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{{short description|A woven cloth, mix of silk and cotton}}
{{short description|Woven cloth, blend of silk and cotton}}
{{Cleanup|reason=syntax & grammar; markup errors.; non-standard/unclear referencing.|date=February 2021}}

[[File:Weeks Edwin The Silk Merchants.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1|Silk merchants in the 19th century]]
[[File:Weeks Edwin The Silk Merchants.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1|Silk merchants in the 19th century]]
'''''Mashru''''' (Mushroo, Mashroo, Misru) was a a woven cloth, mix of [[silk]] and [[cotton]]. It was an old handwoven [[satin]] silk variety of the [[Indian subcontinent]].
'''Mashru''' (also historically spelled '''mashroo''', '''misru''', '''mushroo''' or '''mushru''') is a woven cloth that is a [[Blend (textile)|blend]] of [[silk]] and [[cotton]]. It was historically a hand-woven [[satin]] silk fabric variety found in the [[Indian subcontinent]], and its proper use is described in the 16th-century ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]''.


==History==
⚫
== Texture and types ==
Mashru is explicitly mentioned in the administrative document, the ''Ain-i-Akbari'', of the 16th-century [[Mughal Empire]], under silken kinds of stuff: "... the ordinary orthodox Muslim was only anxious to wear clothes of simple material like linen and to avoid silk, velvet, brocade, or fur and coloured ... Mashru."<ref name="AiA"/> Mixed silk-and-cotton textiles were worn, because, by canon, a Muslim must not wear a dress of pure silk.<ref name="AiA">61 ''Ain-i-Akbari'', Blochmann, I, 89". See [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz16lub2uRgC&q=M ''A Social History of Islamic India'']; Yasin, Mohammad; via: books.google.co.in; (1958); p. 39</ref> Varieties containing silk and cotton admixtures gained greater currency in the empire, more particularly after the issuance of the ''Ain-i-Akbari''.<ref name="Journal">[https://books.google.com/books?id=O8gnAQAAIAAJ&q=M ''Indian Journal of History of Science'']; Volumes 17-18; p. 120</ref> During the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal period]], Mashru was used for the [[costume]]s of [[courtier]]s and nobles.<ref>{{Cite book | last=General| first=India Office of the Registrar| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ErzUAAAAMAAJ| title=Census of India, 1961: Gujarat| date=1962| publisher=Manager of Publications| isbn=| location=| pages=66| language=en}}</ref> Mashru is presumed to be an Indian innovation.<ref name="Journal"/>


=== Texture ===
===Etymology===
⚫
The word ''mashru'' means 'permitted', derived from ''mashry'' in [[Arabic]], and ''misry'' (or ''misru'') refers to a mixture in [[Sanskrit]].<ref>{{Cite book | last=| first=| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7BMAQAAMAAJ| title=Textiles and Dress of India: Socio-economic, Environmental and Symbolic Significance| date=1992| publisher=University of Minnesota| isbn=| location=| pages=69| language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book | last1=Gillow| first1=John| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=647rAAAAMAAJ| title=Indian Textiles| last2=Barnard| first2=Nicholas| date=2008| publisher=Thames & Hudson| isbn=978-0-500-51432-0| location=| pages=98| language=en}}</ref><ref name="Jas"/> In India, Mashru is also known under such names as bandha, patolu, telia rumal, chitki, or simply tie. These names generally mean 'permitted', but it is also related to the Sanskrit word misru, meaning 'mixed'.<ref>Museum für Völkerkunde und Schweizerisches Museum für Volkskunde Basel, Marie-Louise Nabholz-Kartaschoff · 1986; [https://books.google.com/books?id=XzbrAAAAMAAJ&q=The+word+Mashru+means+permitted+in+Arabic article]</ref>
It was a [[Warp and weft|warp]] faced fabric, In weave cotton yarn goes down and silk comes up that produces a cloth that exhibits a silk face and cotton back.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Yule|first=Sir Henry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcjmiBm8hHQC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq&hl=en|title=Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary|last2=Burnell|first2=Arthur Coke|date=1996|publisher=Wordsworth Editions|year=|isbn=978-1-85326-363-7|location=|pages=707|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1"><nowiki>''</nowiki>The ordinary orthodox Muslim was only anxious to wear clothes of simple material like linen and to avoid silk , velvet , brocade or fur and coloured ... Mashru - Canonically allowed cloth , i . e . , mixed silk and cotton stuff , was worn , because a Muslim must not wear a dress of pure silk ... 61 Ain - i - Akbari , Blochmann , I , 89<nowiki>''</nowiki>


