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{{Short description|Language family}}
{{Infobox language family
{{Infobox language family
|name=Kam–Sui
| name = Kam–Sui
|altname=Dong–Shui
| altname = 侗水語支<br />Dong–Shui
|region=eastern [[Guizhou]], western [[Hunan]], and northern [[Guangxi]]
| region = eastern [[Guizhou]], western [[Hunan]], and northern [[Guangxi]]
|familycolor=Tai-Kadai
| familycolor = Tai-Kadai
|protoname=[[Proto-Kam–Sui language|Proto-Kam–Sui]]
| protoname = [[Proto-Kam–Sui language|Proto-Kam–Sui]]
| fam2 = [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]] ?
|glotto=kams1241
| glotto = kams1241
|glottorefname=Kam–Sui
| glottorefname = Kam–Sui
}}
}}


The '''Kam–Sui languages''' ({{zh|c=侗水語支|p='''Dòng-Shǔi'''}}) are a branch of the [[Kra–Dai languages]] spoken by the [[Kam–Sui peoples]]. They are spoken mainly in eastern [[Guizhou]], western [[Hunan]], and northern [[Guangxi]] in southern [[China]]. Small pockets of Kam–Sui speakers are also found in [[northern Vietnam]] and [[Laos]].<ref>http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/research/map.html</ref>
The '''Kam–Sui languages''' ({{zh|c=侗水語支|p='''Dòng-Shǔi'''}}) are a branch of the [[Kra–Dai languages]] spoken by the [[Kam–Sui peoples]]. They are spoken mainly in eastern [[Guizhou]], western [[Hunan]], and northern [[Guangxi]] in southern [[China]]. Small pockets of Kam–Sui speakers are also found in [[northern Vietnam]] and [[Laos]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Map & Language Descriptions |url=http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/research/map.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207074151/http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/research/map.html |archive-date=2012-02-07 |access-date=2010-12-02 |website=Lesser Known Indigenous Languages of Northern Vietnam |language=en}}</ref>


==Classification==
==Classification==
The Kam–Sui branch includes about a dozen languages. Solnit (1988)<ref>Solnit, David B. 1988. "The position of Lakkia within Kadai." In ''Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai'', Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit (eds.). pages 219-238. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.</ref> considers [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]] and [[Biao language|Biao]] languages to be [[sister group|sister]] branches of Kam–Sui, rather than part of Kam–Sui itself.
The Kam–Sui branch includes about a dozen languages. Solnit (1988)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Solnit |first=David B. |title=Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai |date=1988 |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington |editor-last=Edmondson |editor-first=Jerold A. |series=Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86 |location=Dallas |pages=219–238 |language=en |chapter=The Position of Lakkia Within Kadai |editor-last2=Solnit |editor-first2=David B.}}</ref> considers [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]] and [[Biao language|Biao]] languages to be [[sister group|sister]] branches of Kam–Sui, rather than part of Kam–Sui itself.


The best known Kam–Sui languages are [[Dong language|Dong]] (Kam), with over a million speakers, [[Mulam language|Mulam]], [[Maonan language|Maonan]], and [[Sui language|Sui]]. Other Kam–Sui languages include [[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]], [[Mak language|Mak]], and [[Tʻen language|Tʻen]], and [[Chadong language|Chadong]], which is the most recently-discovered Kam–Sui language. Yang (2000) considers [[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]] and Mak to be dialects of a single language.<ref>杨通银 / Yang Tongyin. 莫语研究 / Mo yu yan jiu (A Study of Mak). Beijing: 中央民族大学出版社 / Zhong yang min zu da xue chu ban she, 2000.</ref>
The best known Kam–Sui languages are [[Dong language (China)|Dong]] (Kam), with over a million speakers, [[Mulam language|Mulam]], [[Maonan language|Maonan]], and [[Sui language|Sui]]. Other Kam–Sui languages include [[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]], [[Mak language|Mak]], and [[Tʻen language|Tʻen]], and [[Chadong language|Chadong]], which is the most recently discovered Kam–Sui language. Yang (2000) considers [[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]] and Mak to be dialects of a single language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yang |first=Tongyin 杨通银 |title=Mò yǔ yánjiū |date=2000 |publisher=Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe |isbn=978-7-81056-427-4 |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:莫语研究 |trans-title=A Study of Mak}}</ref>


