. This is mainly due to the extremely low literacy rate (5%). This is partially reflected in the vast indecision about the actual spelling of the name of the language itself, though much of these is more reflective of European ignorance of the Yao people. In Tanzania, the orthography is based on that of Swahili, whereas in Malawi it is based on that of Chewa.


== Phonology ==
The Malawian form, based on the English alphabet before phonetics became a science, uses the following characters:
The [[phonology]] of Yao is shown below.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ngunga|first=Armindo Saúl Atelela|title=Lexical Phonology and Morphology in the Ciyao Verb Stem|publisher=Ann Arbor: UMI|year=1997}}</ref>
=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|p}}
|{{IPAlink|t}}
|{{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}
|{{IPAlink|k}}
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|b}}
|{{IPAlink|d}}
|{{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}}
|{{IPAlink|ɡ}}
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
|
|{{IPAlink|s}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPAlink|m}}
|{{IPAlink|n}}
|{{IPAlink|ɲ}}
|{{IPAlink|ŋ}}
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant]]
|{{IPAlink|ʋ}}
|{{IPAlink|l}}
|{{IPAlink|j}}
|{{IPAlink|w}}
|}


*
A,a B,b Ch,ch D,d E,e G,g I,i J,j K,k L,l Ly,ly M,m N,n Ng',ng' Ny,ny O,o P,p S,s T,t U,u W,w, Ŵ,ŵ Y,y


=== Vowels ===
Note:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
J is sometimes written Dy.
!
T is aspirated; P and K are not.
![[Front vowel|Front]]
Ny and Ly are palatal.
![[Central vowel|Central]]
Ng' is the phonetic [ŋ] (like 'ng' in 'ring')
![[Back vowel|Back]]
S is retroflex.
|-
Ŵ is the phonetic [ʋ].
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPAlink|i}} &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; {{IPAlink|iː}}
|
|{{IPAlink|u}} &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; {{IPAlink|uː}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPAlink|e}} &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; {{IPAlink|eː}}
|
|{{IPAlink|o}} &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; {{IPAlink|oː}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPAlink|a}} &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; {{IPAlink|aː}}
|
|}

===Tones===
Like most [[Bantu languages]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] plays a role in Yao phonology and morphology. See [[Al Mtenje|Mtenje]] (1990) for discussion of Malawian Yao tone. See Ngunga (1997) for detailed presentation of the segmental phonology of Mozambican Yao.

== Orthography ==

As in English, unvoiced [[plosives]] are aspirated and voiced [[plosives]] are not. There are conventionally only five 'pure' vowels, viz. a, e, i, o, u, though there is some variation in vowel length. Yao is minimally [[tone (linguistics)|tonal language]], as is common in Bantu languages.

In each of the main three countries where Yao is spoken, the [[orthography]] differs widely, and there is a low literacy rate. In Tanzania, the orthography is based on that of [[Swahili language|Swahili]], whereas in Malawi it is based on that of [[Chewa language|Chewa]]. The Malawian form uses the following characters:

{|class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto;"
|-align="center"
|align="right"|Letter: || A || B || Ch || D || E || G || I || J/Dy || K || L || Ly || M || N || Ng' || Ny || O || P || S || T || U || W || Ŵ || Y
|-align="center"
|align="right"|[[help:IPA|Value]]: || {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|tʃ}} || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|e}}~{{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|dʒ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|l}} ||{{IPA|ʎ}} || {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ɔ}}~{{IPA|o}} || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|ʂ}} || {{IPA|tʰ}} || {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|w}} || {{IPA|ʋ}} || {{IPA|j}}
|}


Macrons and microns can be used to prevent ambiguity that would otherwise arise due to no representation of vowel length.
[[Macron (diacritic)|Macrons]] can be used to prevent ambiguity that would otherwise arise due to the lack of representation of vowel length.<ref name = "sanderson">Sanderson, Meredith (1922). ''A Yao Grammar''. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London.</ref><ref name = "ngunga">Ngunga, Armindo (2002). "Elementos de gramática da língua Yao". Imprensa Universitária, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo.</ref>


== Grammar ==
== Grammar ==


Like all Bantu languages, Yao has a set form of verbal inflection and a variety of noun classes. It is mainly reflective of the Central 'P' group of Bantu languages.
Yao is an [[SVO language]]. Like all Bantu languages, Yao is [[agglutinative]], with a highly regular paradigm of verbal inflection, and its nouns placed in a variety of classes indicated by prefixes, these partially corresponding to actual categories of objects or people. To each class is associated a ''characteristic'', used in the formation of pronouns and ''concord links'', prefixes used before verbs governed by, and adjectives describing, a noun of the given class.


