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|status = LC
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22729113/0 |title=''Pipilo maculatus''
|status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Pipilo maculatus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T103772680A95006324 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T103772680A95006324.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|author=BirdLife International
|author-link=BirdLife International
|year=2012 |access-date=26 November 2013}}</ref>
|genus = Pipilo
|genus = Pipilo
|species = maculatus
|species = maculatus
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}}
}}


The '''spotted towhee''' (''Pipilo maculatus'') is a large [[American sparrow|New World sparrow]]. The taxonomy of the [[towhee]]s has been debated in recent decades, and until 1995 this bird and the [[eastern towhee]] were considered a single species, the '''rufous-sided towhee'''. Literature before 1995 referred to the spotted towhee as a rufous-sided towhee that resides in the western [[United States]].<ref name=r9/> An archaic name for the spotted towhee is the '''Oregon towhee''' (''Pipilo maculatus oregonus''). The call may be harsher and more varied than for the eastern towhee.
The '''spotted towhee''' ('''''Pipilo maculatus''''') is a large [[American sparrow|New World sparrow]]. The taxonomy of the towhees has been debated in recent decades, and until 1995 this bird and the [[eastern towhee]] were considered a single species, the '''rufous-sided towhee'''. <ref name=r9/> Another outdated name for the spotted towhee is the '''Oregon towhee''' (''Pipilo maculatus oregonus''). The call may be harsher and more varied than for the eastern towhee.


The form that breeds on [[Socorro Island]] is much smaller than other rufous-sided towhees, and has gray upperparts. It is sometimes split as the '''Socorro towhee''' (''Pipilo socorroensis'').
Individuals in the [[Socorro Island]] population are much smaller than other spotted towhees, and show distinctive gray upper-parts. That population is sometimes treated as a species: the '''Socorro towhee''' (''Pipilo socorroensis'').


==Description==
==Description==
[[File:SpottedTowhee-24JAN2017.jpg|alt=Spotted Towhee female|thumb|224x224px|Female in [[Sacramento, California]].|left]] The spotted towhee is a large [[American sparrow|New World sparrow]], roughly the same size as a [[American Robin|Robin]]. It has a long, dark fan shaped tail with white corners on the end. They have a round body (similar to [[American sparrow|New World sparrows]]) with bright red eyes and dull pink legs. The spotted towhee is between {{Convert|17|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|21|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, and weighs in at between {{Convert|33|g|oz|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|49|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=r10/> The spotted towhee has a wingspan of 11.0 in (28&nbsp;cm).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Spotted Towhee Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Spotted_Towhee/id|access-date=2020-09-30|website=www.allaboutbirds.org|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:SpottedTowhee-24JAN2017.jpg|alt=Spotted Towhee female|thumb|224x224px|Female in [[Sacramento, California]].|left]] The spotted towhee is a large [[American sparrow|New World sparrow]], roughly the same size as a [[American Robin|robin]]. It has a long, dark, fan-shaped tail with white corners on the end. It has a round body (similar to [[American sparrow|New World sparrows]]) with bright red eyes and dull pink legs. The spotted towhee is between {{Convert|17|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|21|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, and weighs in at between {{Convert|33|g|oz|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|49|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=r10/> It has a wingspan of 11.0 in (28&nbsp;cm).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Spotted Towhee Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Spotted_Towhee/id|access-date=2020-09-30|website=www.allaboutbirds.org|language=en}}</ref>


Adult males have a generally darker head, upper body and tail with a white belly, [[rufous]] sides, white spots on their back and white wing bars. Females look similar but are dark brown and grey instead of black. The spotted towhee has white spots on its primary and secondary feathers; the [[Eastern towhee]] is the same bird in terms of its size and structure but does not have white spots.<ref name=r10/>
Adult males have a generally darker head, upper body and tail with a white belly, [[rufous]] sides, white spots on their back and white wing bars. Females look similar but are dark brown and grey instead of black. The spotted towhee has white spots on its primary and secondary feathers; the [[Eastern towhee]] is the same bird in terms of its size and structure but does not have white spots.<ref name=r10/>