===Thurgood (1988)===
[[Graham Thurgood]] (1988) presents the following tentative classification for the Kam–Sui branch.<ref name="Thurgood, Graham 1988">Thurgood, Graham. 1988. "Notes on the reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui." In Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit (eds.), Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai, 179-218. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.</ref> [[Chadong language|Chadong]], a language that has been described only recently by Chinese linguist Jinfang Li, is also included below. It is most closely related to [[Maonan language|Maonan]].<ref name="Li">Li, Jinfang. 2008. "Chadong, a Newly-Discovered Kam–Sui Language in Northern Guangxi." In Diller, Anthony, Jerold A. Edmondson, & Yongxian Luo, ed. The Tai–Kadai languages, 596-620. New York: Routledge.</ref> [[Cao Miao language|Cao Miao]] and [[Naxi Yao language|Naxi Yao]], which are closely related to [[Kam language|Southern Dong]], have also been added from Shi (2015).<ref name="Shi2015"/>
[[Graham Thurgood]] (1988) presents the following tentative classification for the Kam–Sui branch.<ref name="Thurgood 1988">{{harvp|Thurgood|1988}}</ref> [[Chadong language|Chadong]], a language that has been described only recently by Chinese linguist Jinfang Li, is also included below. It is most closely related to [[Maonan language|Maonan]].<ref name="Li">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Jinfang |title=The Tai–Kadai Languages |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |editor-last=Diller |editor-first=Anthony |location=New York |pages=596–620 |language=en |chapter=Chadong, a Newly-Discovered Kam–Sui Language in Northern Guangxi |editor-last2=Edmondson |editor-first2=Jerold A. |editor-last3=Luo |editor-first3=Yongxian}}</ref> [[Cao Miao language|Cao Miao]] and [[Naxi Yao language|Naxi Yao]], which are closely related to [[Kam language|Southern Dong]], have also been added from Shi (2015).<ref name="Shi2015" />


{{clade
{{clade
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|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Maonan language|Maonan]]
|1=[[Maonan language|Maonan]]
|2=[[Chadong language|Chadong]]<ref name="Li"/>
|2=[[Chadong language|Chadong]]<ref name="Li" />
}}
}}
|2=[[Sui language|Sui]]
|2=[[Sui language|Sui]]
|3={{clade
|3={{clade
|1=[[Mak language|Mak]]
|1=[[Mak language|Mak]]
|2=[[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]]<ref>Lin, Shi and Cui Jianxin. 1988. "An investigation of the Ai-Cham language." In Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit (eds.), Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai, 59-85. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.</ref>
|2=[[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lin |first1=Shi |title=Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai |last2=Cui |first2=Jianxin |date=1988 |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington |editor-last=Edmondson |editor-first=Jerold A. |series=Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86 |location=Dallas |pages=59–85 |language=en |chapter=An Investigation of the Ai-Cham Language |editor-last2=Solnit |editor-first2=David B.}}</ref>
}}
}}
}}
}}
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}}
}}
}}
}}

===Norquest (2021)===
[[Peter Norquest]] (2021:234) presents another classification for the Kam–Sui branch.<ref name="WOL-MSEA-13">{{cite book|last=Norquest|first=Peter|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia|chapter=Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages|publisher=De Gruyter|date=2021|doi=10.1515/9783110558142-013|pages=225–246|isbn=9783110558142 |s2cid=238672319 }}</ref>

{{tree list}}
*'''Kam-–ui'''
**''[[Mulam language|Mulam]]''
**Northern Kam–Sui
***''[[Kam language (China)|Kam]]''
***Macro-Sui
****''[[Then language|T'en]]''
****Greater Sui
*****''[[Sui language|Sui]]''
*****Para-Sui
******''[[Chadong language|Chadong]]''
******''[[Maonan language|Maonan]]''
******Ai-Cham/Mak
*******''[[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]]''
*******''[[Mak language|Mak]]''
{{tree list/end}}


==Demographics==
==Demographics==
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===By language===
===By language===
[[File:Kam-Sui people.png|thumb|350px|Population distribution of the Dong and other Kam-Sui ethnic groups in China]]

*[[Mulam language|Mulam]] 佬 – [[Luocheng Mulao Autonomous County]] 罗城仫佬族自治县, [[Hechi]], northern [[Guangxi]]; [[Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture|Qiandongnan Prefecture]], southeastern [[Guizhou]]
*[[Mulam language|Mulam]] 佬 – [[Luocheng Mulao Autonomous County]] 罗城仫佬族自治县, [[Hechi]], northern [[Guangxi]]; [[Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture|Qiandongnan Prefecture]], southeastern [[Guizhou]]
*[[Kam language|Dong]] 侗 – [[Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture|Qiandongnan Prefecture]], southeastern [[Guizhou]]
*[[Kam language|Dong]] 侗 – [[Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture|Qiandongnan Prefecture]], southeastern [[Guizhou]]
Line 54: Line 79:
*[[Chadong language|Chadong]] 茶洞 – Chadong Township, [[Lingui County]] 临桂县, [[Guilin]], northeastern [[Guangxi]]
*[[Chadong language|Chadong]] 茶洞 – Chadong Township, [[Lingui County]] 临桂县, [[Guilin]], northeastern [[Guangxi]]
*[[Sui language|Sui]] 水 – [[Sandu Shui Autonomous County]] 黔南布依族苗族自治州, [[Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Qiannan Prefecture]], southern [[Guizhou]]
*[[Sui language|Sui]] 水 – [[Sandu Shui Autonomous County]] 黔南布依族苗族自治州, [[Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Qiannan Prefecture]], southern [[Guizhou]]
*[[Mak language|Mak]] 莫 – [[Libo County]] 荔波县, [[Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Qiannan Prefecture]], southern [[Guizhou]]
*[[Mak language|Mak]] (Mojia) 莫 – [[Libo County]] 荔波县, [[Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Qiannan Prefecture]], southern [[Guizhou]]
*[[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]] 锦 – [[Libo County]] 荔波县, [[Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Qiannan Prefecture]], southern [[Guizhou]]
*[[Ai-Cham language|Ai-Cham]] 锦 – [[Libo County]] 荔波县, [[Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Qiannan Prefecture]], southern [[Guizhou]]