=== Noun classes ===
=== Noun classes ===
Line 32: Line 132:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! header Class
! Class
! header Prefix
! Prefix
! header Class characteristic
! Class characteristic
! Used for
! Used for
|-
|-
Line 93: Line 193:
|-
|-
| 12
| 12
| tu-
| tu
| plurals of class 13
|-
| 13
| ka-
| ka-
| ka
| ka
| diminutives singular
| diminutives singular
|-
| 13
| tu-
| tu
| plurals of class 13
|-
|-
| 14
| 14
Line 107: Line 207:
| collective and abstract, no plural; also some singulars of class 6
| collective and abstract, no plural; also some singulars of class 6
|-
|-
| 15a
| 15
| ku, kw-
| ku, kw-
| ku
| ku
| infinitives
| infinitives
|-
| 15b
| (ku-, kwa-)
| ku
| locality (to) (not strictly nouns)
|-
|-
| 16
| 16
Line 122: Line 217:
| locality (at)
| locality (at)
|-
|-
| 9
| 17
| (ku-, kwa-)
| ku
| locality (to)
|-
| 18
| (mu-, mwa-)
| (mu-, mwa-)
| mu
| mu
Line 128: Line 228:
|}
|}


The corresponding concord links are identical to the nominal prefixes except in the cases of classes 1 and 2, which have concord links 'mb-' and 'a-' respectively. The convention of including classes 16, 17 and 18 deviates from the traditional Bantu system, their prefixes being more properly prepositional or case determiners.
Note that the classes 15b, 16 and 17 are unusual in the mainstream Bantu system in being considered classes, while actually being prepositional prefixes or case prefixes.
Also, classes 1 and 2 are somewhat irregular, with concord links mb- and a- respectively.


=== Verbal forms ===
=== Verbal forms ===


The personal forms are (less polite forms in brackets):
The personal forms are given below, with informal forms given in brackets.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! header Personal form prefix
! Personal form prefix
! header English equivalent (pronoun)
! English equivalent (pronoun)
|-
|-
| n-, ni-
| n-, ni-
Line 161: Line 260:
There are affirmative and negative forms of the verb, each with approximately the following divisions:
There are affirmative and negative forms of the verb, each with approximately the following divisions:


==== Indicative mood (ends in 'a') ====
==== Indicative mood ====


[[Present tense|Present]], Immediate future, [[Present perfect]] (irregular), [[Past tense|past]] and Past perfect (irregular).
As in many Bantu languages, this is characterised by an ending 'a'. Present, immediate future, present perfect, past and past perfect tenses are distinguished, the last being irregular in formation.


==== Subjunctive mood ====
==== Subjunctive mood ====
Same as indicative, but as in most Bantu languages, the final 'a' is changed to 'e'. It can be used as a polite imperative.
The subjunctive mood is similar in form to the indicative, but as in many Bantu languages, the final 'a' is changed to 'e'. It can be used as a polite imperative, and is usually associated with subordinate clauses.


==== Imperative ====
==== Imperative ====
Use the simple stem n+indicative, or add the continuative suffix (eg. -ga or -je).
To form the 'ordinary' (often less polite) imperative, the simple stem may be used, or 'n' may be prefixed to the indicative, or the continuative suffixes '-ga' or '-je' may be added.


=== Pronouns ===
=== Pronouns ===


The [[personal pronoun]]s relate only to classes 1 and 2. Other pronouns are formed from the class links. Note that these pronouns, like most Bantu personal pronouns, are absolute (cf. French 'moi'). The third person pronouns depend on noun class.
The [[personal pronoun]]s relate only to classes 1 and 2. Other pronouns are formed from the class links. These pronouns, as a common Bantu feature, are absolute, in that they stand alone from the rest of the sentence: for nominative accusative and prepositional forms, affixes must be used. The third person pronouns depend on noun class, as explained above.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! header Absolute pronoun
! Absolute pronoun
! header English equivalent (subject pronoun, object pronoun)
! English equivalent (subject pronoun, object pronoun)
|-
|-
| une
| une
Line 195: Line 294:
These forms may be combined according to certain normal Bantu laws of vowel elision with prefixes such as 'na' (with, and).
These forms may be combined according to certain normal Bantu laws of vowel elision with prefixes such as 'na' (with, and).


There are also several demonstratives, which tend to ome in threes ('this one', 'that one nearby', and 'that one far away').
There are also several demonstratives, most of which form triples ('this one', 'that one nearby', and 'that one far away')- that is, triple deixis is used.