==Distribution and habitat==
==Distribution and habitat==
The spotted towhee lives in dry [[Upland and lowland|upland]] forests,<ref name=r2/> open forests, brushy fields, and chaparrals. and breeds across north-western [[North America]]. It is present in California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and southern British Columbia<ref name=r12/> year round. It is not found in arid climates and as a result does not reside in the [[Sonoran Desert]], but resides in northern Arizona and the entirety of California except the southeast corner that borders Arizona. It has also been known to expand as far eastward as western Iowa and southwestern Minnesota. They also occur in fringe [[Wetland|wetland forests]] and [[Riparian zone|riparian forests]] near the border of upland forests.<ref name=r2/> Because spotted towhees' habitat overlaps with areas of the [[United States]] that experience regular forest fires ([[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]], [[California]]), they tend to be found in unburned [[chaparral]] and avoid [[chaparral]] and forests which have been burned<ref name=r6/><ref name=r5/> due to lack of ground cover and minimal foraging ability. Spotted towhees will be present in an area that is recovering after a burn (less than 15 years old),<ref name=r7/> due to excellent ground cover and ease of ground foraging from the recovering understory vegetation,<ref name=r6/> although populations will decrease after a forest fire until the vegetation has grown back.<ref name=r8/>
The spotted towhee lives in dry [[Upland and lowland|upland]] forests,<ref name=r2/> open forests, brushy fields, and chaparrals. It breeds across north-western [[North America]] and is present year-round in California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Oregon, Washington, Idaho and southern British Columbia.<ref name=r12/> It is not found in arid climates and as a result does not reside in the [[Sonoran Desert]], but resides in northern Arizona and the entirety of California except the southeast corner that borders Arizona. It has also been known to expand as far eastward as western Iowa and southwestern Minnesota. It also occurs in fringe [[Wetland|wetland forests]] and [[Riparian zone|riparian forests]] near the border of upland forests.<ref name=r2/> Because the spotted towhee's habitat overlaps with areas of the [[United States]] that experience regular forest fires ([[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]], [[California]]), it tends to be found in unburned [[chaparral]] and avoids chaparral and forests which have been burned<ref name=r6/><ref name=r5/> due to lack of ground cover and minimal foraging ability. Spotted towhees will be present in an area that is recovering after a burn (less than 15 years old),<ref name=r7/> due to excellent ground cover and ease of ground foraging from the recovering understory vegetation,<ref name=r6/> although populations will decrease after a forest fire until the vegetation has grown back.<ref name=r8/>
[[File:Spotted_Towhee_Sitting.jpg|thumb|Spotted Towhee at Vasona Park]]
[[File:Spotted_Towhee_Sitting.jpg|thumb|Spotted towhee at Vasona Park]]
Its breeding habitat in the southwest is largely dependent on [[Coastal sage scrub]], as it provides cover from predators.<ref name=r4/> They migrate to northern and northwestern [[United States]] and southwestern [[Canada]] to breed in scrubland, parks and suburban gardens.<ref name=r12/> On the coast, it is much more common in the Coastal Douglas-fir present in Wyoming, Montana Idaho and British Columbia. Northwestern birds [[bird migration|migrate]] eastwards to the central [[plain]]s of the United States, mostly the northwestern-central [[Great Plains]]. In other areas, some birds may move to lower elevations in the winter. Their breeding [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] is [[chaparral]], thickets or shrubby areas across western [[North America]]. This bird interbreeds with the [[collared towhee]] where their ranges overlap in southwestern [[Mexico]].
Its breeding habitat in the southwest is largely dependent on [[coastal sage scrub]], as it provides cover from predators.<ref name=r4/> It migrates to northern and northwestern [[United States]] and southwestern [[Canada]] to breed in scrubland, parks and suburban gardens.<ref name=r12/> Northwestern birds [[bird migration|migrate]] eastwards to the central [[plain]]s of the United States, mostly the northwestern-central [[Great Plains]]. In other areas, some birds may move to lower elevations in the winter. Their breeding [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] is [[chaparral]], thickets or shrubby areas across western [[North America]]. This bird interbreeds with the [[collared towhee]] where their ranges overlap in southwestern [[Mexico]].