Line 87: Line 112:


==Other languages==
==Other languages==
{{see also|List of unrecognized ethnic groups of Guizhou}}
{{Main article|List of unrecognized ethnic groups of Guizhou}}


The following language varieties are closely related to, or part of, [[Kam language|Southern Dong]].
The following language varieties are closely related to, or part of, [[Kam language|Southern Dong]].
*'''Mjuniang 谬娘''' or '''[[Cao Miao language|Cao Miao]] 草苗''' (ISO 639-3: [http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=cov cov]): 60,000 (1991) in Liping, Tongdao, and Sanjiang; closely related to Dong.<ref name="Shi2015"/><ref>http://asiaharvest.org/wp-content/themes/asia/docs/people-groups/China/chinaPeoples/M/Mjuniang.pdf</ref> Speakers are classified as ethnic Miao.
*'''Mjuniang 谬娘''' or '''[[Cao Miao language|Cao Miao]] 草苗''' (ISO 639-3: [http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=cov cov]): 60,000 (1991) in Liping, Tongdao, and Sanjiang; closely related to Dong.<ref name="Shi2015" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mjuniang |url=https://people-groups.asiaharvest.org/people-group-profiles/guizhou/mjuniang.pdf |access-date=2021-08-31 |language=en |via=Asia Harvest}}</ref> Speakers are classified as ethnic Miao.
*'''[[Naxi Yao language|Naxi Yao]] 那溪瑶''' (autonym: ''mu2 ɲiu1'') is spoken by 2,500 people in Naxi Township 那溪瑶族乡, Dongkou County, Hunan Province, China.<ref name="Shi2015">Shi Lin [石林]. 2015. ''Three language varieties of the Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi border region'' [湘黔桂边区的三个族群方言岛]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press [中国社会科学出版社]. {{ISBN|9787516164945}}</ref>
*'''[[Naxi Yao language|Naxi Yao]] 那溪瑶''' (autonym: ''mu2 ɲiu1'') is spoken by 2,500 people in Naxi Township 那溪瑶族乡, [[Dongkou County]], Hunan Province, China.<ref name="Shi2015">{{Cite book |last=Shi |first=Lin 石林 |title=Xiāng-Qián-Guì biānqū de sān gè zúqún fāngyán dǎo |date=2015 |publisher=Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe |isbn=978-7-5161-6494-5 |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:湘黔桂边区的三个族群方言岛 |trans-title=Three Language Varieties of the Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi Border Region}}</ref>
*'''Diao 调''' (刁人): 2,000 (1999) in southeastern Guizhou around Liping and Congjiang; may speak Chinese or Dong.<ref>http://asiaharvest.org/wp-content/themes/asia/docs/people-groups/China/chinaPeoples/D/Diao.pdf</ref> Speakers are classified as ethnic Dong. Diao (''tjau13'') is a [[Cao Miao language|Cao Miao]] subgroup according to Shi (2015:43).<ref>Shi Lin [石林]. 2015. ''Three language varieties of the Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi border region'' [湘黔桂边区的三个族群方言岛]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press [中国社会科学出版社]. {{ISBN|9787516164945}}</ref>
*'''Diao 调''' (刁人): 2,000 (1999) in southeastern Guizhou around Liping and Congjiang; may speak Chinese or Dong.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diao |url=https://people-groups.asiaharvest.org/people-group-profiles/guizhou/diao.pdf |access-date=2021-08-31 |language=en |via=Asia Harvest}}</ref> Speakers are classified as ethnic Dong. Diao (''tjau13'') is a [[Cao Miao language|Cao Miao]] subgroup according to Shi (2015:43).<ref name="Shi2015" />

The [[Sanqiao language]] (''Qiaohua'' 锹话) is a mixed language of Miao, Dong, and Chinese origins.<ref name="zghuamiao"/> Sanqiao 三锹 (三橇) is spoken by 5,000 people (1999) in Liping and Jinping counties, Guizhou.<ref>http://asiaharvest.org/wp-content/themes/asia/docs/people-groups/China/chinaPeoples/S/Sanqiao.pdf</ref><ref name="zghuamiao">http://www.zghuamiao.com/nd.jsp?id=180</ref> Speakers are classified as either ethnic Miao or Dong.<ref>吴安毕, 柯震豪. [http://rkyj.ruc.edu.cn/CN/article/downloadArticleFile.do?attachType=PDF&id=2200 贵州待识别民族人口的初步分析].</ref>


