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{{Short description|Species of fungus}}
{{Short description|Species of fungus}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Taxobox
| image = Clathrus_archeri.jpg
| image = Clathrus_archeri.jpg
⚫
| image_caption = Octopus stinkhorn (''Clathrus archeri'') with<br />suberumpent eggs
| image_width = 234px
⚫
| genus = Clathrus
⚫
| image_caption = Octopus stinkhorn (''Clathrus archeri'') with<br>suberumpent eggs
| regnum = [[Fungi]]
| species = archeri
⚫
| authority = ([[Miles Joseph Berkeley|Berk.]]) [[Donald M. Dring|Dring]] 1980
| divisio = [[Basidiomycota]]
| classis = [[Agaricomycetes]]
| ordo = [[Phallales]]
| familia = [[Phallaceae]]
⚫
| genus = ''[[Clathrus]]''
| species = '''''C. archeri'''''
| binomial = ''Clathrus archeri''
⚫
| binomial_authority = ([[Miles Joseph Berkeley|Berk.]]) [[Donald M. Dring|Dring]] 1980
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Clathrus archeri"/>
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Clathrus archeri"/>
| synonyms = *''Lysurus archeri'' <small>Berk. (1859)</small>
| synonyms = *''Lysurus archeri'' <small>Berk. (1859)</small>
Line 29: Line 22:
| ecologicalType = saprotrophic
| ecologicalType = saprotrophic
| howEdible = unknown
| howEdible = unknown
}}
⚫
}}'''''Clathrus archeri''''' (synonyms ''Lysurus archeri'', ''Anthurus archeri'', ''Pseudocolus archeri''), commonly known as '''octopus stinkhorn''' or '''devil's fingers''',<ref>[http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/clathrus-archeri-devils-fingers Clathrus archeri (devil's fingers)]</ref> is a fungus which has a global distribution. Using rDNA, Geastrales, Gauteriales and Phallales form a monophyletic group and eventually diffierentation of Nidulariales and Tulostomatales within the euagarics clade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Binder |first1=Manfred |last2=Bresinsky |first2=Andreas |date=January 2002 |title=Derivation of a polymorphic lineage of Gasteromycetes from boletoid ancestors |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/15572536.2003.11833251 |journal=Mycologia |language=en |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=85–98 |doi=10.1080/15572536.2003.11833251 |pmid=21156480 |s2cid=19801273 |issn=0027-5514}}</ref> This species was first described in 1980 in a collection from Tasmania.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dring |first=D. M. |date=1980 |title=Contributions towards a Rational Arrangement of the Clathraceae |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4117008 |journal=Kew Bulletin |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–ii |doi=10.2307/4117008|jstor=4117008 }}</ref> The young fungus erupts from a suberumpent egg by forming into four to seven elongated slender arms initially erect and attached at the top. The arms then unfold to reveal a pinkish-red interior covered with a dark-olive spore-containing [[gleba]]. In maturity it smells like putrid flesh. Recently, ''C. archeri'' var. ''alba'' with white tentacles or arms has been reported from the Shola Forests in the Western Ghats, Kerala, India.<ref name=Mohanan2011 >{{cite book |title=''Macrofungi of Kerala''| author=Mohanan, C. |year= 2011 |publisher =Kerala Forest Research Institute |location= Kerala, India.|isbn =978-81-85041-73-5}}</ref>