==Behavior==
==Behavior==
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[[File:Pipilo_maculatus_in_Stanley_Park.jpg|thumb|left|Spotted towhees forage on the ground or in low vegetation.]] They nest either on the ground or low in bushes, seldom more than {{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the ground<ref name=r1/> and most nests are around {{convert|40|cm|ft|abbr=on}} above the ground.<ref name=r3/> The location for the nests is usually found in exposed areas, but conceal the nest as it is being built.<ref name=r11/> The female builds the nest over a period of about five days. It is bulky and sturdily made of leaves, strips of bark, twigs, [[forb]] stalks, and grasses, lined with pine needles, shredded [[Bark (botany)|bark]], grass, and sometimes hair. It is usually {{Convert|4.5|in|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter with an inner ring of {{Convert|2.5|in|cm|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|4|in|cm|abbr=on}}. The nests are built so the rim is at ground level and the nest is {{Convert|2.5|in|cm|abbr=on}} deep.
[[File:Pipilo_maculatus_in_Stanley_Park.jpg|thumb|left|Spotted towhees forage on the ground or in low vegetation.]] They nest either on the ground or low in bushes, seldom more than {{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the ground<ref name=r1/> and most nests are around {{convert|40|cm|ft|abbr=on}} above the ground.<ref name=r3/> The location for the nests is usually found in exposed areas, but conceal the nest as it is being built.<ref name=r11/> The female builds the nest over a period of about five days. It is bulky and sturdily made of leaves, strips of bark, twigs, [[forb]] stalks, and grasses, lined with pine needles, shredded [[Bark (botany)|bark]], grass, and sometimes hair. It is usually {{Convert|4.5|in|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter with an inner ring of {{Convert|2.5|in|cm|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|4|in|cm|abbr=on}}. The nests are built so the rim is at ground level and the nest is {{Convert|2.5|in|cm|abbr=on}} deep.


At least two [[Offspring|brood]]s, consisting of three to five eggs, are laid per season. The [[egg]] shells are grayish or creamy-white, sometimes with a tinge of green, with reddish brown spots that can form a wreath or cap. The eggs are slightly oblong, with their dimensions being {{Convert|2|cm|in|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|2.6|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{Convert|1.7|cm|in|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|1.9|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide. The female incubates the eggs alone for 12 to 14 days; the young leave the nest at 10 to 12 days. Nests are parasitized by cowbirds.
At least two [[Offspring|brood]]s, consisting of three to five eggs, are laid per season. The [[Bird egg|egg]] shells are grayish or creamy-white, sometimes with a tinge of green, with reddish brown spots that can form a wreath or cap. The eggs are slightly oblong, with their dimensions being {{Convert|2|cm|in|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|2.6|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{Convert|1.7|cm|in|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|1.9|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide. The female incubates the eggs alone for 12 to 14 days; the young leave the nest at 10 to 12 days. Nests are parasitized by cowbirds.


===Diet===
===Diet===
These birds forage on the ground or in low vegetation,<ref name=r9/><ref name=r11/> with a habit of noisily rummaging through dry leaves searching for food. During the breeding season (spring and summer) they mainly eat [[insect]]s, ground dwelling beetles, [[spider]]s and other arthropods that reside in the leaf litter that is foraged by the spotted towhee. They only eat protein rich food in the breeding season, and in the fall and winter they focus on foraging for [[acorn]]s, [[seed]]s oats and [[Berry|berries]].<ref name=r11/> They will frequent bird feeders if present in their woodland habitat.
These birds forage on the ground or in low vegetation,<ref name=r9/><ref name=r11/> with a habit of noisily rummaging through dry leaves searching for food. During the breeding season (spring and summer) they mainly eat [[insect]]s, ground dwelling beetles, [[spider]]s and other arthropods that reside in the [[leaf litter]] that is foraged by the spotted towhee. They only eat protein rich food in the breeding season, and in the fall and winter they focus on foraging for [[acorn]]s, [[seed]]s oats and [[Berry|berries]].<ref name=r11/> They will frequent bird feeders if present in their woodland habitat.