The following peoples may also speak Kam–Sui languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asiaharvest.org/index.php/people-group-profiles/china/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-07-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801062653/http://asiaharvest.org/index.php/people-group-profiles/china/ |archivedate=2013-08-01 |df= }}</ref>
The following peoples may also speak Kam–Sui languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China |url=http://asiaharvest.org/index.php/people-group-profiles/china/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801062653/http://asiaharvest.org/index.php/people-group-profiles/china/ |archive-date=2013-08-01 |access-date=2013-07-19 |website=Asia Harvest |language=en}}</ref>
*'''Xialusi 下路司''': 3,000 (1999) in southeastern Guizhou; classified as Dong, but their linguistic affiliation is unknown (possibly Kam-Sui).<ref>http://asiaharvest.org/wp-content/themes/asia/docs/people-groups/China/chinaPeoples/X/Xialusi.pdf</ref> Speakers are classified as ethnic Dong.
*'''Xialusi 下路司''': 3,000 (1999) in southeastern Guizhou; classified as Dong, but their linguistic affiliation is unknown (possibly Kam-Sui).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Xialusi |url=https://people-groups.asiaharvest.org/people-group-profiles/guizhou/xialusi.pdf |access-date=2021-08-31 |language=en |via=Asia Harvest}}</ref> Speakers are classified as ethnic Dong.
*'''Shui of Yunnan''': 6,800 (1990) in Huangnihe 黃泥河 and Gugan 古敢水族乡,<ref>http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69595</ref> [[Fuyuan County, Yunnan|Fuyuan County]], Yunnan; 490 (1990) in Dahe and Long'an of [[Yiliang County, Zhaotong|Yiliang County]].<ref>http://asiaharvest.org/wp-content/themes/asia/docs/people-groups/China/chinaPeoples/S/ShuiYunnan.pdf</ref> In Gugan, there is a village cluster known as the "Five Shui Villages" 水五寨,<ref>http://file.lw23.com/5/54/542/5426d856-8bbb-4108-a310-96caa7bace36.pdf</ref> consisting of Buzhang 补掌,<ref>http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69611</ref> Dongla 咚喇,<ref>http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vindex.aspx?departmentid=69619&classid=727513</ref> Reshui 热水,<ref>http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69618</ref> Dazhai 大寨,<ref>http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69621</ref> and Duzhang 都章.<ref>http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69609</ref> It is still spoken in Xinbao Village 新堡村, Laochang Township 老厂乡, [[Fuyuan County, Yunnan|Fuyuan County]], Yunnan.<ref>Hai Zuoliang [海佐良] (2006). [http://wuxizazhi.cnki.net/Search/MCGZ200604008.html 云南水族语言最后的余音. 《今日民族》2006年第04期.]</ref><ref>http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=92314</ref> Also in Dacunzi 大村子, Geyi Township 格宜镇, [[Xuanwei]] City.<ref>http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=34677</ref><ref>[http://wenku.baidu.com/view/69084e8ad0d233d4b14e699b.html 曲靖民族源流概述]</ref> However, these are actually all [[Northern Tai languages]] ([[Bouyei language|Bouyei]]) according to Hsiu (2013).<ref>Hsiu, Andrew. 2013. [http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1127798 “Shui” varieties of western Guizhou and Yunnan].</ref>
*'''Shui of Yunnan''': 6,800 (1990) in Huangnihe 黃泥河 and Gugan 古敢水族乡,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Gǔgǎn Cūnwěihuì |script-title=zh:富源县古敢水族乡古敢村委会 |trans-title=Gugan Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County |url=http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69595 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230185827/http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69595 |archive-date=2018-12-30 |access-date=2018-12-30 |website=ynszxc.net |language=zh}}</ref> [[Fuyuan County, Yunnan|Fuyuan County]], Yunnan; 490 (1990) in Dahe and Long'an of [[Yiliang County, Zhaotong|Yiliang County]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shui, Yunnan |url=https://irp-cdn.multiscreensite.com/5ddddb20/files/uploaded/shui-yunnan.pdf |access-date=2021-08-31 |language=en |via=Asia Harvest}}</ref> In Gugan, there is a village cluster known as the "Five Shui Villages" 水五寨,<ref>http://file.lw23.com/5/54/542/5426d856-8bbb-4108-a310-96caa7bace36.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> consisting of Buzhang 补掌,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Bǔzhǎng Cūn |script-title=zh:富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会补掌村 |trans-title=Buzhang Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County |url=http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69611 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230202049/http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69611 |archive-date=2018-12-30 |access-date=2018-12-30 |website=ynszxc.net |language=zh}}</ref> Dongla 咚喇,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Dōnglǎ Cūn |script-title=zh:富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会咚喇村 |trans-title=Dongla Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County |url=http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vindex.aspx?departmentid=69619&classid=727513 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230184230/http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vindex.aspx?departmentid=69619&classid=727513 |archive-date=2018-12-30 |access-date=2018-12-30 |website=ynszxc.net |language=zh}}</ref> Reshui 热水,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Rèshuǐlǎozhài Cūn |script-title=zh:富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会热水老寨村 |trans-title=Reshuilaozhai Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County |url=http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69618 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230202258/http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69618 |archive-date=2018-12-30 |access-date=2018-12-30 |website=ynszxc.net |language=zh}}</ref> Dazhai 大寨,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Dàzhài Cūn |script-title=zh:富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会大寨村 |trans-title=Dazhai Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County |url=http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69621 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230191550/http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69621 |archive-date=2018-12-30 |access-date=2018-12-30 |website=ynszxc.net |language=zh}}</ref> and Duzhang 都章.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Dōuzhāng Cūn |script-title=zh:富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会都章村 |trans-title=Duzhang Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County |url=http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69609 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230195336/http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=69609 |archive-date=2018-12-30 |access-date=2018-12-30 |website=ynszxc.net |language=zh}}</ref> It is still spoken in Xinbao Village 新堡村, Laochang Township 老厂乡, [[Fuyuan County, Yunnan|Fuyuan County]], Yunnan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hai |first=Zuoliang 海佐良 |date=2006 |title=Yúnnán shuǐzú yǔyán zuìhòu de yúyīn |script-title=zh:云南水族语言最后的余音 |url=http://wuxizazhi.cnki.net/Search/MCGZ200604008.html |journal=Jīnrì mínzú |language=zh |volume=2006 |issue=4 |pages=32–33 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052359/http://wuxizazhi.cnki.net/Search/MCGZ200604008.html |archive-date=2016-03-04 |script-journal=zh:今日民族}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fùyuán Xiàn Lǎochǎng Xiāng Xīnbǎo Cūnwěihuì Lèé Cūn |script-title=zh:富源县老厂乡新堡村委会乐额村 |trans-title=Le'e Village, Xinbao Village Committee, Laochang Township, Fuyuan County |url=http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=92314 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230181324/http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=92314 |archive-date=2018-12-30 |access-date=2018-12-30 |website=ynszxc.net |language=zh}}</ref> Also in Dacunzi 大村子, Geyi Township 格宜镇, [[Xuanwei]] City.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Xuānwēi Shì Géyí Zhèn Dàpíng Cūnwěihuì Dàcūnzi Cūn |script-title=zh:宣威市格宜镇大坪村委会大村子村 |trans-title=Dacunzi Village, Daping Village Committee, Geyi Town, Xuanwei City |url=http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=34677 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230185925/http://www.ynszxc.net/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=34677 |archive-date=2018-12-30 |access-date=2018-12-30 |website=ynszxc.net |language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Qūjìng mínzú yuánliú gàishù |script-title=zh:曲靖民族源流概述 |url=http://wenku.baidu.com/view/69084e8ad0d233d4b14e699b.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830184501/https://wenku.baidu.com/view/69084e8ad0d233d4b14e699b.html |archive-date=2021-08-30 |access-date=2013-03-08 |language=zh |via=Baidu}}</ref> However, these are actually all [[Northern Tai languages]] ([[Bouyei language|Bouyei]]) according to Hsiu (2013).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hsiu |first=Andrew |date=2013 |title="Shui" Varieties of Western Guizhou and Yunnan |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1133488 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.1133488}}</ref>