==See also==
* [[Yao people (East Africa)]]
* [[Bantu languages]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* [http://www.sdnp.org.mw/research/cls/csl.html Centre for Language Studies] (Zomba, Malawi) "[http://www.chiyao.org/orthography/CLS-Ciyawo-Amendments-2010.pdf Amendments and/or Additional Rules to Ciyawo Orthography 2010]"
* Dicks, Ian & Dollar, Shawn (2010) "[http://www.chiyao.org/resources/understanding_ciyawo.html A Practical Guide to Understanding Ciyawo]"
* Hetherwick, Alexander (1889), "[https://archive.org/details/introductoryhan00hethgoog Introductory Handbook of the Yao Language]"
* Hetherwick, Alexander (1902), "[https://archive.org/details/ahandbookyaolan00hethgoog A Handbook of the Yao Language]"
* Kaunjika, David Jones (2006), "[https://openlibrary.org/books/OL21191860M/A_Chiyao_course_in_three_languages A Chiyao course in three languages]", Montfort Media, Balaka, Malawi
* Yusuf Jonas Msume (2017) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yao_people_(East_Africa)
* [[Al Mtenje|Mtenje]], Al (1990), Verb morphology and tone assignment in Chiyao. ''Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere (AAP)'' 22. 41-59.
* Ngunga, Armindo (1997), ''Lexical Phonology and Morphology of the CiYao Verb Stem''. University of California, Berkeley, PhD dissertation. https://escholarship.org/content/qt3xw7j0c2/qt3xw7j0c2_noSplash_5b3f6edf3cbb24dad546d3d22b4de150.pdf
* Sanderson, George Meredith (1922), "[https://archive.org/details/ayaogrammar00sandgoog A Yao Grammar]"
* Sanderson, George Meredith (1954), "A dictionary of the Yao language"
* SIL Mozambique, "[http://www.chiyao.org/resources/YAO_P000001.pdf Linguas de Moçambique Vocabulario de CIYAO] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028142644/http://www.chiyao.org/resources/YAO_P000001.pdf |date=2014-10-28 }}"
* Steere, Edward (1871) "[https://archive.org/details/collectionsforha00stee Collections for a Handbook of the Yao Language]"
* U.S. Peace Corps manual
* Whiteley, Wilfred Howell (1966), "[https://archive.org/details/studyofyaosenten0000whit A study of Yao sentences]"

{{Languages of Tanzania}}
{{Languages of Malawi}}
{{Languages of Mozambique}}
{{Languages of Zambia}}
{{Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Yao (East Africa)]]
[[Category:Rufiji-Ruvuma languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Malawi]]
[[Category:Languages of Mozambique]]
[[Category:Languages of Tanzania]]
[[Category:Languages of Zambia]]

Latest revision as of 05:52, 25 May 2024

This article is about the African language. For the group of Southeast Asian languages, see Mienic languages. For the extinct language of Trinidad, see Yao language (Trinidad).
Yao
chiYao
Native toMalawi, Mozambique, Tanzania
EthnicityYao
Native speakers
3.7 million (2017–2020)[1]
Latin
Official status
Recognised minority
language in
Language codes
ISO 639-2yao
ISO 639-3yao
Glottologyaoo1241
P.21[2]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Person'Myao
PeopleWaYao
LanguagechiYao
CountryUyao[3]

Yao is a Bantu language in Africa with approximately two million speakers in Malawi, and half a million each in Tanzania and Mozambique. There are also some speakers in Zambia. In Malawi, the main dialect is Mangochi, mostly spoken around Lake Malawi. In Mozambique, the main dialects are Makale and Massaninga. The language has also gone by several other names in English, including chiYao or ciYao (the prefixed form), Achawa, Adsawa, Adsoa, Ajawa, Ayawa, Ayo, Ayao, Djao, Haiao, Hiao, Hyao, Jao, Veiao, and waJao.[1]

In Malawi, most Yao speakers live in the Southern Region near the southeast tip of Lake Malawi and bordering Mozambique to the east. In Mozambique most speakers live in Niassa Province from the eastern shore of Lake Malawi (Lago Niassa) to the Lugenda River up to where it meets the Rovuma River. In Tanzania most speakers live in the south central, Mtwara Region, Masasi district and in the Ruvuma Region, Tunduru district, east of Lake Malawi along the Mozambican border.

In common with very many vernacular languages in Africa, it has historically enjoyed little official recognition, and literary work in the region where Yao is spoken has taken place in such languages as Arabic, English, German and Portuguese.

Phonology

[edit]

The phonology of Yao is shown below.[4]

Consonants

[edit]
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar
Plosive/
Affricate 		voiceless p t t͡ʃ k
voiced b d d͡ʒ ɡ
Fricative s
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Approximant ʋ l j w

Vowels

[edit]
Front Central Back
Close i     iː u     uː
Mid e     eː o     oː
Open a     aː

Tones

[edit]

Like most Bantu languages, tone plays a role in Yao phonology and morphology. See Mtenje (1990) for discussion of Malawian Yao tone. See Ngunga (1997) for detailed presentation of the segmental phonology of Mozambican Yao.