===Threats===
===Threats===
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<ref name=r1>{{cite web|url=http://sdplantatlas.org/birdatlas/pdf/Spotted%20Towhee.pdf|title=Spotted Towhee Pipilo maculatus|work=San Diego Natural History Museum|access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>
<ref name=r1>{{cite web|url=http://sdplantatlas.org/birdatlas/pdf/Spotted%20Towhee.pdf|title=Spotted Towhee Pipilo maculatus|work=San Diego Natural History Museum|access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>


<ref name=r2>{{cite journal|author1=Lehmkuhl, John F. |author2=E. Dorsey Burger |year=2007|title= Breeding Birds in Riparian and Upland Dry Forests of the Cascade Range.|journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume= 71|issue=8|pages= 2632–2643|jstor=4496384|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/journals/pnw_2007_lehmkuhl001.pdf|doi=10.2193/2007-004|s2cid=84709085 }}</ref>
<ref name=r2>{{cite journal|author1=Lehmkuhl, John F. |author2=E. Dorsey Burger |year=2007|title= Breeding Birds in Riparian and Upland Dry Forests of the Cascade Range.|journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume= 71|issue=8|pages= 2632–2643|jstor=4496384|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/journals/pnw_2007_lehmkuhl001.pdf|doi=10.2193/2007-004|bibcode=2007JWMan..71.2632L |s2cid=84709085 }}</ref>


<ref name=r3>{{cite journal|author1=Small, Stacy L. |author2=Frank R. Thompson |year=2007|title= Spotted Towhee Population Dynamics in a Riparian Restoration Context.|journal= The Condor|volume= 109|issue=4|pages= 721–733|jstor=40072320|url=https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2007/nrs_2007_small_001.pdf|doi=10.1093/condor/109.4.721|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name=r3>{{cite journal|author1=Small, Stacy L. |author2=Frank R. Thompson |year=2007|title= Spotted Towhee Population Dynamics in a Riparian Restoration Context.|journal= The Condor|volume= 109|issue=4|pages= 721–733|jstor=40072320|url=https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2007/nrs_2007_small_001.pdf|doi=10.1093/condor/109.4.721|doi-access=free}}</ref>


<ref name=r4>{{cite journal|author1=Patten, Michael A. |author2=Douglas T. Bolger |year=2003|title= Variation in Top-Down Control of Avian Reproductive Success across a Fragmentation Gradient.|journal= Oikos|volume= 101|issue=3|pages= 479–488|jstor=3547774|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c6e8/039195ad428daa9604cec4aea4e56fe37dc9.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417171241/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c6e8/039195ad428daa9604cec4aea4e56fe37dc9.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-04-17 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12515.x|s2cid=43938282 }}</ref>
<ref name=r4>{{cite journal|author1=Patten, Michael A. |author2=Douglas T. Bolger |year=2003|title= Variation in Top-Down Control of Avian Reproductive Success across a Fragmentation Gradient.|journal= Oikos|volume= 101|issue=3|pages= 479–488|jstor=3547774|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c6e8/039195ad428daa9604cec4aea4e56fe37dc9.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417171241/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c6e8/039195ad428daa9604cec4aea4e56fe37dc9.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-04-17 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12515.x|bibcode=2003Oikos.101..479P |s2cid=43938282 }}</ref>