There are also some languages in southeastern Guizhou, northern Guangxi, and southwestern Hunan that have been influenced by Kam–Sui languages, such as Suantang 酸汤 and [[Tongdao Pinghua]], a [[Pinghua]] lect spoken in [[Tongdao Dong Autonomous County]], [[Hunan]].<ref name="Peng2010">Peng Jianguo [彭建国]. 2010. [http://wenku.baidu.com/view/4d6bdbf1856a561252d36f61.html 湖南通道侗族“本地话”的语音系统及其归属]. Journal of Yunmeng 云梦学刊, Vol. 31, No. 4.</ref> Kam-Sui languages are also in contact with Suantang 酸汤, a Sinitic language spoken by about 80,000 ethnic Miao in Baibu 白布, Dihu 地湖, Dabaozi 大堡子, and Sanqiao 三锹 in Tianzhu, Huitong, and Jing counties (Chen Qiguang 2013:35).<ref>Chen, Qiguang [陈其光] (2013). ''Miao and Yao language'' [苗瑶语文]. Beijing: China Minzu University Press.</ref> Suantang is very similar to [[New Xiang]] (新湘语), but is unintelligible with [[Southwestern Mandarin]].
There are also some languages in southeastern Guizhou, northern Guangxi, and southwestern Hunan that have been influenced by Kam–Sui languages, such as Suantang 酸汤 and [[Tongdao Pinghua]], a [[Pinghua]] lect spoken in [[Tongdao Dong Autonomous County]], [[Hunan]].<ref name="Peng2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Peng |first1=Jianguo 彭建国 |last2=He |first2=Yuna 何妤娜 |date=2010 |title=Húnán Tōngdào dòngzú "Běndìhuà" de yǔyīn xìtǒng jí qí guīshǔ |script-title=zh:湖南通道侗族“本地话”的语音系统及其归属 |trans-title=The Phonetic System and Belongingness of "Bendihua" of Tongdao |url=http://wenku.baidu.com/view/4d6bdbf1856a561252d36f61.html |journal=Yúnmèng xué kān / Journal of Yunmeng |language=zh |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=138–141 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830184501/https://wenku.baidu.com/view/4d6bdbf1856a561252d36f61.html |archive-date=2021-08-30 |via=Baidu}}</ref> Kam–Sui languages are also in contact with Suantang 酸汤, a Sinitic language spoken by about 80,000 ethnic Miao in Baibu 白布, Dihu 地湖, Dabaozi 大堡子, and Sanqiao 三锹 in Tianzhu, Huitong, and Jing counties (Chen Qiguang 2013:35).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Qiguang 陈其光 |title=Miáo Yáo yǔwén |date=2013 |publisher=Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:苗瑶语文 |trans-title=Miao and Yao Language}}</ref> Suantang is very similar to [[New Xiang]] (新湘语), but is unintelligible with [[Southwestern Mandarin]].