⚫
'''''Clathrus archeri''''' (synonyms ''Lysurus archeri'', ''Anthurus archeri'', ''Pseudocolus archeri''), commonly known as '''octopus stinkhorn'''<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sisson |first1=Liv |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1372569849 |title=Fungi of Aotearoa: a curious forager's field guide |last2=Vigus |first2=Paula |date=2023 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-1-76104-787-9 |location=Auckland, New Zealand |pages=263 |oclc=on1372569849}}</ref> or '''devil's fingers''',<ref>[http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/clathrus-archeri-devils-fingers Clathrus archeri (devil's fingers)]</ref> is a [[fungus]] which has a global distribution. This species was first described in 1980 in a collection from [[Tasmania]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dring |first=D. M. |date=1980 |title=Contributions towards a Rational Arrangement of the Clathraceae |journal=Kew Bulletin |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–ii |doi=10.2307/4117008|jstor=4117008 |bibcode=1980KewBu..35....1D }}</ref> The young fungus erupts from a suberumpent egg by forming into four to seven elongated slender arms initially erect and attached at the top. The arms then unfold to reveal a pinkish-red interior covered with a dark-olive [[spore]]-containing [[gleba]]. In maturity it smells like putrid flesh.
== Morphology ==
⚫
''Clathrus Archeri'' grows in 2 distinct stages, first an egg stage followed by the fungal “arms” emerging.  During the egg stage Clathrus Archeri forms a white ball-like egg shape, usually 2–3&nbsp;cm in diameter.<ref name=":2" />  Next, the thallus emerges from the egg in a sharfish-like shape with 4-6 arms on average (up to 8).<ref name=":2" />  Each arm can grow up to 10&nbsp;cm in length and is coated in gleba on the upper surface.  Fruiting bodies produce a red-orange color due to the production of carotenoids.   Fungal spores are oblong, smooth, and 3.5-6 x 1.5-2&nbsp;µm in size.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Arora |first1=David |last2=Burk |first2=William R. |date=May 1982 |title=Clathrus Archeri , A Stinkhorn New to North America |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.1982.12021535 |journal=Mycologia |language=en |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=501–504 |doi=10.1080/00275514.1982.12021535 |issn=0027-5514}}</ref> It is hypothesized that the strong putrid smell of the gleba support evidence of coevolution with some angiosperm flowers called sapromyiophilous flowers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=S.D. |last2=Jürgens |first2=A. |date=October 2010 |title=Convergent evolution of carrion and faecal scent mimicry in fly-pollinated angiosperm flowers and a stinkhorn fungus |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0254629910001894 |journal=South African Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=796–807 |doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2010.07.012}}</ref>


== Description ==
⚫
In a laboratory setting Clathrus Archeri was found to grow best in 26℃ on a Compost agar (CA) media with a pH of 6.0.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Mykchaylova |first=Oksana |date=January 2022 |title=MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CULTURE CLATHRUS ARCHERI(PHALLACEAE, BASIDIOMYCOTA) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358234688 |journal=Polish Journal of Natural Science |volume=36 |pages=283–298 |via=https://www.researchgate.net}}</ref>  Under these conditions, the thallus grew an average of 2.9mm a day over 4 weeks and in a radial shape.  Clathrus Archeri produces white and fluffy mycelium and eventually turns a pink color.  Mycelia strands are 0.5 to 1.5mm in diameter and branch in a tree-like manner.  Fungal hyphae create irregularly shaped vesicles that contain lipids.  On the surface of the hyphae calcium oxalate crystals are secreted.  It is hypothesized that this outer layer of crystals creates a protective hydrophobic layer around the hyphae.<ref name=":1" /> ''Clathrus Archeri'' forms unstable perforate septal pore caps, this may suggest that perforation formation in ''Phallomycetidae'' begins later in comparison to similar groups.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Hibbett |first1=D. S. |title=14 Agaricomycetes |date=2014 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-55318-9_14 |work=Systematics and Evolution |pages=373–429 |editor-last=McLaughlin |editor-first=David J. |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55318-9_14 |isbn=978-3-642-55317-2 |access-date=2022-05-07 |last2=Bauer |first2=R. |last3=Binder |first3=M. |last4=Giachini |first4=A. J. |last5=Hosaka |first5=K. |last6=Justo |first6=A. |last7=Larsson |first7=E. |last8=Larsson |first8=K. H. |last9=Lawrey |first9=J. D. |editor2-last=Spatafora |editor2-first=Joseph W.}}</ref>
⚫
''Clathrus archeri'' grows in 2 distinct stages, first an egg stage followed by the fungal "arms" emerging. During the egg stage, ''C. archeri'' forms a white ball-like egg shape, usually {{convert|2|-|3|cm|frac=8|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name=":2" /> Next, the [[thallus]] emerges from the egg in a starfish-like shape with 4-6 arms on average (up to 8).<ref name=":2" /> Each arm can grow up to {{convert|10|cm|frac=8|abbr=on}} in length and is coated in gleba on the upper surface. [[Fruiting bodies]] produce a red-orange color due to the production of [[carotenoid]]s. Fungal spores are oblong, smooth, and 3.5–6 x 1.5–2&nbsp;μm in size.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Arora |first1=David |last2=Burk |first2=William R. |date=May 1982 |title=Clathrus Archeri , A Stinkhorn New to North America |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.1982.12021535 |journal=Mycologia |language=en |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=501–504 |doi=10.1080/00275514.1982.12021535 |issn=0027-5514}}</ref> As other members of the family [[Phallaceae]], the strong putrid smell of the gleba shows [[convergent evolution]] with some [[angiosperm]] flowers called [[Zoophily#Fly pollination (myophily and sapromyophily)|sapromyophilous]] flowers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=S.D. |last2=Jürgens |first2=A. |date=October 2010 |title=Convergent evolution of carrion and faecal scent mimicry in fly-pollinated angiosperm flowers and a stinkhorn fungus |journal=South African Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=796–807 |doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2010.07.012|doi-access=free }}</ref>