<ref name=r5>{{cite journal|author1=CARL E. BOCK |author2=WILLIAM M. BLOCK |year=2005|title= Variation in Top-Down Control of Avian Reproductive Success across a Fragmentation Gradient.|journal= Studies in Avian Biology|issue=30|pages= 14–32|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/sab/sab_030.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name=r5>{{cite journal|author1=CARL E. BOCK |author2=WILLIAM M. BLOCK |year=2005|title= Variation in Top-Down Control of Avian Reproductive Success across a Fragmentation Gradient.|journal= Studies in Avian Biology|issue=30|pages= 14–32|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/sab/sab_030.pdf}}</ref>
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<ref name=r7>{{cite journal|author1=Kirkpatrick, Chris |author2=Courtney J. Conway|year=2006|title=Distribution and Relative Abundance of Forest Birds in Relation to Burn Severity in Southeastern Arizona.|journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=70|issue=4|pages= 1005–1012|url=https://cals.arizona.edu/research/azfwru/cjc/publications/Journal_Articles/2006/Kirkpatrick_et_al-2006-JWM_70_1005-1012.pdf|doi=10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[1005:daraof]2.0.co;2}}</ref>
<ref name=r7>{{cite journal|author1=Kirkpatrick, Chris |author2=Courtney J. Conway|year=2006|title=Distribution and Relative Abundance of Forest Birds in Relation to Burn Severity in Southeastern Arizona.|journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=70|issue=4|pages= 1005–1012|url=https://cals.arizona.edu/research/azfwru/cjc/publications/Journal_Articles/2006/Kirkpatrick_et_al-2006-JWM_70_1005-1012.pdf|doi=10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[1005:daraof]2.0.co;2}}</ref>


<ref name=r8>{{cite journal|author1=BAGNE, KAREN E. |author2=KATHRYN L. PURCELL.|year=2011|title=Short-Term Responses of Birds to Prescribed Fire in Fire-Suppressed Forests of California.|journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=75|issue=5|pages= 1051–1060|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/purcell/psw_2011_purcell002(bagne).pdf|doi=10.1002/jwmg.128|s2cid=86523703}}</ref>
<ref name=r8>{{cite journal|author1=BAGNE, KAREN E. |author2=KATHRYN L. PURCELL.|year=2011|title=Short-Term Responses of Birds to Prescribed Fire in Fire-Suppressed Forests of California.|journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=75|issue=5|pages= 1051–1060|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/purcell/psw_2011_purcell002(bagne).pdf|doi=10.1002/jwmg.128|bibcode=2011JWMan..75.1051B |s2cid=86523703}}</ref>


<ref name=r9>{{cite journal|author1=Davis, John.|year=1957|title=Comparative Foraging Behavior of the Spotted and Brown Towhees.|journal= The Auk|volume=74|issue=2|pages= 129–166|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v074n02/p0129-p0166.pdf|doi=10.2307/4081708|jstor=4081708}}</ref>
<ref name=r9>{{cite journal|author1=Davis, John.|year=1957|title=Comparative Foraging Behavior of the Spotted and Brown Towhees.|journal= The Auk|volume=74|issue=2|pages= 129–166|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v074n02/p0129-p0166.pdf|doi=10.2307/4081708|jstor=4081708}}</ref>
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{{Commons|Pipilo maculatus|the spotted towhee}}
{{Commons|Pipilo maculatus|the spotted towhee}}
{{Wikispecies|Pipilo maculatus}}
{{Wikispecies|Pipilo maculatus}}
*[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Spotted_Towhee.html Spotted towhee species account] - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
*[https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Spotted_Towhee/ Spotted towhee species account] - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
*[http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/i5880id.html Spotted towhee - ''Pipilo maculatus''] - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
*[http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/i5880id.html Spotted towhee - ''Pipilo maculatus''] - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
* {{InternetBirdCollection|spotted-towhee-pipilo-maculatus|Spotted towhee}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|spotted-towhee-pipilo-maculatus|Spotted towhee}}
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{{Taxonbar|from=Q1586862}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1586862}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:towhee, spotted}}
[[Category:Pipilo|spotted towhee]]
[[Category:Pipilo|spotted towhee]]
[[Category:Native birds of Western Canada]]
[[Category:Native birds of Western Canada]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Western United States]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Western United States]]
⚫
[[Category:Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands]]
[[Category:Birds of Mexico]]
[[Category:Birds of Mexico]]
[[Category:Birds of the Sierra Madre Occidental]]
[[Category:Birds of the Sierra Madre Oriental]]
[[Category:Birds of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt]]
[[Category:Birds of Guatemala]]
[[Category:Birds of Guatemala]]
⚫
[[Category:Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1827|spotted towhee]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1827|spotted towhee]]

Latest revision as of 01:37, 24 June 2024

Spotted towhee
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Passerellidae
Genus: Pipilo
Species:
P. maculatus
Binomial name
Pipilo maculatus
Swainson, 1827

The spotted towhee (Pipilo maculatus) is a large New World sparrow. The taxonomy of the towhees has been debated in recent decades, and until 1995 this bird and the eastern towhee were considered a single species, the rufous-sided towhee. [2] Another outdated name for the spotted towhee is the Oregon towhee (Pipilo maculatus oregonus). The call may be harsher and more varied than for the eastern towhee.