⚫
== Texture and types ==
'''PAGE 39'''
⚫
=== Production and texture ===

Mashru has been primarily produced in [[Punjab]], [[Sindh]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bühler |first1=Alfred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlZQAAAAMAAJ&q=mashru+sindh |title=Indian Tie-dyed Fabrics |last2=Fischer |first2=Eberhard |date=1980 |publisher=Calico Museum of Textiles |language=en}}</ref> and [[Western India|western parts of India]].<ref>{{Cite book | last=Mukhopādhyāẏa| first=Trailokyanātha| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3QTAAAAQAAJ| title=Art-manufactures of India: Specially Compiled for the Glasgow International Exhibition, 1888| date=1888| publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing| isbn=| location=| pages=347| language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite book | last=MATHEWS| first=KOLANJIKOMBIL | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkqoDwAAQBAJ| title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Textile Terms: Four Volume Set| date=2017| publisher=Woodhead Publishing India PVT. Limited| isbn=978-93-85059-66-7| location=| pages=912| language=en}}</ref><ref name="PRCola">{{Cite book | last=Cola| first=P. R.| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EJABAAAAQAAJ| title=How to Develop a Productive Industry in India and the East: Mills and Factories for Ginning, Spinning, and Weaving Cotton... | date=1867| publisher=Virtue and Company| isbn=| location=| pages=328| language=en}}</ref> It is a double-layered material with a thick cotton base and covered with an almost single stranded silken warp and woof. Mashru is a stout, silken, [[Warp and weft|warp]]-faced fabric textile with a [[variegated]] pattern. In its weaving, the loom brings the cotton yarn down and the silk fibers up. This produces a cloth that exhibits a silk face and cotton backing.<ref name="Henry">{{Cite book | last1=Yule| first1=Sir Henry| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcjmiBm8hHQC| title=Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary| last2=Burnell| first2=Arthur Coke| date=1996| publisher=Wordsworth Editions| isbn=978-1-85326-363-7| location=| pages=707| language=en}}</ref> Hence it was a mix of silk and cotton, although with a satin finish. The result is a thick and heavy cloth with less lustrous and feminine-like pure silk.<ref name="Henry"/>
A Social History of Islamic India - Page 39books.google.co.in › books

Mohammad Yasin · 1958<nowiki/>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_Social_History_of_Islamic_India/Rz16lub2uRgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=M
</ref> Hence it was a mix of silk and cotton, although satin but a thick and heavy cloth with less lustrous and feminine nature like pure silk.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Yule|first=Sir Henry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcjmiBm8hHQC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq&hl=en|title=Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary|last2=Burnell|first2=Arthur Coke|date=1996|publisher=Wordsworth Editions|year=|isbn=978-1-85326-363-7|location=|pages=912|language=en}}</ref><ref><nowiki>''</nowiki>Mashru , for instance , a double layered material with a thick cotton base and covered with almost a single stranded silken warp and woof , was presumably an Indian innovation . Varieties containing silk and cotton admixtures gained greater currency in the empire , more particularly after the ... Ain - i - Akbari , Persian , ( ed . ) ...<nowiki>''</nowiki>

[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Journal_of_History_of_Science/O8gnAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=M Indian Journal of History of Science - Volumes 17-18 - Page 120]

[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Journal_of_History_of_Science/O8gnAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=M 1982]</ref>