⚫
In a laboratory setting, ''C. archeri'' was found to grow best in {{convert|26|C}} on a compost agar (CA) medium with a [[pH]] of 6.0.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Mykchaylova |first=Oksana |date=January 2022 |title=Morphological Characteristics of the Culture ''Clathrus Archeri'' (Phallaceae, Basidiomycota) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358234688 |journal=Polish Journal of Natural Science |volume=36 |pages=283–298 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Under these conditions, the thallus grew an average of {{convert|2.9|mm|frac=32|abbr=on}} a day over 4 weeks and in a radial shape. ''C. archeri'' produces white and fluffy [[mycelium]] and eventually turns a pink color. Mycelia strands are {{convert|0.5|-|1.5|mm|frac=64|abbr=on}} in diameter and branch in a tree-like manner. Fungal [[Hypha]]e create irregularly shaped [[Vesicle (biology and chemistry)|vesicle]]s that contain [[lipid]]s. On the surface of the hyphae, [[calcium oxalate]] crystals are secreted. It is hypothesized that this outer layer of crystals creates a protective hydrophobic layer around the hyphae.<ref name=":1" /> ''C. archeri'' forms unstable perforate septal pore caps; this may suggest that perforation formation in ''Phallomycetidae'' begins later in comparison to similar groups.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Hibbett |first1=D. S. |title=14 Agaricomycetes |date=2014 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-55318-9_14 |work=Systematics and Evolution |pages=373–429 |editor-last=McLaughlin |editor-first=David J. |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55318-9_14 |isbn=978-3-642-55317-2 |access-date=2022-05-07 |last2=Bauer |first2=R. |last3=Binder |first3=M. |last4=Giachini |first4=A. J. |last5=Hosaka |first5=K. |last6=Justo |first6=A. |last7=Larsson |first7=E. |last8=Larsson |first8=K. H. |last9=Lawrey |first9=J. D. |editor2-last=Spatafora |editor2-first=Joseph W.}}</ref>
⚫
== Ecology ==
⚫
''Clathrus archeri'' grows best in environments rich in decaying vegetation.  The fungus is a saprotroph.  It is most commonly found in leaf litter or mulch below vegetation.  The most abundant acid secreted by the fungus is oxalic acid, this acid binds to metal cations and increases the bioavailability of some minerals.<ref name=":1" />  Fungal mycelium exhibits calcium pooling which changes soil pH and availability of phosphorus for surrounding flora.<ref name=":1" />


== Habitat ==
=== Chemistry ===
⚫
''Clathrus archeri'' produces [[Chemical compound|compounds]] similar to the scent of rotting flesh. This compound production supports evidence of [[convergent evolution]] between fungi and angiosperms. This scent is used by the fungus to attract flies to serve as agents for spore dispersal.
⚫
Common in environments with abundant decaying organic matter.  ''Clathrus archeri'' is most commonly found in leaf litter, mulch, woodlands, and grasslands.  Saprophytes prefer areas with high moisture or water, access to oxygen, neutral pH, and low-medium temperatures.