Orthography

[edit]

As in English, unvoiced plosives are aspirated and voiced plosives are not. There are conventionally only five 'pure' vowels, viz. a, e, i, o, u, though there is some variation in vowel length. Yao is minimally tonal language, as is common in Bantu languages.

In each of the main three countries where Yao is spoken, the orthography differs widely, and there is a low literacy rate. In Tanzania, the orthography is based on that of Swahili, whereas in Malawi it is based on that of Chewa. The Malawian form uses the following characters:

Letter: A B Ch D E G I J/Dy K L Ly M N Ng' Ny O P S T U W Ŵ Y
Value: a b tʃ d e~ɛ ɡ i dʒ k l ʎ m n ŋ ɲ ɔ~o p ʂ tʰ u w ʋ j

Macrons can be used to prevent ambiguity that would otherwise arise due to the lack of representation of vowel length.[5][6]

Grammar

[edit]

Yao is an SVO language. Like all Bantu languages, Yao is agglutinative, with a highly regular paradigm of verbal inflection, and its nouns placed in a variety of classes indicated by prefixes, these partially corresponding to actual categories of objects or people. To each class is associated a characteristic, used in the formation of pronouns and concord links, prefixes used before verbs governed by, and adjectives describing, a noun of the given class.

Noun classes

[edit]
Class Prefix Class characteristic Used for
1 m-, mu-, mw- ju persons singular
2 ŵa-, a-, acha-, achi- ŵa persons plural
3 m-, mu-, mw- u living things singular
4 mi- ji living things plural
5 li-, ly- li miscellaneous singular
6 ma- ga plurals of class 5
7 chi-, ch'- chi miscellaneous singular
8 i-, y- i plurals of class 7
9 n-, ny-, mb-, (nw-) ji miscellaneous singular
10 n-, ny-, mb-, (nw-) si plurals of class 9
11 lu- lu like 9, also singulars of class 10
12 ka- ka diminutives singular
13 tu- tu plurals of class 13
14 u- u collective and abstract, no plural; also some singulars of class 6
15 ku, kw- ku infinitives
16 (pa-) pa locality (at)
17 (ku-, kwa-) ku locality (to)
18 (mu-, mwa-) mu locality (in)

The corresponding concord links are identical to the nominal prefixes except in the cases of classes 1 and 2, which have concord links 'mb-' and 'a-' respectively. The convention of including classes 16, 17 and 18 deviates from the traditional Bantu system, their prefixes being more properly prepositional or case determiners.

Verbal forms

[edit]

The personal forms are given below, with informal forms given in brackets.

Personal form prefix English equivalent (pronoun)
n-, ni- I
(u-) (thou)
a- he, she, it, you
tu- we
m-, mu-, mw- you
ŵa-, a- they (he, you)

There are affirmative and negative forms of the verb, each with approximately the following divisions:

Indicative mood

[edit]

As in many Bantu languages, this is characterised by an ending 'a'. Present, immediate future, present perfect, past and past perfect tenses are distinguished, the last being irregular in formation.

Subjunctive mood

[edit]

The subjunctive mood is similar in form to the indicative, but as in many Bantu languages, the final 'a' is changed to 'e'. It can be used as a polite imperative, and is usually associated with subordinate clauses.

Imperative

[edit]

To form the 'ordinary' (often less polite) imperative, the simple stem may be used, or 'n' may be prefixed to the indicative, or the continuative suffixes '-ga' or '-je' may be added.

Pronouns

[edit]

The personal pronouns relate only to classes 1 and 2. Other pronouns are formed from the class links. These pronouns, as a common Bantu feature, are absolute, in that they stand alone from the rest of the sentence: for nominative accusative and prepositional forms, affixes must be used. The third person pronouns depend on noun class, as explained above.

Absolute pronoun English equivalent (subject pronoun, object pronoun)
une I, me
(ugwe) thou, thee
uwe we, us
umwe you

These forms may be combined according to certain normal Bantu laws of vowel elision with prefixes such as 'na' (with, and).

There are also several demonstratives, most of which form triples ('this one', 'that one nearby', and 'that one far away')- that is, triple deixis is used.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Yao at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023) Closed access icon
  2. ^ Jouni Filip Maho, 2009. New Updated Guthrie List Online
  3. ^ "The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland". Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 25 April 1872 – via Google Books.
  4. ^ Ngunga, Armindo Saúl Atelela (1997). Lexical Phonology and Morphology in the Ciyao Verb Stem. Ann Arbor: UMI.
  5. ^ Sanderson, Meredith (1922). A Yao Grammar. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London.
  6. ^ Ngunga, Armindo (2002). "Elementos de gramática da língua Yao". Imprensa Universitária, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo.

Bibliography

[edit]
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