=== Types ===
=== Types ===
There were varieties of Mashru clothes, [[Gulbadan (silk cloth)|Gulbadan]], and Sufi, among few leading examples of this category. Mashru was a coarser variety of silk clothes, and it was less expensive than pure silk.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Baden-Powell|first=Baden Henry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnAIAAAAQAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq&hl=en|title=Hand-book of the Economic Products of the Punjab: With a Combined Index and Glossary of Technical Vernacular Words|date=1872|publisher=Printed at the Thomason Civil Engineering College Press|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=64, 65|language=en}}</ref>
Mashru with silk face and cotton inside was useful for various dresses and household items.<ref name=":6" /><ref name="PRCola"/> Indigenous mashru was famous for its strength and aesthetics. "All 'Mushroos' wash well, especially the finer kinds..."<ref name="PRCola"/> There are varieties of mashru clothes, including [[Gulbadan (silk cloth)|gulbadan]] and sufi. Superior kinds of material are categorized as mashru; and lower quality are called [[Sangi (cloth)|sangi]].<ref>{{Cite book | last=Mukhopādhyāẏa| first=Trailokyanātha| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3QTAAAAQAAJ| title=Art-manufactures of India: Specially Compiled for the Glasgow International Exhibition, 1888| date=1888| publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing| pages=338| language=en}}</ref> Mashru is less expensive than pure silk.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book | last=Baden-Powell| first=Baden Henry| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnAIAAAAQAAJ| title=Hand-book of the Economic Products of the Punjab...| date=1872| publisher=Printed at the Thomason Civil Engineering College Press| isbn=| location=| pages=64, 65| language=en}}</ref>

[[Bahawalpur]] and Multan was famous for its ''Shuja khání'' silks (mixed silk cloths).<ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G6SgAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq&hl=en|title=Calcutta Review|date=1891|publisher=University of Calcutta|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=258|language=en}}</ref>

== Mentions ==
Mashru is explicitly mentioned in the [[Ain-i-Akbari]] under silken kinds of stuff.


== Religious admonition ==
== Religious admonition ==
The wearing of pure silk, particularly next to the skin, was widely held to be an impious luxury for good Muslims. "Pure silk is not allowed to men, but women may wear the most sumptuous silk fabrics" (''Yusuf Ali'', ''op. cit.'' 90, ''seq.'')<ref name=":0" /> Unlike pure silk, the blend was lawful. Hence it was an acceptable and a popular type of cloth among Muslim men in Northern India and Pakistan. Similar type of cloth named ''kutnu'' was famous in the Near East<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2"><nowiki>''</nowiki>The ikat velvet pieces which have been located so far and can be identified as Indian are similar in style to the mashru being woven in Western India . ... for the basic foundation and this may have been prepared specially for the conservative Muslim who did not use silk thread next to ... 19 The Ain - i - Akbari also mentions that Akbar received textiles signed by Giyatyad - Din Ali Naqshband as a part of the ...<nowiki>''</nowiki>
The wearing of pure silk, particularly next to the skin, was widely held to be an impious luxury for good Muslims. "Pure silk is not allowed to men, but women may wear the most sumptuous silk fabrics"<ref>''Yusuf Ali'', ''op. cit.'' 90, ''seq.''</ref><ref name="Henry" /> Unlike pure silk, the [[Blend (textile)|blend]] was lawful. Hence, it was an acceptable and popular type of cloth among Muslim men in northern India and Pakistan. A similar type of cloth called ''kutnu'' was found in the [[Near East]].<ref name="AiA"/> "The ikat velvet pieces which have been located so far and can be identified as Indian are similar in style to the mashru being woven in western India ... for the basic foundation and this may have been prepared specially for the conservative Muslim who did not use silk thread. 19 ''Ain-i-Akbari'' also mentions that Akbar received textiles signed by Giyatyad - Din Ali Naqshband.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2VQAAAAMAAJ&q=M Handwoven Fabrics of India]; p. 56</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2VQAAAAMAAJ&q=M Jasleen Dhamija, Jyotindra Jain]; 1989</ref><ref name="Crill">{{Cite book | last=Crill| first=Rosemary| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85_pAAAAMAAJ| title=Textiles from India: The Global Trade... | date=2006| publisher=Seagull Books| isbn=978-1-905422-17-3| location=Conference on the Indian Textile Trade, Kolkata, 12-14 October 2003 | pages=331| language=en}}</ref><ref name="Jas">{{Cite book | last=Dhamija| first=Jasleen| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIfWAAAAMAAJ| title=Woven Magic: The Affinitity [sic] Between Indian and Indonesian Textiles| date=2002| publisher=Dian Rakyat| isbn=978-979-523-567-5| language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Jadia| first=Umesh| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC9uAAAAMAAJ| title=Kachchh: An Introduction to the Historical Places, Textile Embroideries, Arts & Crafts Etc. of Kachchh| date=1999| publisher=Radhey Screen Printing| isbn=| location=| pages=28| language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=Clothing| url=http://char.txa.cornell.edu/islamicclothes.htm| access-date=2021-02-17| website=char.txa.cornell.edu}}</ref>