== Geographic Distribution ==
== Habitat and distribution ==
⚫
''Clathrus archeri'' is commonly found in environments with abundant decaying organic matter. It is most common in leaf litter and mulch, in both woodlands and grasslands. Saprophytes prefer areas with high moisture or water, access to oxygen, neutral pH, and low-medium temperatures.
⚫
The species is believed to be endemic southern Africa, New Zealand and Australia, but has been spreading to other continents and is often invasive.<ref name=":0" /> ''Clathrus archeri'' now has a global distribution and has been naturalized in Europe and North America. It was first discovered in the UK over a century ago (~1914) and has spread across much of Europe.  ''Clathrus archeri'' was likely introduced via wool fabric in supplies for WWI. As climate changes drives niche habitat lost, ''Clathrus archeri'' is expected to become threatened in Australia but is expected to expand to northeast Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pietras |first1=Marcin |last2=Kolanowska |first2=Marta |last3=Selosse |first3=Marc-André |date=2021-03-01 |title=Quo vadis? Historical distribution and impact of climate change on the worldwide distribution of the Australasian fungus Clathrus archeri (Phallales, Basidiomycota) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-021-01669-w |journal=Mycological Progress |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=299–311 |doi=10.1007/s11557-021-01669-w |s2cid=232378205 |issn=1861-8952}}</ref> The expansion of in ''Clathrus archeri'' Europe is further supported by its invasion into 2 new Romanian sites in July 2013.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bîrsan |first1=Ciprian |last2=Cojocariu |first2=Ana |last3=Cenușă |first3=Elena |date=2014-09-22 |title=Distribution and Ecology of Clathrus archeri in Romania |url=https://www.notulaebiologicae.ro/index.php/nsb/article/view/9389 |journal=Notulae Scientia Biologicae |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=288–291 |doi=10.15835/nsb639389 |issn=2067-3264}}</ref> Furthermore, ''Clathrus archeri'' has been found in 90 sites in Poland as of 2013, 65% of which are located in forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Szczepkowski |first=Andrzej |date=April 2012 |title=Obce gatunki sromotnikowatych Phallaceae w lasach Polski |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264810233 |journal=Studia i Materiały Centrum Edukacji Przyrodniczo-Leśnej |volume=33 |pages=279–295 |via=www.researchgate.net}}</ref> Recent modeling studies in Poland like expect the alien species occur in areas with a thick layer of snow, which does not melt in winter, at higher altitudes, where the water deficit is low.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bîrsan |first1=Ciprian |last2=Mardari |first2=Constantin |last3=Copoţ |first3=Ovidiu |last4=Tănase |first4=Cătălin |date=2021 |title=Modelling the potential distribution and habitat suitability of the alien fungus Clathrus archeri in Romania |url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=1821-21582102241B |journal=Botanica Serbica |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=241–250 |doi=10.2298/BOTSERB2102241B |s2cid=240201318 |issn=1821-2158}}</ref>