==Reconstruction==
==Reconstruction==
{{main|Proto-Kam–Sui language}}
{{main|Proto-Kam–Sui language}}
The Proto-Kam–Sui language is the [[linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] ancestor of the Kam–Sui languages.
The [[Proto-Kam–Sui language]] is the [[linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] ancestor of the Kam–Sui languages.


==See also==
==See also==
Line 113: Line 136:


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*''Tai–Kadai Languages''. (2007). Curzon Pr. {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1457-5}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Tai-Kadai Languages |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-700-71457-5 |editor-last=Diller |editor-first=Anthony |location=London |language=en |orig-date=First published 2005 |editor-last2=Edmondson |editor-first2=Jerold A. |editor-last3=Luo |editor-first3=Yongxian}}
* Diller, A. (2005). ''The Tai–Kadai languages''. London [etc.]: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-7007-1457-X}}
* Edmondson, J. A., & Solnit, D. B. (1988). ''Comparative Kadai: linguistic studies beyond Tai''. Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics, no. 86. [Arlington, Tex.]: Summer Institute of Linguistics. {{ISBN|0-88312-066-6}}
* {{Cite book |title=Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai |date=1988 |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington |isbn=0-88312-066-6 |editor-last=Edmondson |editor-first=Jerold A. |series=Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86 |location=Dallas |language=en |editor-last2=Solnit |editor-first2=David B.}}
* Peiros, Ilia. 1998. "Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia". Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
* {{Cite book |last=Peiros |first=Ilia |title=Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia |date=1998 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |isbn=0-85883-489-8 |location=Canberra |doi=10.15144/PL-C142 |hdl=1885/146631 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}
* Thurgood, Graham. 1988. "Notes on the reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui." In Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit (eds.), Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai, 179-218. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.
* {{Cite book |last=Thurgood |first=Graham |title=Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai |date=1988 |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington |editor-last=Edmondson |editor-first=Jerold A. |series=Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86 |location=Dallas |pages=179–218 |language=en |chapter=Notes on the Reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui |editor-last2=Solnit |editor-first2=David B.}}
{{refend}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=715 ABVD: Proto-Kam–Sui word list]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170109113921/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=715 ABVD: Proto-Kam–Sui word list]


{{Tai-Kadai languages}}
{{Tai-Kadai languages}}

Latest revision as of 08:41, 15 June 2024

Kam–Sui
侗水語支
Dong–Shui
Geographic
distribution		eastern Guizhou, western Hunan, and northern Guangxi
Linguistic classificationKra–Dai
Proto-languageProto-Kam–Sui
Language codes
Glottologkams1241

The Kam–Sui languages (Chinese: 侗水語支; pinyin: Dòng-Shǔi) are a branch of the Kra–Dai languages spoken by the Kam–Sui peoples. They are spoken mainly in eastern Guizhou, western Hunan, and northern Guangxi in southern China. Small pockets of Kam–Sui speakers are also found in northern Vietnam and Laos.[1]

Classification

[edit]

The Kam–Sui branch includes about a dozen languages. Solnit (1988)[2] considers Lakkia and Biao languages to be sister branches of Kam–Sui, rather than part of Kam–Sui itself.

The best known Kam–Sui languages are Dong (Kam), with over a million speakers, Mulam, Maonan, and Sui. Other Kam–Sui languages include Ai-Cham, Mak, and Tʻen, and Chadong, which is the most recently discovered Kam–Sui language. Yang (2000) considers Ai-Cham and Mak to be dialects of a single language.[3]

Thurgood (1988)

[edit]

Graham Thurgood (1988) presents the following tentative classification for the Kam–Sui branch.[4] Chadong, a language that has been described only recently by Chinese linguist Jinfang Li, is also included below. It is most closely related to Maonan.[5] Cao Miao and Naxi Yao, which are closely related to Southern Dong, have also been added from Shi (2015).[6]

Kam–Sui 

Norquest (2021)

[edit]

Peter Norquest (2021:234) presents another classification for the Kam–Sui branch.[8]

Demographics

[edit]

Nearly all speakers of Kam–Sui languages originate in the Qiandongnan (Dong) and Qiannan (Sui, Then, Mak, Ai-Cham) Prefectures of Guizhou, as well as the prefecture-level cities of Hechi (Mulam and Maonan) and Guilin (Chadong) in northern Guangxi. Many Kam–Sui speakers have also migrated to farther urban areas such as Guangzhou.