[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Handwoven_Fabrics_of_India/u2VQAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=M Handwoven Fabrics of India - Page 56]

[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Handwoven_Fabrics_of_India/u2VQAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=M Jasleen Dhamija, Jyotindra Jain · 1989]</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Crill|first=Rosemary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85_pAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&q&hl=en|title=Textiles from India: The Global Trade : Papers Presented at a Conference on the Indian Textile Trade, Kolkata, 12-14 October 2003|date=2006|publisher=Seagull Books|year=|isbn=978-1-905422-17-3|location=|pages=331|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Dhamija|first=Jasleen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIfWAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&q&hl=en|title=Woven Magic: The Affinitity [sic] Between Indian and Indonesian Textiles|date=2002|publisher=Dian Rakyat|isbn=978-979-523-567-5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Jadia|first=Umesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC9uAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&q&hl=en|title=Kachchh: An Introduction to the Historical Places, Textile Embroideries, Arts & Crafts Etc. of Kachchh|date=1999|publisher=Radhey Screen Printing|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=28|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=CLOTHING|url=http://char.txa.cornell.edu/islamicclothes.htm|access-date=2021-02-17|website=char.txa.cornell.edu}}</ref>

⚫
Mashru or Mushrues ''mashrū' means'' 'lawful.' The word Mashru means permitted, driven from Mashry in [[Arabic]], and misry (or misru) refers to a mixture in the [[Sanskrit]] language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7BMAQAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&q&hl=en|title=Textiles and Dress of India: Socio-economic, Environmental and Symbolic Significance|date=1992|publisher=University of Minnesota|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=69|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Gillow|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=647rAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&q&hl=en|title=Indian Textiles|last2=Barnard|first2=Nicholas|date=2008|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=|isbn=978-0-500-51432-0|location=|pages=98|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref><nowiki>''</nowiki>In India , they are known under such names as bandha , mashru , patolu , telia rumal , chitki or simply ' tie ... A famous contemporary Arab traveler , Ibn Battuta , describes the rich gifts the Sultan of Delhi bestowed on the ... Their name means ' permitted ' , but it is also related to the Sanskrit word misru , meaning ' mixed ' .<nowiki>''</nowiki>

Page 223

Museum für Völkerkunde und Schweizerisches Museum für Volkskunde Basel, Marie-Louise Nabholz-Kartaschoff · 1986<nowiki/>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%81%AE%E4%BC%9D%E7%B5%B1%E6%9F%93%E7%B9%94/XzbrAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=The+word+Mashru+means+permitted+in+Arabic&dq=The+word+Mashru+means+permitted+in+Arabic&printsec=frontcover</ref>