⚫
The species is believed to be endemic to [[southern Africa]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Australia]], but has been spreading to other continents and is often [[Invasive species|invasive]].<ref name=":0" /> ''Clathrus archeri'' now has a global distribution and has been naturalised in [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. It was first discovered in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] over a century ago (~1914) and has spread across much of Europe. ''Clathrus archeri'' was likely introduced via [[wool]] fabric in supplies for [[World War I|WWI]]. As [[climate change]]s drive niche habitat loss, ''Clathrus archeri'' is expected to become threatened in Australia but is expected to expand to northeast Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pietras |first1=Marcin |last2=Kolanowska |first2=Marta |last3=Selosse |first3=Marc-André |date=2021-03-01 |title=Quo vadis? Historical distribution and impact of climate change on the worldwide distribution of the Australasian fungus Clathrus archeri (Phallales, Basidiomycota) |journal=Mycological Progress |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=299–311 |doi=10.1007/s11557-021-01669-w |s2cid=232378205 |issn=1861-8952|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021MycPr..20..299P }}</ref> The expansion of ''Clathrus archeri'' in Europe is further supported by its invasion into 2 new [[Romania]]n sites in July 2013.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bîrsan |first1=Ciprian |last2=Cojocariu |first2=Ana |last3=Cenușă |first3=Elena |date=2014-09-22 |title=Distribution and Ecology of Clathrus archeri in Romania |url=https://www.notulaebiologicae.ro/index.php/nsb/article/view/9389 |journal=Notulae Scientia Biologicae |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=288–291 |doi=10.15835/nsb639389 |issn=2067-3264|doi-access=free }}</ref> Furthermore, ''Clathrus archeri'' has been found in 90 sites in [[Poland]] as of 2013, 65% of which are located in forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Szczepkowski |first=Andrzej |date=April 2012 |title=Obce gatunki sromotnikowatych Phallaceae w lasach Polski |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264810233 |journal=Studia i Materiały Centrum Edukacji Przyrodniczo-Leśnej |volume=33 |pages=279–295 |via=www.researchgate.net}}</ref> Recent modeling studies in Poland expect the alien species to occur in areas with a thick layer of snow, which does not melt in winter, at higher altitudes, where the water deficit is low.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bîrsan |first1=Ciprian |last2=Mardari |first2=Constantin |last3=Copoţ |first3=Ovidiu |last4=Tănase |first4=Cătălin |date=2021 |title=Modelling the potential distribution and habitat suitability of the alien fungus Clathrus archeri in Romania |url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=1821-21582102241B |journal=Botanica Serbica |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=241–250 |doi=10.2298/BOTSERB2102241B |s2cid=240201318 |issn=1821-2158|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Unique Characteristics ==

⚫
''Clathrus archeri'' produces compounds similar to the scent of rotting flesh.  This compound production supports evidence of convergent evolution between fungi and angiosperms.  This scent is used by the fungus to attract flies to serve as agents for spore dispersal. ''Clathrus archeri'' is not known to be toxic, however, consuming this fungus would not be enjoyable.  Due to the rotting stench of stinkhorns, culinary application is not a common thought.  There is also no record of the fungus being treated as a delicacy.
Recently, ''C. archeri'' var. ''alba'' with white tentacles or arms has been reported from the Shola Forests in the [[Western Ghats]], Kerala, India.<ref name="Mohanan2011">{{cite book |author=Mohanan, C. |title=''Macrofungi of Kerala'' |publisher=Kerala Forest Research Institute |year=2011 |isbn=978-81-85041-73-5 |location=Kerala, India.}}</ref>

⚫
== Ecology ==
⚫
''Clathrus archeri'' grows best in environments rich in decaying vegetation. The fungus is a saprotroph. It is most commonly found in [[leaf litter]] or [[mulch]] below vegetation. The most abundant acid secreted by the fungus is [[oxalic acid]], this acid binds to metal [[cation]]s and increases the [[bioavailability]] of some minerals.<ref name=":1" /> Fungal mycelium exhibits calcium pooling which changes soil pH and availability of [[phosphorus]] for surrounding flora.<ref name=":1" />

==Inedibility==
Due to the rotting stench of stinkhorns, there are no common culinary applications.


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Clathrus archeri">{{cite web |title=GSD Species Synonymy: ''Clathrus archeri'' (Berk.) Dring |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/GSD/GSDspecies.asp?RecordID=112728 |publisher=Species Fungorum. CAB International |accessdate=2015-12-08}}</ref>
<ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Clathrus archeri">{{cite web |title=GSD Species Synonymy: ''Clathrus archeri'' (Berk.) Dring |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/GSD/GSDspecies.asp?RecordID=112728 |publisher=Species Fungorum. CAB International |access-date=2015-12-08}}</ref>
}}
}}

*
==External links==
{{Commons and category|Clathrus archeri|Clathrus archeri}}
* ''Clathrus archeri'' discussed on [[Radio New Zealand|RNZ]] ''[[Critter of the Week]]'', [https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/afternoons/collections/critter-of-the-week/audio/2018882523/critter-of-the-week-the-devil-s-fingers-fungus 17 March 2023]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1757951}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1757951}}


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[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Miles Joseph Berkeley]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Miles Joseph Berkeley]]
[[Category:Fungus species]]