Small groups of Kam and Sui speakers also reside in Tuyên Quang Province, Vietnam, in the villages of Đồng Mộc and Hồng Quang, respectively.

By language

[edit]
Population distribution of the Dong and other Kam-Sui ethnic groups in China

By location

[edit]

(Listed counterclockwise: east to north to west to south)

By population

[edit]

There is a total of about 2 million Kam–Sui speakers.

The four largest Kam–Sui ethnic groups, the Dong, Shui, Mulao, and Maonan, are officially recognized by the Chinese government. Non-recognized Kam–Sui ethnic groups (Chadong, Then, Mak, Ai-Cham) who can still speak their own languages number less than 50,000.

  1. Dong: about 1,500,000 speakers; 1.7 million in 1995
  2. Sui: 300,000 speakers
  3. Mulam: 86,000 speakers (ethnic population: 200,000)
  4. Maonan: 30,000 speakers (ethnic population: 100,000)
  5. Chadong: 20,000 speakers
  6. Then: 15,000 speakers
  7. Mak: 10,000 speakers
  8. Ai-Cham: 2,700 speakers

Other languages

[edit]
Main article: List of unrecognized ethnic groups of Guizhou

The following language varieties are closely related to, or part of, Southern Dong.

  • Mjuniang 谬娘 or Cao Miao 草苗 (ISO 639-3: cov): 60,000 (1991) in Liping, Tongdao, and Sanjiang; closely related to Dong.[6][9] Speakers are classified as ethnic Miao.
  • Naxi Yao 那溪瑶 (autonym: mu2 ɲiu1) is spoken by 2,500 people in Naxi Township 那溪瑶族乡, Dongkou County, Hunan Province, China.[6]
  • Diao 调 (刁人): 2,000 (1999) in southeastern Guizhou around Liping and Congjiang; may speak Chinese or Dong.[10] Speakers are classified as ethnic Dong. Diao (tjau13) is a Cao Miao subgroup according to Shi (2015:43).[6]

The following peoples may also speak Kam–Sui languages.[11]

  • Xialusi 下路司: 3,000 (1999) in southeastern Guizhou; classified as Dong, but their linguistic affiliation is unknown (possibly Kam-Sui).[12] Speakers are classified as ethnic Dong.
  • Shui of Yunnan: 6,800 (1990) in Huangnihe 黃泥河 and Gugan 古敢水族乡,[13] Fuyuan County, Yunnan; 490 (1990) in Dahe and Long'an of Yiliang County.[14] In Gugan, there is a village cluster known as the "Five Shui Villages" 水五寨,[15] consisting of Buzhang 补掌,[16] Dongla 咚喇,[17] Reshui 热水,[18] Dazhai 大寨,[19] and Duzhang 都章.[20] It is still spoken in Xinbao Village 新堡村, Laochang Township 老厂乡, Fuyuan County, Yunnan.[21][22] Also in Dacunzi 大村子, Geyi Township 格宜镇, Xuanwei City.[23][24] However, these are actually all Northern Tai languages (Bouyei) according to Hsiu (2013).[25]

There are also some languages in southeastern Guizhou, northern Guangxi, and southwestern Hunan that have been influenced by Kam–Sui languages, such as Suantang 酸汤 and Tongdao Pinghua, a Pinghua lect spoken in Tongdao Dong Autonomous County, Hunan.[26] Kam–Sui languages are also in contact with Suantang 酸汤, a Sinitic language spoken by about 80,000 ethnic Miao in Baibu 白布, Dihu 地湖, Dabaozi 大堡子, and Sanqiao 三锹 in Tianzhu, Huitong, and Jing counties (Chen Qiguang 2013:35).[27] Suantang is very similar to New Xiang (新湘语), but is unintelligible with Southwestern Mandarin.