⚫
== Production ==
Mashru was produced in [[Punjab]], and [[Western India|western]] parts<ref name=":2" /> of [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mukhopādhyāẏa|first=Trailokyanātha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3QTAAAAQAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq&hl=en|title=Art-manufactures of India: Specially Compiled for the Glasgow International Exhibition, 1888|date=1888|publisher=Superintendant of Government Printing|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=347|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=MATHEWS|first=KOLANJIKOMBIL|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkqoDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq&hl=en|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Textile Terms: Four Volume Set|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing India PVT. Limited|year=|isbn=978-93-85059-66-7|location=|pages=912|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Cola|first=P. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EJABAAAAQAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq&hl=en|title=How to Develope Productive Industry in India and the East: Mills and Factories for Ginning, Spinning, and Weaving Cotton; Jute and Silk Manufactures... Etc., Etc. With Estimates and Plans of Factories|date=1867|publisher=Virtue and Company|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=328|language=en}}</ref>

== Use ==
Mashru with silk face and cotton inside was useful for various dresses and household items.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /> During the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal period]] Mashru was used for the [[Costume|costumes]] of [[Courtier|courtiers]] and nobles.<ref>{{Cite book|last=General|first=India Office of the Registrar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ErzUAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&q&hl=en|title=Census of India, 1961: Gujarat|date=1962|publisher=Manager of Publications|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=66|language=en}}</ref>

"All ''Mushroos'' wash well, especially the finer kinds, used for bodices, petticoats, and trousers of both sexes." <ref>(''Forbes Watson'', ''op. cit.'' 97.){{citation needed}}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
*[[Alacha]]
* [[Alacha]]
*[[Gulbadan (silk cloth)]]
* [[Gulbadan (silk cloth)]]
* [[Garbi cloth]]


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Textile arts}}
{{Textile arts}}
{{Clothing}}
{{Clothing}}
Line 62: Line 33:
{{Punjab, Pakistan}}
{{Punjab, Pakistan}}


[[Category:Textiles]]
[[Category:Silk]]
[[Category:Silk]]
[[Category:Cotton]]
[[Category:Cotton]]

Latest revision as of 17:27, 23 June 2024

Silk merchants in the 19th century

Mashru (also historically spelled mashroo, misru, mushroo or mushru) is a woven cloth that is a blend of silk and cotton. It was historically a hand-woven satin silk fabric variety found in the Indian subcontinent, and its proper use is described in the 16th-century Ain-i-Akbari.

History

[edit]

Mashru is explicitly mentioned in the administrative document, the Ain-i-Akbari, of the 16th-century Mughal Empire, under silken kinds of stuff: "... the ordinary orthodox Muslim was only anxious to wear clothes of simple material like linen and to avoid silk, velvet, brocade, or fur and coloured ... Mashru."[1] Mixed silk-and-cotton textiles were worn, because, by canon, a Muslim must not wear a dress of pure silk.[1] Varieties containing silk and cotton admixtures gained greater currency in the empire, more particularly after the issuance of the Ain-i-Akbari.[2] During the Mughal period, Mashru was used for the costumes of courtiers and nobles.[3] Mashru is presumed to be an Indian innovation.[2]

Etymology

[edit]

The word mashru means 'permitted', derived from mashry in Arabic, and misry (or misru) refers to a mixture in Sanskrit.[4][5][6] In India, Mashru is also known under such names as bandha, patolu, telia rumal, chitki, or simply tie. These names generally mean 'permitted', but it is also related to the Sanskrit word misru, meaning 'mixed'.[7]

Texture and types

[edit]

Production and texture

[edit]

Mashru has been primarily produced in Punjab, Sindh[8] and western parts of India.[9][10][11] It is a double-layered material with a thick cotton base and covered with an almost single stranded silken warp and woof. Mashru is a stout, silken, warp-faced fabric textile with a variegated pattern. In its weaving, the loom brings the cotton yarn down and the silk fibers up. This produces a cloth that exhibits a silk face and cotton backing.[12] Hence it was a mix of silk and cotton, although with a satin finish. The result is a thick and heavy cloth with less lustrous and feminine-like pure silk.[12]

Types

[edit]