Latest revision as of 09:41, 1 June 2024

Clathrus archeri
Octopus stinkhorn (Clathrus archeri) with
suberumpent eggs
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Phallales
Family: Phallaceae
Genus: Clathrus
Species:
C. archeri
Binomial name
Clathrus archeri
(Berk.) Dring 1980
Synonyms[1]
  • Lysurus archeri Berk. (1859)
  • Anthurus archeri (Berk.) E.Fisch. (1886)
  • Aserophallus archeri (Berk.) Kuntze (1891)
  • Pseudocolus archeri (Berk.) Lloyd (1913)
  • Schizmaturus archeri (Berk.) Locq. (1977)
Clathrus archeri
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Glebal hymenium
No distinct cap
Hymenium attachment is irregular or not applicable
Lacks a stipe
Spore print is olive-brown
Ecology is saprotrophic
Edibility is unknown

Clathrus archeri (synonyms Lysurus archeri, Anthurus archeri, Pseudocolus archeri), commonly known as octopus stinkhorn[2] or devil's fingers,[3] is a fungus which has a global distribution. This species was first described in 1980 in a collection from Tasmania.[4] The young fungus erupts from a suberumpent egg by forming into four to seven elongated slender arms initially erect and attached at the top. The arms then unfold to reveal a pinkish-red interior covered with a dark-olive spore-containing gleba. In maturity it smells like putrid flesh.

Description

[edit]

Clathrus archeri grows in 2 distinct stages, first an egg stage followed by the fungal "arms" emerging. During the egg stage, C. archeri forms a white ball-like egg shape, usually 2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄8 in) in diameter.[5] Next, the thallus emerges from the egg in a starfish-like shape with 4-6 arms on average (up to 8).[5] Each arm can grow up to 10 cm (3+7⁄8 in) in length and is coated in gleba on the upper surface. Fruiting bodies produce a red-orange color due to the production of carotenoids. Fungal spores are oblong, smooth, and 3.5–6 x 1.5–2 μm in size.[5] As other members of the family Phallaceae, the strong putrid smell of the gleba shows convergent evolution with some angiosperm flowers called sapromyophilous flowers.[6]

In a laboratory setting, C. archeri was found to grow best in 26 °C (79 °F) on a compost agar (CA) medium with a pH of 6.0.[7] Under these conditions, the thallus grew an average of 2.9 mm (1⁄8 in) a day over 4 weeks and in a radial shape. C. archeri produces white and fluffy mycelium and eventually turns a pink color. Mycelia strands are 0.5–1.5 mm (1⁄64–1⁄16 in) in diameter and branch in a tree-like manner. Fungal Hyphae create irregularly shaped vesicles that contain lipids. On the surface of the hyphae, calcium oxalate crystals are secreted. It is hypothesized that this outer layer of crystals creates a protective hydrophobic layer around the hyphae.[7] C. archeri forms unstable perforate septal pore caps; this may suggest that perforation formation in Phallomycetidae begins later in comparison to similar groups.[8]

Chemistry

[edit]

Clathrus archeri produces compounds similar to the scent of rotting flesh. This compound production supports evidence of convergent evolution between fungi and angiosperms. This scent is used by the fungus to attract flies to serve as agents for spore dispersal.

Habitat and distribution

[edit]

Clathrus archeri is commonly found in environments with abundant decaying organic matter. It is most common in leaf litter and mulch, in both woodlands and grasslands. Saprophytes prefer areas with high moisture or water, access to oxygen, neutral pH, and low-medium temperatures.

The species is believed to be endemic to southern Africa, New Zealand and Australia, but has been spreading to other continents and is often invasive.[6] Clathrus archeri now has a global distribution and has been naturalised in Europe and North America. It was first discovered in the UK over a century ago (~1914) and has spread across much of Europe. Clathrus archeri was likely introduced via wool fabric in supplies for WWI. As climate changes drive niche habitat loss, Clathrus archeri is expected to become threatened in Australia but is expected to expand to northeast Europe.[9] The expansion of Clathrus archeri in Europe is further supported by its invasion into 2 new Romanian sites in July 2013.[10] Furthermore, Clathrus archeri has been found in 90 sites in Poland as of 2013, 65% of which are located in forests.[11] Recent modeling studies in Poland expect the alien species to occur in areas with a thick layer of snow, which does not melt in winter, at higher altitudes, where the water deficit is low.[12]