Reconstruction

[edit]
Main article: Proto-Kam–Sui language

The Proto-Kam–Sui language is the reconstructed ancestor of the Kam–Sui languages.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Map & Language Descriptions". Lesser Known Indigenous Languages of Northern Vietnam. Archived from the original on 2012-02-07. Retrieved 2010-12-02.
  2. ^ Solnit, David B. (1988). "The Position of Lakkia Within Kadai". In Edmondson, Jerold A.; Solnit, David B. (eds.). Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 219–238.
  3. ^ Yang, Tongyin 杨通银 (2000). Mò yǔ yánjiū 莫语研究 [A Study of Mak] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe. ISBN 978-7-81056-427-4.
  4. ^ Thurgood (1988)
  5. ^ a b Li, Jinfang (2008). "Chadong, a Newly-Discovered Kam–Sui Language in Northern Guangxi". In Diller, Anthony; Edmondson, Jerold A.; Luo, Yongxian (eds.). The Tai–Kadai Languages. New York: Routledge. pp. 596–620.
  6. ^ a b c d Shi, Lin 石林 (2015). Xiāng-Qián-Guì biānqū de sān gè zúqún fāngyán dǎo 湘黔桂边区的三个族群方言岛 [Three Language Varieties of the Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi Border Region] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe. ISBN 978-7-5161-6494-5.
  7. ^ Lin, Shi; Cui, Jianxin (1988). "An Investigation of the Ai-Cham Language". In Edmondson, Jerold A.; Solnit, David B. (eds.). Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 59–85.
  8. ^ Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.
  9. ^ "Mjuniang" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-08-31 – via Asia Harvest.
  10. ^ "Diao" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-08-31 – via Asia Harvest.
  11. ^ "China". Asia Harvest. Archived from the original on 2013-08-01. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  12. ^ "Xialusi" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-08-31 – via Asia Harvest.
  13. ^ "Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Gǔgǎn Cūnwěihuì" 富源县古敢水族乡古敢村委会 [Gugan Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County]. ynszxc.net (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-12-30. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  14. ^ "Shui, Yunnan" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-08-31 – via Asia Harvest.
  15. ^ http://file.lw23.com/5/54/542/5426d856-8bbb-4108-a310-96caa7bace36.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  16. ^ "Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Bǔzhǎng Cūn" 富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会补掌村 [Buzhang Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County]. ynszxc.net (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-12-30. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  17. ^ "Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Dōnglǎ Cūn" 富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会咚喇村 [Dongla Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County]. ynszxc.net (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-12-30. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  18. ^ "Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Rèshuǐlǎozhài Cūn" 富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会热水老寨村 [Reshuilaozhai Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County]. ynszxc.net (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-12-30. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  19. ^ "Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Dàzhài Cūn" 富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会大寨村 [Dazhai Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County]. ynszxc.net (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-12-30. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  20. ^ "Fùyuán Xiàn Gǔgǎn Shuǐzú Xiāng Bǔzhǎng Cūnwěihuì Dōuzhāng Cūn" 富源县古敢水族乡补掌村委会都章村 [Duzhang Village, Buzhang Village Committee, Gugan Shui Ethnic Township, Fuyuan County]. ynszxc.net (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-12-30. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  21. ^ Hai, Zuoliang 海佐良 (2006). "Yúnnán shuǐzú yǔyán zuìhòu de yúyīn" 云南水族语言最后的余音. Jīnrì mínzú 今日民族 (in Chinese). 2006 (4): 32–33. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
  22. ^ "Fùyuán Xiàn Lǎochǎng Xiāng Xīnbǎo Cūnwěihuì Lèé Cūn" 富源县老厂乡新堡村委会乐额村 [Le'e Village, Xinbao Village Committee, Laochang Township, Fuyuan County]. ynszxc.net (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-12-30. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  23. ^ "Xuānwēi Shì Géyí Zhèn Dàpíng Cūnwěihuì Dàcūnzi Cūn" 宣威市格宜镇大坪村委会大村子村 [Dacunzi Village, Daping Village Committee, Geyi Town, Xuanwei City]. ynszxc.net (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-12-30. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  24. ^ "Qūjìng mínzú yuánliú gàishù" 曲靖民族源流概述 (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2021-08-30. Retrieved 2013-03-08 – via Baidu.
  25. ^ Hsiu, Andrew (2013). ""Shui" Varieties of Western Guizhou and Yunnan". doi:10.5281/zenodo.1133488. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  26. ^ Peng, Jianguo 彭建国; He, Yuna 何妤娜 (2010). "Húnán Tōngdào dòngzú "Běndìhuà" de yǔyīn xìtǒng jí qí guīshǔ" 湖南通道侗族“本地话”的语音系统及其归属 [The Phonetic System and Belongingness of "Bendihua" of Tongdao]. Yúnmèng xué kān / Journal of Yunmeng (in Chinese). 31 (4): 138–141. Archived from the original on 2021-08-30 – via Baidu.
  27. ^ Chen, Qiguang 陈其光 (2013). Miáo Yáo yǔwén 苗瑶语文 [Miao and Yao Language] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe.

Further reading

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  • Diller, Anthony; Edmondson, Jerold A.; Luo, Yongxian, eds. (2014) [First published 2005]. The Tai-Kadai Languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-700-71457-5.
  • Edmondson, Jerold A.; Solnit, David B., eds. (1988). Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. ISBN 0-88312-066-6.
  • Peiros, Ilia (1998). Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. doi:10.15144/PL-C142. hdl:1885/146631. ISBN 0-85883-489-8.
  • Thurgood, Graham (1988). "Notes on the Reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui". In Edmondson, Jerold A.; Solnit, David B. (eds.). Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 179–218.
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