Mashru with silk face and cotton inside was useful for various dresses and household items.[10][11] Indigenous mashru was famous for its strength and aesthetics. "All 'Mushroos' wash well, especially the finer kinds..."[11] There are varieties of mashru clothes, including gulbadan and sufi. Superior kinds of material are categorized as mashru; and lower quality are called sangi.[13] Mashru is less expensive than pure silk.[14]

Religious admonition

[edit]

The wearing of pure silk, particularly next to the skin, was widely held to be an impious luxury for good Muslims. "Pure silk is not allowed to men, but women may wear the most sumptuous silk fabrics"[15][12] Unlike pure silk, the blend was lawful. Hence, it was an acceptable and popular type of cloth among Muslim men in northern India and Pakistan. A similar type of cloth called kutnu was found in the Near East.[1] "The ikat velvet pieces which have been located so far and can be identified as Indian are similar in style to the mashru being woven in western India ... for the basic foundation and this may have been prepared specially for the conservative Muslim who did not use silk thread. 19 Ain-i-Akbari also mentions that Akbar received textiles signed by Giyatyad - Din Ali Naqshband.[16][17][18][6][19][20]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c 61 Ain-i-Akbari, Blochmann, I, 89". See A Social History of Islamic India; Yasin, Mohammad; via: books.google.co.in; (1958); p. 39
  2. ^ a b Indian Journal of History of Science; Volumes 17-18; p. 120
  3. ^ General, India Office of the Registrar (1962). Census of India, 1961: Gujarat. Manager of Publications. p. 66.
  4. ^ Textiles and Dress of India: Socio-economic, Environmental and Symbolic Significance. University of Minnesota. 1992. p. 69.
  5. ^ Gillow, John; Barnard, Nicholas (2008). Indian Textiles. Thames & Hudson. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-500-51432-0.
  6. ^ a b Dhamija, Jasleen (2002). Woven Magic: The Affinitity [sic] Between Indian and Indonesian Textiles. Dian Rakyat. ISBN 978-979-523-567-5.
  7. ^ Museum für Völkerkunde und Schweizerisches Museum für Volkskunde Basel, Marie-Louise Nabholz-Kartaschoff · 1986; article
  8. ^ Bühler, Alfred; Fischer, Eberhard (1980). Indian Tie-dyed Fabrics. Calico Museum of Textiles.
  9. ^ Mukhopādhyāẏa, Trailokyanātha (1888). Art-manufactures of India: Specially Compiled for the Glasgow International Exhibition, 1888. Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 347.
  10. ^ a b MATHEWS, KOLANJIKOMBIL (2017). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Textile Terms: Four Volume Set. Woodhead Publishing India PVT. Limited. p. 912. ISBN 978-93-85059-66-7.
  11. ^ a b c Cola, P. R. (1867). How to Develop a Productive Industry in India and the East: Mills and Factories for Ginning, Spinning, and Weaving Cotton... Virtue and Company. p. 328.
  12. ^ a b c Yule, Sir Henry; Burnell, Arthur Coke (1996). Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary. Wordsworth Editions. p. 707. ISBN 978-1-85326-363-7.
  13. ^ Mukhopādhyāẏa, Trailokyanātha (1888). Art-manufactures of India: Specially Compiled for the Glasgow International Exhibition, 1888. Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 338.
  14. ^ Baden-Powell, Baden Henry (1872). Hand-book of the Economic Products of the Punjab... Printed at the Thomason Civil Engineering College Press. pp. 64, 65.
  15. ^ Yusuf Ali, op. cit. 90, seq.
  16. ^ Handwoven Fabrics of India; p. 56
  17. ^ Jasleen Dhamija, Jyotindra Jain; 1989
  18. ^ Crill, Rosemary (2006). Textiles from India: The Global Trade... Conference on the Indian Textile Trade, Kolkata, 12-14 October 2003: Seagull Books. p. 331. ISBN 978-1-905422-17-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  19. ^ Jadia, Umesh (1999). Kachchh: An Introduction to the Historical Places, Textile Embroideries, Arts & Crafts Etc. of Kachchh. Radhey Screen Printing. p. 28.
  20. ^ "Clothing". char.txa.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2021-02-17.
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