Recently, C. archeri var. alba with white tentacles or arms has been reported from the Shola Forests in the Western Ghats, Kerala, India.[13]

Ecology

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Clathrus archeri grows best in environments rich in decaying vegetation. The fungus is a saprotroph. It is most commonly found in leaf litter or mulch below vegetation. The most abundant acid secreted by the fungus is oxalic acid, this acid binds to metal cations and increases the bioavailability of some minerals.[7] Fungal mycelium exhibits calcium pooling which changes soil pH and availability of phosphorus for surrounding flora.[7]

Inedibility

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Due to the rotting stench of stinkhorns, there are no common culinary applications.

References

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  1. ^ "GSD Species Synonymy: Clathrus archeri (Berk.) Dring". Species Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2015-12-08.
  2. ^ Sisson, Liv; Vigus, Paula (2023). Fungi of Aotearoa: a curious forager's field guide. Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books. p. 263. ISBN 978-1-76104-787-9. OCLC 1372569849.
  3. ^ Clathrus archeri (devil's fingers)
  4. ^ Dring, D. M. (1980). "Contributions towards a Rational Arrangement of the Clathraceae". Kew Bulletin. 35 (1): 1–ii. Bibcode:1980KewBu..35....1D. doi:10.2307/4117008. JSTOR 4117008.
  5. ^ a b c Arora, David; Burk, William R. (May 1982). "Clathrus Archeri , A Stinkhorn New to North America". Mycologia. 74 (3): 501–504. doi:10.1080/00275514.1982.12021535. ISSN 0027-5514.
  6. ^ a b Johnson, S.D.; Jürgens, A. (October 2010). "Convergent evolution of carrion and faecal scent mimicry in fly-pollinated angiosperm flowers and a stinkhorn fungus". South African Journal of Botany. 76 (4): 796–807. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2010.07.012.
  7. ^ a b c d Mykchaylova, Oksana (January 2022). "Morphological Characteristics of the Culture Clathrus Archeri (Phallaceae, Basidiomycota)". Polish Journal of Natural Science. 36: 283–298 – via ResearchGate.
  8. ^ Hibbett, D. S.; Bauer, R.; Binder, M.; Giachini, A. J.; Hosaka, K.; Justo, A.; Larsson, E.; Larsson, K. H.; Lawrey, J. D. (2014), McLaughlin, David J.; Spatafora, Joseph W. (eds.), "14 Agaricomycetes", Systematics and Evolution, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 373–429, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55318-9_14, ISBN 978-3-642-55317-2, retrieved 2022-05-07
  9. ^ Pietras, Marcin; Kolanowska, Marta; Selosse, Marc-André (2021-03-01). "Quo vadis? Historical distribution and impact of climate change on the worldwide distribution of the Australasian fungus Clathrus archeri (Phallales, Basidiomycota)". Mycological Progress. 20 (3): 299–311. Bibcode:2021MycPr..20..299P. doi:10.1007/s11557-021-01669-w. ISSN 1861-8952. S2CID 232378205.
  10. ^ Bîrsan, Ciprian; Cojocariu, Ana; Cenușă, Elena (2014-09-22). "Distribution and Ecology of Clathrus archeri in Romania". Notulae Scientia Biologicae. 6 (3): 288–291. doi:10.15835/nsb639389. ISSN 2067-3264.
  11. ^ Szczepkowski, Andrzej (April 2012). "Obce gatunki sromotnikowatych Phallaceae w lasach Polski". Studia i Materiały Centrum Edukacji Przyrodniczo-Leśnej. 33: 279–295 – via www.researchgate.net.
  12. ^ Bîrsan, Ciprian; Mardari, Constantin; Copoţ, Ovidiu; Tănase, Cătălin (2021). "Modelling the potential distribution and habitat suitability of the alien fungus Clathrus archeri in Romania". Botanica Serbica. 45 (2): 241–250. doi:10.2298/BOTSERB2102241B. ISSN 1821-2158. S2CID 240201318.
  13. ^ Mohanan, C. (2011). Macrofungi of Kerala. Kerala, India.: Kerala Forest Research Institute. ISBN 978-81-85041-73-5.
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