Individuals in the Socorro Island population are much smaller than other spotted towhees, and show distinctive gray upper-parts. That population is sometimes treated as a species: the Socorro towhee (Pipilo socorroensis).

Description

[edit]
Spotted Towhee female
Female in Sacramento, California.

The spotted towhee is a large New World sparrow, roughly the same size as a robin. It has a long, dark, fan-shaped tail with white corners on the end. It has a round body (similar to New World sparrows) with bright red eyes and dull pink legs. The spotted towhee is between 17 cm (6.7 in) and 21 cm (8.3 in) long, and weighs in at between 33 g (1.2 oz) and 49 g (1.7 oz).[3] It has a wingspan of 11.0 in (28 cm).[4]

Adult males have a generally darker head, upper body and tail with a white belly, rufous sides, white spots on their back and white wing bars. Females look similar but are dark brown and grey instead of black. The spotted towhee has white spots on its primary and secondary feathers; the Eastern towhee is the same bird in terms of its size and structure but does not have white spots.[3]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The spotted towhee lives in dry upland forests,[5] open forests, brushy fields, and chaparrals. It breeds across north-western North America and is present year-round in California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Oregon, Washington, Idaho and southern British Columbia.[6] It is not found in arid climates and as a result does not reside in the Sonoran Desert, but resides in northern Arizona and the entirety of California except the southeast corner that borders Arizona. It has also been known to expand as far eastward as western Iowa and southwestern Minnesota. It also occurs in fringe wetland forests and riparian forests near the border of upland forests.[5] Because the spotted towhee's habitat overlaps with areas of the United States that experience regular forest fires (Arizona, New Mexico, California), it tends to be found in unburned chaparral and avoids chaparral and forests which have been burned[7][8] due to lack of ground cover and minimal foraging ability. Spotted towhees will be present in an area that is recovering after a burn (less than 15 years old),[9] due to excellent ground cover and ease of ground foraging from the recovering understory vegetation,[7] although populations will decrease after a forest fire until the vegetation has grown back.[10]

Spotted towhee at Vasona Park

Its breeding habitat in the southwest is largely dependent on coastal sage scrub, as it provides cover from predators.[11] It migrates to northern and northwestern United States and southwestern Canada to breed in scrubland, parks and suburban gardens.[6] Northwestern birds migrate eastwards to the central plains of the United States, mostly the northwestern-central Great Plains. In other areas, some birds may move to lower elevations in the winter. Their breeding habitat is chaparral, thickets or shrubby areas across western North America. This bird interbreeds with the collared towhee where their ranges overlap in southwestern Mexico.

Behavior

[edit]

Breeding and nesting

[edit]
Spotted towhees forage on the ground or in low vegetation.

They nest either on the ground or low in bushes, seldom more than 1.5 m (4.9 ft) above the ground[12] and most nests are around 40 cm (1.3 ft) above the ground.[13] The location for the nests is usually found in exposed areas, but conceal the nest as it is being built.[14] The female builds the nest over a period of about five days. It is bulky and sturdily made of leaves, strips of bark, twigs, forb stalks, and grasses, lined with pine needles, shredded bark, grass, and sometimes hair. It is usually 4.5 in (11 cm) in diameter with an inner ring of 2.5 in (6.4 cm) to 4 in (10 cm). The nests are built so the rim is at ground level and the nest is 2.5 in (6.4 cm) deep.

At least two broods, consisting of three to five eggs, are laid per season. The egg shells are grayish or creamy-white, sometimes with a tinge of green, with reddish brown spots that can form a wreath or cap. The eggs are slightly oblong, with their dimensions being 2 cm (0.79 in) to 2.6 cm (1.0 in) long and 1.7 cm (0.67 in) to 1.9 cm (0.75 in) wide. The female incubates the eggs alone for 12 to 14 days; the young leave the nest at 10 to 12 days. Nests are parasitized by cowbirds.

Diet

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These birds forage on the ground or in low vegetation,[2][14] with a habit of noisily rummaging through dry leaves searching for food. During the breeding season (spring and summer) they mainly eat insects, ground dwelling beetles, spiders and other arthropods that reside in the leaf litter that is foraged by the spotted towhee. They only eat protein rich food in the breeding season, and in the fall and winter they focus on foraging for acorns, seeds oats and berries.[14] They will frequent bird feeders if present in their woodland habitat.

Threats

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Their main predators in less developed areas are ground dwelling snakes because nests are built on the ground. There is a strong relationship between the number of snakes that a nest encounters and the lowered probability of young chicks fledgling.[11] In developed areas and habitat near urban development their main predators are household cats.[14]

Spotted towhee song
Spotted towhee singing in the Black Hills of South Dakota, with western meadowlark in the background
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References

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  1. ^ BirdLife International (2016). "Pipilo maculatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T103772680A95006324. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T103772680A95006324.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b Davis, John. (1957). "Comparative Foraging Behavior of the Spotted and Brown Towhees" (PDF). The Auk. 74 (2): 129–166. doi:10.2307/4081708. JSTOR 4081708.
  3. ^ a b "Spotted towhee Identification". Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
  4. ^ "Spotted Towhee Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2020-09-30.
  5. ^ a b Lehmkuhl, John F.; E. Dorsey Burger (2007). "Breeding Birds in Riparian and Upland Dry Forests of the Cascade Range" (PDF). The Journal of Wildlife Management. 71 (8): 2632–2643. Bibcode:2007JWMan..71.2632L. doi:10.2193/2007-004. JSTOR 4496384. S2CID 84709085.
  6. ^ a b Ryder, J M. "Spotted Towhee". The Atlas of the Breeding Birds of British Columbia, 2008-2012. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  7. ^ a b KATHRYN L. PURCELL; SCOTT L. STEPHENS (2005). "CHANGING FIRE REGIMES AND THE AVIFAUNA OF CALIFORNIA OAK WOODLANDS" (PDF). Studies in Avian Biology (30): 33–45.
  8. ^ CARL E. BOCK; WILLIAM M. BLOCK (2005). "Variation in Top-Down Control of Avian Reproductive Success across a Fragmentation Gradient" (PDF). Studies in Avian Biology (30): 14–32.
  9. ^ Kirkpatrick, Chris; Courtney J. Conway (2006). "Distribution and Relative Abundance of Forest Birds in Relation to Burn Severity in Southeastern Arizona" (PDF). The Journal of Wildlife Management. 70 (4): 1005–1012. doi:10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[1005:daraof]2.0.co;2.
  10. ^ BAGNE, KAREN E.; KATHRYN L. PURCELL. (2011). "Short-Term Responses of Birds to Prescribed Fire in Fire-Suppressed Forests of California" (PDF). The Journal of Wildlife Management. 75 (5): 1051–1060. Bibcode:2011JWMan..75.1051B. doi:10.1002/jwmg.128. S2CID 86523703.
  11. ^ a b Patten, Michael A.; Douglas T. Bolger (2003). "Variation in Top-Down Control of Avian Reproductive Success across a Fragmentation Gradient" (PDF). Oikos. 101 (3): 479–488. Bibcode:2003Oikos.101..479P. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12515.x. JSTOR 3547774. S2CID 43938282. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-04-17.
  12. ^ "Spotted Towhee Pipilo maculatus" (PDF). San Diego Natural History Museum. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
  13. ^ Small, Stacy L.; Frank R. Thompson (2007). "Spotted Towhee Population Dynamics in a Riparian Restoration Context" (PDF). The Condor. 109 (4): 721–733. doi:10.1093/condor/109.4.721. JSTOR 40072320.
  14. ^ a b c d "Spotted towhee Life History". Cornell Lab or Ornithology.
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